mpii - 6 - modern history - 1

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Modern Indian History (Part -1)

DECLINE AND DISINTEGRATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

The Mughal Empire-which had earned the admiration of contemporaries for its extensiveterritories, military might and cultural accomplish ments disintegrated after the death of

Aurangzeb. ithin a short span of about !" years, nine Mughal Emperors occupied the throne in

#uic$ succession and were not able to provide any effective government. Ta$ing advantage of

their wea$ness, many adventurers carved out independcni principalities of their own and freed

themselves from the central control.

Aurangzeb had created more problems during his reign than he was able to solve. %t is true that

some of them he inherited, but many of them were his creation. Those together shoo$ the

Mughal Empire to its very foundation.

At the time of the death of Aurangzeb on &" 'ebruary ()"), the Mughal Empire consisted of &(

*ubahs +provinces one in Afghanistan, ( in /orth %ndia and 0 in the 1eccan. %t embraced in

the /orth 2ashmir and all Afghanistan from the 3indu$ush southwards to a line 40 miles /orth

of 5hazni, on the est coast stretched in theory to the /orthern frontier of 5oa and inland to

6elgaum and the Tungabhadfa river.7 /o Emperor of %ndia since the death of Aso$a had ruled

over such extensive territories. The years (080-89 which saw the annexation of 6i:apur and

5ol$unda and the apparent collapse of the Maratha power, mar$ed the zenith of Mughal political

ascendancy. 3owever, the vast extent of his Empire was a source of wea$ness and not strength. %t

was too large to be ruled by one man from one centre. The religious policy of Aurangzeb affected

the fortunes of the Mughal Empire. ;eligious persecution acted as a provocation in the risings

of< the *atnamis, the 6undelas and the *i$hs. The fear of suppression of 3induism was an

important factor. The urge to uphold 3indu 1harma stiffened the resistance of the Marathas. The

imposition of =izya offended the sentiments and in:ured the material interests of the 3indus.

Aurangzeb7s zeal for %slam wea$ened the foundations of his multi-religious imperial structure.

The attempt to annex Marwar was a grave mista$e. %t led to a long and costly war in ;a:asthan. %t

alienated the ;a:puts whose political and military support had played a vital role in the

consolidation and maintenance of Mughal power for a century.

A large portion of the income of the Mughal state was spent on the army on account of constant

warfare. The number of Mansabdars rose from 8""" under *hah =ahan to (,9 under

Aurangzeb. The army bill of Aurangzeb was roughly double of that of *hah =ahan. >ut of (,9

Mansabdars under Aurangzeb, about )""" were paid through =agirs and )!" were paid in cash.



ar, disorder and official exactions in:ured trade and industry. Trade almost ceased in the

1eccan. The Maratha raiders made it almost impossible for caravans to travel /orth of the

/armada without strong escorts. The Mughal nobles who were the pillars of the Empire,

succumbed to the fatal vice of love of ease and luxury and became ?pale persons in muslin

petticoats@.

There was inefficiency %n the Mughal army. %t was composed of diverse racial elements and

religious groups such as Tur$s, Afghans, ;a:puts and 3industanis. %t was a mercenary force. The

real allegiance of the troops was not to the imperial throne but the persons in immediate

command. %f a prince, or a Mansabdar or a tributary chief rebelled against the Mughal monarch,

he usually carried his troops with him. The infantry was practically useless. There was no naval

wing. The proportion of officers to men on active service was very low. The Mughal army

moved li$e an unwieldy city and was incapable ot swift action or brilliant adventure. The camp-

followers were more than the combatants. uxuries of can life demoralised the nobles who were

the leaders of the army. Ease-loving commanders could not maintain a high standard ofdiscipline among the troops. There was no commissariat service.

RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES

Bengal Subha : Murshid Kuli Khan

hen the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate, many provinces virtually became independent.

The *ubah of 6engal was the first to become autonomous and the first to pass under 6ritish rule.

%t became autonomous under Murshid Buli 2han, a *outh %ndian 6rahman convert to %slam. 3e

was educated in Cersia. 3e served his apprenticeship in Mughal administration in the 1eccan. 3e

won the confidence of Aurangzeb by honest and efficient discharge of his duties. 3e was ap-

pointed 1iwan of 6engal *ubah in ()"" A.1. %n ()"(, the 1iwani of >rissa was added to his

charge. %n ()", the 1iwani of 6ihar was also given to him. 3e $ept Aurangzeb satisfied by

regular transmission of large amounts of money for the 1eccan ar. >n account of his dis-

agreement with the *ubahdar Azim-ush-*han, the grandson of Aurangzeb, Murshid@ Buli 2han

transferred 1iwani office from 1acca, the provincial capital, to Ma#sudabad whose name was

later on changed to Murshidabad. At the time of the death of Aurangzeb, Murshid Buli 2han was

/aib /azim or 1eputy 5overnor of 6engal and full 5overnor of >rissa and 1iwan of 6engal

and >rissa. %n 'ebruary ()(4, 'arru$h siyar conferred on him the 1iwani of 6engal. %n

*eptember ()(4, he made him also 1eputy 5overnor of 6engal. >n 0 May ()(, he received

*ubahdari of >rissa. %n *eptember ()(), he was made full *ubahdar of 6engal.

Shuja-ud-Din

hen Murshid Buli 2han died in ()&), without leaving any male issue, his son-in-law *hu:a-ud-

din MohammadD 2han who had been 1eputy 5overnor of >rissa, ascended the Masnad of

6engal. 3e appointed his friends and $insmen to the principal offices of the 5overnment. %n

managing all important affairs of administration, *hu:a-ud-dn followed the counsel of Ali ardi



2han, of. his brother 3a:i Ahmad, of Alam Fhand, a loyal officer and able financiar and of =agat

*eth 'ateh Fhand, the famous ban$er of Murshidabad.

Sarfaraz Khan (1739-40)

hen *hu:a-ud-1in died in March ()49, he was succeeded by his ton *arfaraz 2han. 3e

retained old officers li$e 3a:i Ahmad and Alam Fhand. *arfaraz 2han was excessively addicted

to debauchery and he did not possess the essential #ualities needed for the ruler of a state. 3e had

to pay a very heavy price by losing his life and the Masnad of 6engal. The wea$ness of 1elhi

authority, inefficiency of *arfaraz 2han and machinations of 3a:i Ahmad excited Ali ardi7s

ambition to seize the Masnad of 6engal for himself. ith that ob:ect, he left Catna for

Murshidabad. *arfaraz was $illed in the battle of 5heria on (" April ()". Ali ardi 2han ruled

6engal from ()" to ()!0.

li !ardi Khan

Ali ardi 2han rose gradually to higher and higher posts by dint of his tact and ability. %n ()&8,

*hu:a-ud-1in appointed him 'au:dar of the Fha$la A$barnagar. 3e governed that area efficiently

and brought peace and prosperity to the people. 3is brother 3a:i Ahmad was at Murshidabad as

one of the chief advisers of *hu:a-ud-1in. 3is eldest son Muhammad ;aza was appointed Cay-

master of /awab7s troops and *uperintendent of Fustoms at Murshidabad. 3is second son Aga

Muhammad *aid was appointed 'au:dar of ;ungpur. %n ()44, Ali ardi 2han was appointed

1eputy 5overnor of 6ihar and he restored peace in that province by vigorous steps and measures

of reconciliation.

Siraj-ud-Daulah

Ali ardi 2han died on (" April ()!0 and he was succeeded by his grandson and heir-designate

*ira:-ud-1aulah. 3e had enemies among his near relations who coveted the 6engal Masnad or

influence through it. They were his cousin *hau$at =ung and his mother7s eldest sister 5hasiti

6egum who had amassed immense wealth. *ira:-ud-1aulah7s most formidable enemy was Mir

=afar, the Fommander-in-Fhief of the army.

AVADH : SAADAT ALI KHAN

Avadh became independent under *aadat Ali 2han who was the leader of the %rani faction in the

court of Muhammad *hah. After being in the service of *arbuland 2han +()("-(&, *aadat Ali

2han :oined the service of 'arru$h-siyar. 3e became 'au:dar of 3indaun and 6ayana and was

made a noble on 9 >ctober ()&". 3e was appointed 5overnor first of Agra +()&"-&& and then of

Avadh. 3e extended the :urisdiction of Avadh over 6anaras, 5hazipur, =aunpur and Fhunar. 3e

gradually ac#uired power and fame. 3e was summoned to 1elhi at the time of invasion of /adir

*hah in ()49 but he committed suicide in March ()49 as he could not fulfil the promise made by

him to /adir *hah. 1uring his long tenure, the people began to loo$ upon him as their real

master and thus the foundations of the *hia dynasty in Avadh were securely laid.



Safdarjang

The next 5overnor of Avadh was *afdar:ang +()49-!. 3e was the nephew .and son-in-law of

*aadat Ali 2han. %n ()&, Emperor Muhammad *hah as$ed *afdar:ang to protect 6ihar.

*afdar:ang went to 6ihar and entered Catna city in 1ecember ()&. 3owever, the Mughal

Emperor as$ed him to come bac$ and he did so in 'ebruary ()4.

hen Ahmed *hah became the Emperor in ()8, he appointed *afdar:ang as his azir. The

position of *afdar:ang was ?one of unusual difficulty@.

Shuja-ud-Daulah (17"4-177")

After the death of *afdar:ang in >ctober ()!, his son *hu:a-ud-1aulah became the *ubedar of

Avadh and he occupied that position till ())!. 3is personal character was not at all

commendable. 3e was occupied with nothing but pleasure, hunting and the most violent

exercises. 3e did not possess the genius of a soldier. 3e was wanting in valour and courage. 3e

specialised in treachery. 3e was rapacious in ac#uiring and preserving wealth.

The relations of *hu:a-ud-1aulah with %mad-ul-Mul$, the imperial azir, were extremely bitter

and that resulted in plots and counter-plots. Crince Ali 5auhar became a friend of *hu:a-ud-

1aulah who encouraged the Crince to invade 6ihar. 1uring the Maratha-Afghan contests +()!9-

0(, *hu:a-ud-1aulah fought as an ally of Ahmad *hah Abdali. %n 'ebruary ()0&, *hah Alam %%

appointed *hu:a-ud-1aulah as the azir.

saf-ud-Daulah (177"-97)

The accession of Asaf-ud-1aulah mar$ed the beginning, of the degradation and exploitation of

Avadh by the English Fompany. This was due to the fact that Asaf-ud-1aulah was wea$ nd

dependent on the 6ritish. arren 3astings forced the /awab of Avadh to accept another brigade

and pay for it. The 6ritish got the right of nominating the ministers of Asaf-ud-1aulah. Crivate

6ritish merchants entered Avadh and started exploiting the people. The result was that there was

a rapid decline in the prosperity of Avadh and steady deterioration in its administration. The

treasury was exhausted on account of the extravagance of the /awab. The /awab had also to pay

for the subsidiary force. Asaf-ud-1aulah pleaded and protested against the heavy expenses of the

subsidiary force but without any result. 6ritish control over Avadh continued to grow and there

was more and more exploitation of Avadh. Asaf-ud-1aulah died in ()9) and his son azir A3

was recognised by *ir =ohn *hore but he was deposed and *aadat A3 was put on the throne.

HYDERABAD

3yderabad was formed by the six 1eccan *ubahs of the Mughal Empire. The 1eccan was a

newly con#uered region in which Mughal authority could not be consolidated on account of the

struggle with the Marathas. Gulfi#ar 2han, the most powerful and reputed general of Aurangzeb,

formed plans to seize the 1eccan *ubahs after the death of Aurangzeb. %n order to achieve his

aim, he entered into a secret understanding with the Marathas.



At the time of the death of Aurangzeb, Fhin Bilich 2han was at 6i:apur and he observed

neutrality during the war of succession among the sons of Aurangzeb. 6ahadur *hah removed

Fhin Bilich 2han from the 1eccan and made him the 5overnor of Avadh and 'au:dar of

5ora$hpur on 9 1ecember ()").

/izam-ul-Mul$ ruled the 1eccan independently till his death in ()8. 3e continued to profess

his allegiance to the Mughal Emperor. 3e re:ected the offer of /adir *hah to ma$e him the ruler

of 1elhi. /izam-ul-Mul$ was not only the foremost general of his time in %ndia and a careful and

honest administrator but also a master of statecraft and diplomacy. 3e was universally regarded

as the sole representative of the spacious times of Aurangzeb.

ROHILKHAND

%n the first half of the eighteenth century, there was a fresh wave of Afghan immigration into

/orthern %ndia. Afghan adventurers found military employment in many places. Many of them

settled in a solid bloc between 1elhi and Agra on the est and Avadh and Allahabad on the Eastand became a serious menace to the Mughal Empire by the middle of the eighteenth century.

Their %ndian settlement, formerly $nown as 2atehar, now came to be $nown as ;ohil$hand

because it was populated mainly by the ;ohillas.

azir *afdar =ang formed a new plan to suppress the ;ohillas whom he considered as serpents

infesting his road to 1elhi. *afdar =ang instigated Baim 2han, the 6angash chief, to drive out the

Afghans by appointing him the 'au:dar of ;ohil$hand. After some success at the beginning,

2aim 2han7s army met with disaster and he himself was shot dead. All the possessions of the

6angash chief on the left or Eastern ban$ of the 5anges were annexed by 3afiz ;ahmat.

3owever, 3afiz ;ahmat dissuaded his troops from crossing the river and invading the territories

of Baim 2han7s territories on the est ban$. The reason given was that the Afghans could not

destroy one another. ithin a few months, *afdar =ang became unpopular with the 6angash

Afghans and was defeated at the battle of ;am Fhatauni on (4 *eptember ()!".

%n the time of arren 3astings, 6ritish troops were sent to ;ohil$hand to help the /awab azir

of Avadh to con#uer ;ohil$hand. 3afiz ;ahmat 2han was $illed while fighting bravely. About

&",""" ;ohillas were expelled beyond the 5anges. Their provnice was annexed to Avadh. >nly a

fragment of it, together with ;ampur, was left in the possession of 'aizullah 2han, son of Ali

Muhammad 2han.

THE JATS

The =ats lived in the region around 1elhi, Agra and Mathura. They were a hardy tribe, pre-

eminently agricultural and well-$nown for their valour, indefatigable energy, martial spirit and

untiring perseverance. The tribal feeling was very strong among them. They professed different

religions viz., 3induism, *i$hism and %slam, but they clung tenaciously to their tribal name as a



proud heritage. The Mughal 5overnment had been following a policy ?which left behind it a

legacy of undying hatred@. Murshid Buli 2han Tur$man, 'au:dar of Mathura, offended the =ats

by abduction of women from villages and religious gatherings at 5ovardhan on the birthday of

ord 2rishna. Abdun /abi 2han, another 'au:dar of Mathura +(00"-09, built a =ama Mas:id in

the heart of the city of Mathura on the ruins of a 3indu temple. 3e forcibly removed the carved

stone railing presented by 1ara *hi$oh to 2eshab ;ai7s temple. All these goaded the =ats to

brea$ out into open revolt. %n (009, the =at peasants revolted under their leader 5o$la, the

Gamindar of Tilpat.

Another leader of the =ats was Fhuraman +(09!-()&( who was the younger brother of. ;a:a

;am. Fhuraman started his career as a freebooter. ithin a short time, he brought under his

leadership (""" infantry and !"" horsemen. To begin with, he plundered way-farers and

merchant caravans, but later on he sac$ed Carganas also.

Badan Singh

Fhuraman was succeeded by 6adan *ingh +()&&-!0 who was his nephew. 3e was recognised as

the chief of the =ats by =ai *ingh and the same was confirmed by the %mperial Fourt. %t was a

very critical lime for the =ats and 6adan *ingh had to start everything afresh. 6y his conduct, he

won over the. support of =ai *ingh who bestowed on him the title of 6ra:ara:, but 6adan *ingh

abstained from assuming the titleH of ;a:a. Throughout his life, he called himself only a Tha$ur

or baron and represented himself in public as a vassal of the ruler of =aipurI 3e was a capable

leader with indefatigable energy.

Sua! Mai "#$%&'&()

1uring the later half of the reign of his- father, *ura: Mai had acted as ;egent on account of his

inactivity and growing blindness. 1uring that period, he earned a name for himself as an able

warrior, efficient leader and able statesman. As a ruler, he extended his authority over a large

area which extended from the 5anges in the East to Fhambal in the *outh, the province of Agra

in the est and the province of 1elhi in the /orth. 3is state included, among others, the 1istricts

cf Agra, Mathura, Meernt and Aligarh. 'or his political sagacity, steady intellect and clear vision,

he is remembered as ?the =at Jlysses@.

Ja*ahi Singh "#$&+'&,)

*ura: Mai was succeeded by his son =awahir *ingh. 3e made preparations against /a:ib-ud-

1aulah in order to ta$e revenge of the death of his father. 3e marched to 1elhi and laid siege to

it. 3owever, he could not reap the desired benefit due to the faithlessness of Malhar ;ao and

treacherous conduct of a section of the =at officers. =awahir *ingh too$ action against those

influential and powerful =at leaders whom he considered to be refractory. 3e was involved in a

#uarrel with the Marathas who had supported his brother /ahar *ingh in his claim to the throne



of his father. 3e defeated his enemies in March ()00 and captured 1holpur. 3e also Kraided the

Maratha possessions in /orthern Malwa. 3owever, he brought misfortune upon himself by his

#uarrel with Madho *ingh, ;a:a of =aipur. Madho *ingh invaded the =at territory and defeated

=awahir *ingh in ()08. 3e was assassinated by one of his soldiers.

=awahir *ingh was succeeded by ;atan *ingh +()08-09, 2esari *ingh +()08-)!, ;an:it *ingh

+())!-(8"! and ;andhir *ingh. About them, =adunath *ar$ar writes, ?6rain and character ali$e

were wanting among the successors of =awahir *ingh, and in addition, the lac$ of a strong man at

the head of the state let loose all the selfishness and factiousness among the other members of the

royal family whicli completed the national downfall in a few years.@

M-*a "Udai.u)

Mewar was great when -it was ruled by ;ana *angram *ingh who was $nown as 3indupat. After

his defeat in (!&) and death in (!&8, Mewar was wea$ened, by internal dissensions and external

invasions. %ts long resistance to A$bar and =ahangir also wea$ened her. Although Mewaraccepted Mughal suzerainty in (0(!, it remained isolated from ihe %mperial court. Amber and

Marwar were in the limelight. %n the seventeenth century, the only capable ruler of Mewar was

;a: *ingh ho fought against Aurangzeb. %n the eighteenth century, the wea$ rulers of Mewar

were not able to control the ambitious and factious nobility and resist external invasions.

*angram *ingh %% ruled from ()(" to ()44. %n his reign, symptoms of internal disintegration

cftne to the surface. =agat *ingh %% ruled from ()4 to ()!(. %n =anuary ()40, Ceshwa 6a:i ;ao %

appeared at the *outhern frontier of Mewar.

=agat *ingh welemoed him at Jdaipur and signed a treaty by which he promised to pay an

annual tribute. =agat *ingh had no strength of character. %n the reign of his successor Cratap

*ingh %% +()!(-!, the Marathas exacted large contributions from Mewar which was tormented

by disputed successions. 1uring the reign of ;a: *ingh %% +()!-0(, the repeated invasions of

his country by the Marathas so exhausted it that the ;ana was compelled to as$ pecuniary aid

from the 6rahman Follector of revenue, to enable him to marry the ;athor chieftain7s daughter.

Even after ()0(, the Maratha raids into ;a:asthan suc$ed its life-blood and added to the woes of

its unhappy people. The Maratha invasions resulted in anarchy, plunder, economic ruin and

humiliation of the ;a:puts who entered into subsidiary alliances with the English 'ast %ndia

Fompany during the 5overnor-5eneralship of ord 3astings in (8(8.

THE SIKHS

The *i$hs were transformed into a militant and fighting community under 5uru 3ar 5ovind

+(0"0-(0!. The execution of 5uru Teg 6ahadur forced the *i$hs to fight against the Mughals.

5uru 5obind *ingh +(00-()"8 showed considerable organisational ability and founded the

military brotherhood called the 2halsa in (099. 6efore that, he had set up his head#uarters at

Ma$howal or Anandpur *ahib in the foothills of the Cun:ab. A series of clashes too$ place



between 5uru 5ovind *ingh and the 3ill ;a:as in which the 5uru generally came out successful.

The organisation of the 2halsa further strengthened his hands. An open breach between the 5uru

and the 3ill ;a:as too$ place only in ()" when the combined forces of a number of 3ill ;a:as

attac$ed the 5uru at AnandpurL The ;a:as retreated and pressed the Mughal 5overnment to ta$e

action against the 5uru.

After the death of Aurangzeb, 5uru 5ovind *ingh :oined 6ahadur *hah7s camp as a noble of the

ran$ of !""" Gat and !""" *awar and accompanied him to the 1eccan where he was

treacherously murdered in ()"8 by one of his Cathan employees.

After the death of 5uru 5ovind *ingh, 6anda became the leader of the *i$hs. 3e had met 5uru

5ovind *ingh :ust before his death and he was sent to the Cun:ab to continue the struggle against

the Mughals. hen 6anda arrived in the Cun:ab, he called upon the *i$hs to :oin liim telling

them that he would punish azir 2han who had cruelly murdered the sons of 5uru 5ovind

*ingh and chastise the 3ill ;a:as who had fought against the 5uru for many years. The *i$h

peasantry too$ up arms and marched under the leadership of 6anda in the direction of *irhind.

6anda had with him about ",""" well-armed *i$hs.

3e overpowered the Mughal authorities in the neighbourhood of *irhind and captured *irhind

for wrea$ing vengeance on azir 2han who was the murderer of the sons of 5uru 5ovind

*ingh.

After the death of 6anda, there was a division among the *i$hs. The 6andais were the followers

of 6anda. The orthodox *i$hs were called the Tat 2halsa. Through the efforts of 3hai Mani

*ingh and Mata *undri, widow of 5uru 5ovimL *ingh, the ditferences between the two werecomposed in ()&(.

Even before the invasion of %ndia by /adir *hah in ()49, the *i$hs assembled at Amritsar in

large numbers on the occasion of 6ai-sa$hi and 1iwali. They sat together with the 3oly 5ranth

called 5uru 5ranth in their midst, discussed #uestions of common interest and issued decisions

in the form of resolutions called 5urmatta.

The invasion of /adir *hah helped the recovery of the *i$hs. %t enfeebled the strong 5overnment

of Ga$ariya 2han in the Cun:ab. The confusion and disorder created by /adir K*hah in the

country also helped the rise of the *i$hs. They used that opportunity to increase their financialresources and military strength. The result was that the suppression of the *i$hs became a very

difficult one.

The *i$hs organised themselves at a plate called 1alewal and built a fort there. 'rom that place,

thev carried on their depredations around the country and extended them upto the very

neighbourhood of ahore. /adir *hah confirmed Ga$ariya 2han in the /izamat of ahore and



the *i$hs withdrew from ahore and its neighbourhood and carried on their activities in the

Tullundar 1oab. The *i$hs fell upon the rear of the armH of /adir *hah when he was retreating

from 1elhi. They were able to snatch away a lot of booty from the Afghans. The result was that

Ga$ariya 2han decided to destroy the *i$hs root and branch. 3e placed Adina 6eg incharge of

Tullundar 1oah and authorised him to ta$e strong action against the *i$hs. The *i$hs were

hunted li$e wild beasts anil they retired to the hills and :ungles.

After the death of Ga$ariya 2han in ()!, intrigues of the rival parties in the Mughal Fourt

prevented immediate appointment of a 5overnor of the Cun:ab. The result was that disorderD

bro$e out. Everywhere lawless men, plunderers and adventurers who were in hiding so long,

came out in the open and began to desolate the realm. /ot onlv the *i$hs gave trouble, even the

;a:a of =ammu rebelled. At last, ahya 2han, son of Ga$ariya 2han, was appointed the 1eputy

5overnor of the Cun:ab.

ahya 2han lost power in ()) and a year later Mir Mannu became the 5overnor. The *i$hs

too$ full advantage of the political confusion in the Cun:ab created by the struggle for the

5overnorship of ahore, dissensions among nobles in 1elhi and the invasions of Ahmad *nah

Abdali.

hen Abdali attac$ed %ndia in ()8, the *i$hs pursued the retreating Afghan army upto the

ban$s of the %ndus and plundered the baggage of Abdali. Ahmad *hah Abdali invaded the Cun:ab

again in ()!". Mir Mannu stopped his advance by promising to pay hirn ( la$hs ot rupees. %n

()!&, the Cun:ab ceased to be a part of the Mughal Empire as a result of the third invasion of

%ndia by Abdali. Mir Mannu became the 5overnor of ahore and Multan on behalf of Ahmad

*halt Abdali. After the death of Mir Mannu in ()!4, power was seized by his widew Mughlani6egam.

1uring the administration of Mir Mannu and Taimur *hah, Adina 6eg played a dubious role.

Though he was outwardly opposed to the *i$hs, he was not prepared to crush them because that

would reduce his own importance in the eyes of his Mughal and Afghan suzerains.

After the departure of Abdali in 1ecember ()04, the *i$hs set out under different leaders to

ma$e con#uests in different areas. *irhind was occupied, plundered and devastated in =anuary

()0. %n ()0, the *i$hs assembled at Amritsar and struc$ there the first coins of good pure

silver with the inscription ?1egh, Tegh, 'ateh@. This was the first public proclamation of theestablishment of the sovereignty of the *i$h community. ;ealising that his agents would not he

able to suppress the *i$hs, Abdali invaded %ndia for the seventh time in >ctober ()". 3e

ravaged and plundered the country and placed Ala *ingh of Catiala in-+harge of *irhind and left

for Afghanistan +()0! .



6etween ()0) and ())8, the *i$hs extended their power from *aharanpur in the East to Attoc$

in the est and from Multan in the *outh to 2angra and =ammu in the /orth. They organised

themselves into twelve Misls or confederacies The 6hangi Misl, Ahluwalia Misl, 'aizullapuria

Misl. ;amgarhia Misl, 2anheya Misl. *u$ercha$iya Misl, /a$hai Misl, 1alewalia Misl,

2arorasinghia Misl, /ishanwalia Misl, Chul$ia Misl and *hahids7 Misl or /ihangs7 Misl. %t is

difficult to calculate the exact fighting strength of the *i$h Misls. %t is generally estimated that

their total strength was about one la$h. Favalry was the bac$bone of the armies of the Misls.

The success of the *i$hs was due lo many reasons. >ne reason was the method of their warfare.

The *i$hs were wea$ in organisation, e#uipment and arms and could not face the well-e#uipped

Mughal Nnd Afghan armies. They adopted hit and run tactics. They too$ full advantage of their

$nowledge of local geography. They had unparalleled capacity for endurance. Another cause was

their moral ardour. The *i$hs were dedicated soldiers who were fighting for their freedom. They

fought against the disintegrating, but cruel and oppressive Mughal power. The religious fervour

of the *i$hs gave them an inexhaustible fountain of strength and a perennial stimulant tosacrifice. %t was the spirit infused in the *i$hs by 5uru 5ovind *ingh which enabled them to

establish a soHcreign state in the Cun:ab. The *i$h war of independence was not a war led by an

individual. %t was u people7s war. The victory was not won by the genius of a single great leader.

%t was the reward of the sacrifices made by all the *i$hs.

THE MARATHAS

The most important challenge to the decaying Mughal Empire came from the Marathas who

produced a number of brilliant commanders and statesmen at that time. 3owever, they lac$ed

unity and hence failed to replace the Mughals. They waged a continuous war against the Mughal

% mpire till it was completely destroyed.

hen Aurangzeb died in ()"), *ahu was a prisoner since (089. 3e was released in ()"). A civil

war bro$e out between *ahu at *atara and Tara 6ai, widow of ;a:a ;am, at 2ohlapur. The

Maratha chiefs sided with one party or the other. They too$ full advantage of the situation and

increased their influence by bargaining. Many of them even intrigued with the Mughal iceroys

of the 1eccan. A new system of Maratha 5overnment was evolved under the leadership@ of

6ala:i ishwa-nath who was the Ceshwa of *ahu.

Ba/a!i Vi0h*ana1h

6ala:i ishwanath +()((-&" rose to power step by step. 3eOrender-rd loyal and useful service

to *ahu and suppressed his enemie:i and rivals. 3e excelled in diplomacy and won over many

MarathaI chiefs to the side of *ahu. %n recognition of his services, *ahu made him his Ceshwa,

5radually, 6ala:i ishwanath consolidated *ahu7s hold and also bis own over the Maratha chiefs.

The Ceshwa concentrated all power in his office. As a matter of fact, 6ala:i ishwanath and his

son 6a:i *ao made the Ceshwa the functional head of the Maratha Empire.



6ala:i ishwanath too$ full advantage of the internal conflicts of the Mughal officials and

increased the Maratha power. 3e induced Gulfi#ar 2han to pay Fhauth and *ardeshmu$hi of the

1eccan.

Ba!i Ra2 I

6ala:i ishwanath was succeeded as Ceshwa by his son 6a:i ;ao % ")&"". 3e was a bold and

brilliant commander and an ambitious and clever statesman. Jnder his leadership, the Marathas

waged numerous campaigns against the Mughal Empire to compel the Mughal officials first to

give them the right to collect Fhauth of the vast areas and then to cede those- areas to the

Maratha $ingdom. 3e defeated the /izam in the battle neat 6hopal in ()48. 6y the time of his

death in ()", the Marathas had established their control over Malwa, 5u:arat and parts of

6undel$hand. The Maratha families of *indhia, 3ol$ar, 5ae$wad and 6honsle came into

prominence.

Ba/a!i Ba!i Ra2

6a:i ;ao was succeeded by 6ala:i 6a:i ;ao7 and he was Ceshwa from ()" to ()0(. 3e was as

able as his father, but not so energetic. hen *ahu died in ()9, the wor$ of management of the

affairs of the state fell into the hands of the Ceshwa who became the official head of the

administration. 3e shifted the 5overnment to Coona. 3e extended the Maratha Empire in

different directions. Maratha armies overran the whole of /orthern %ndia. Maratha control over

Malwa, 5u:arat and 6undel$hand was consolidated. 6engal was repeatedly invaded. %n ()!(, the

/awab of 6engal had to give >rissa ro the Marathas. %n the *outh, the state of Mysore and other

minor principalities were forced to pay tribute. %n ()0", the /iIam of 3yderabad was defeated at

Jdgir and was compelled to cede vast territories yielding an annual revenue of 0& lacs. %n the /orth, the Marathas became the power behind the Mughal throne. %n ()!&.

Ma/*a

The old province of Malwa which is now merged into Madhya Cradesh was the connecting lin$

between the 1eceitn and 3industan proper. >n account of its central position, this province had

great strategic importance. The highways of commerce and military routes to the 1eccan and

5u:arat passed through it and armies based in Malwa could strife at ;a:putana or 6undel$hand

with the greatest ease.

Malwa was first con#uered by 3umayun and then by A$bar and i7 en:oyed peace for more than a

century, but that peace was disturbed by Aurangzeb7s policy of religious persecution. The result

was that the provincial administration lost its efficiency. The discontented ;a:put chiefs,

Gamindars and their 3indu sub:ects refused to cooperate with the Mughal *ubedai and they

welcomed the Maratha invaders, gave them secret information about rivers, fords and mountain

passes and facilitated Kheir invasions.



SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The political instability in the country alter the death of Aurangzeb had its effect on the social,

religious and economic condition of the people. 'or a long time, there was practically no

authority, no administration, no law and no security in vast areas of the country. Anarchy was the

order of the day. The strong prevailed over the wea$. The %ndians had very bad time in everyway.

S23ia/ C2ndi1i2n

*ocial life in the eighteenth century was mar$ed by stagnation and dependence on the past. There

was no uniformi7v of culture and social patterns all over the country. Ceople were divided by

religion, region, tribe, language and caste. The social life of the upper classes was different in

many ways from the life of the lower classes. There were pronounced social disparities. The

higher classes and castes were over-conscious of their supremacy and superiority. The entire

wealth of the country was concentrated in the hands of the higher classes while the masseslac$ed the barest necessities of life.

F2u Ca01-0

The 3indu society was divided into four parts, viz... the 6rahmans, 2shatriyas, aisyas and

*udras. The 6rahman was the priest, the sole exponent of religion as well as the teacher and

guide. To #uote Frau-furd. ?Their caste is the only repository of the literature that yet remainsN to

them alone is entrusted the education of youthN they are the sole interpreters of the law and the

only expounders of their religion.@

Fa4i/5

The family system in the eighteenth century was primarily patriarchal. The family was

dominated by the senior male member. %nheritence was through the male line. 3owever, in

2erala, the family was matrili-neal. >uisidc 2erala, women were sub:ected to nearly complete

male control. They were expected to live as mothers and wives only. omen of that time

possessed little individuality of their own. 3owever, Ahilya 6al administered %ndore with great

success from ()00 to ()90. Many other 3indu and Muslim women played an- important role in

the politics of that time.

The status of a woman in the family depended entirely on her capacity to give births to sons and

hence they were prepared to ma$e any sacrifice for that purpose. A mother wielded tremendous

influence in all important matters of the household. A daughter occupied a peculiar position in

the family. Although theoretically she was considered a$shmi +the goddess of prosperity but

her ?birth was not welcomed. *he had no share in her father7s and brother7s property. %f there

were many daughters, they became a galling responsibility.



The custom of female infanticide was very much prevalent among the ;a:puts and noH in all the

cases. Fhild marriage was prevalent in society. Fhild marriage was more for social security than

as a sign of bac$wardness. The instability in the eighteenth century created great anxiety among

tfie parents about the honour of their daughters and hence they were married at an early age.

Mu0/i4 Fa4i/5

%n the eighteenth century, it became difficult to differentiate between the practices of a Muslim

family and a 3indu family although he Muslims conformed to the *hariat. A polygamous

household was the fashion among the royalty and the nobility and all those who could afford it.

The wives, concubines, slave-girls, dancing and singing girls all had their share in the rich or

powerful man7s life. The individual Muslim, man or woman, was a complete and self-sufficient

unit of societv. Marriage was a civil contract and the family found legal recognition only in

connection with inheritance. The first wife en:oyed the privileges of seniority. *he was

considered to be the head of the female establishment and she was given percedence over all the

other wives. 3owever, the children of the subsc #uent wives en:oyed e#ual status.

Edu3a1i2n

The educational system of both the 3indus and Muslims was unpro-gressive and hence both of

them were e#ually bac$ward educationally. /either of them had any idea of the progress

sciences had made in the est. They also $new nothing about the new methods of observation,

experiment and criticism. Although the Europeans dominated the seas aiound %ndia and made

landing stations and lactones both on the estern and Eastern coasts, the %ndians of 5u:arat,

2on$an, 2erala, Fholamandal, >rissa and 6engal remained intellectually wholly unaffected by

their presence. The princes and noblemen of %ndia showed some interest in European animalsand birds, mirrors, toys, wives and spirits, but they showed no interest in their social, economic

or cultural7 affairs. Although almost every branch of $nowledge of the Muslims was studied in

the Fhristian universities of *pain, %taly and 'rance, the new discoveries of Europe remained

almost entirely un$nown in %ndia till the end of the eighteenth century. This was not due to the

lac$ of schools in %ndia and there were plenty of them. The real trouble was in the #uality of

education. Education was organised on communal basis. There were in fact two altogether

different systems for the 3indus and Muslims. The 3indus used the regional language for

elementary education and *ans$rit frir higher le-arning. The medium of instruction in both the

3indu an7P Muslim schools was Cersian.

The 3indu schools were divided into two water-tight compartments.

/i1-a1u-



1uring the eighteenth century, Jrdu spread to all corners of %ndia. Jrdu literary circles were

established in every province of %ndia. hen the 6ritish dominion extended over /orthern %ndia,

Jrdu was employed by polite society of the Muslims and the 3indus.

The literature produced during this period was not of high order. %ts poetry was dilettantish,

weighed with euphemism and conceit. %ts spirit was shac$led by artificial limitations of rhyme.

%ts mood alternated between the sensuous and the spiritual, neither deeply experienced. Flouds

of pessimism and despair hung over it. %t was away from reality. The Jrdu writers made Jrdu a

pliant instrument of expression.

6oth 3indi and Jrdu poets of this period were virtuosos. They were so much absorbed in their

pursuit that they almost lost the awareness of the meaning of life and higher purpose of literature.

%t is- worthy of notice that behind the diversities of language, race and creed, a deep cultural

unity pervaded the whole of %ndia.

A1

As there was a lac$ of patronage at 1elhi, the artists migrated to the slate capitals li$e

3yderabad, uc$now, Murshidabad, =aipur etc. %n ()8, Asaf-ud-1aula built the great

%mambara. %t has no pillars, or sup-torts. The view of Cercy 6rown is that it is a wor$ of

?outward show and tawdry pretence@ whose ?style has no spiritual [email protected] The palace of

*ura: Mai at 1ig, the capital of 6haratpur, was planned to rival the imperial palaces at Agra.

or$ on its construction was started in ()&! but the Fonstruction was left unfinished.

Many painters of the Mughal school migrated to 3yderabad, uc$now. 2ashmir and Catna and

flourished there. /ew schools of painting also achieved distinction. The paintings of 2angta and

;a:put schools revealed new vitality and taste. Music continued to develop and flourish in the

(8th century, particularly in the reign of Muhammad *hah.

S3i-n3-

Throughout the (8th century, %ndia remained lar behind the estern countries in the spheres of

science and technology. The %ndian rulers of the (8th century did not show any interest in the

developments in science and technology in the est except in weapons of war and techni#ues of

military training. %ndia had to pay very heavily for this wea$ness.

E32n24i3 C2ndi1i2n

%ndia of the (8th century was a land of contrasts. Extreme poverty existed side by side with

extreme riches and luxury. hile the nobles were rich and powerful and steeped in luxury and

comfort, the peasants were oppressed and impoverished. The increasing revenue demands of the

state, oppression of officials, greed and rapacity of the nobles, revenue farmers and Gamindars,

marches and counter-marches of the rival armies and the destruction brought about by foreign



invaders,- made the life of the people wretched. Many prosperous cities which were the centres

of flourishing industry, were sac$ed and devastated. 1elhi and Mathura were plundered by

Ahmed *hah Abdali. Agra was plundered by the =ats. *urat and other cities of 5u:arat and the

1eccan were plundered by the Maratha chiefs. *arhind was plundered by the *i$hs. >n account

of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the (8th century, there wNis practically no law and

order and hence there could be no manufactures or trade. %t is pointed out that by the close of the

(8th century, the urban centres had become a ?dead place.@ /azir, a poet, gives a graphic picture

of Agra of the (8th century in these words

=oblessness could show only one thingQpoverty >n the hovels of the poor there are no roofs

Coverty covers the hovels Every one in Agra these days is ruined /o one $nows how he will live

further Although they $now thousands of arts and crafts 1ust settles in bazar while shop$eepers

sit in their empty shops As though thieves lined up in prison. .C.*. ;aghuvanshi writes.

?Fivilised life cannot flourish amid conditions of insecurity and oppression. %n the (8th century,

the brea$-up of the Mughal monarchy released forces of political disintegration and anarchicalconditions which destroyed the creative and cooperative spirit of man. They caused deterioration

in every phase of national life. The regions which suffered most from the ravages of the soldiery

became the scenes of uprooted humanity and epidemics. The period glorified war, bred anarchy

and held civilisation in terror.@ +%ndian *ociety in the Eighteenth Fentury, pp. &!-0 .

5hulam 3ussain, a historian of 6engal, calls the (87tli century as ?an age of senseless, slothful

princes and of grandees, ignorani and meddling.@ 3e further writes, ?%t is in conse#uence of such

wretched administration that every part of 3ind has gone to ruin and even one of its discouraged

urban inhabitants have bro$en their hearts. ife itself has become disgustful to most. *o that, on

comparing the present times with the past, one is apt to thin$ that the world is overspread with blindness and that the earth is totally overwhelmed with an everlasting dar$ness.@ %n the (8th

century, wars, invasions and other calamities wrought havoc and cities li$e ahore, 1elhi, Agra

and Mathura in the /orth and large tracts of the country in the 1eccan were destroyed. 3owever,

this adversity was compensated to some extent by the appearance of European merchants on the

coasts of %ndia. They purchased %ndian ;oods in return for gold and silver and gave a stimulus to

industry.

Carticular group of artisans undertoo$ distinct processes of production and the specialists wor$ed

in coordination to produce finished goods. *pecialisaton promoted s$ill and %ndian wor$manship

reached a perfection unrivalled in those times in the world. %n industrial organisation andtechni#ues, %ndia was more advanced than the estern countries. The products of %ndian industry

fulfilled not only the needs of Asian and African countries but there was also a great demand in

the mar$ets of Europe. They reached the estern countries by sea and land routes.

The %ndian merchants were well established all along the ports of the Cersian 5ulf and the ;ed

*ea. They were also met in considerable numbers in Bandhar, 2abul, 6al$h, 6u$hara, 2ashghar



etc, in Afghanistan and Fentral R Asia. Ceter, the 5reat wrote, ?The commerce of %ndia is the

commerce of the world and he who can exclusively control it is the dictator of Europe,@ %ndian

goods found their way into the East-Asian countries viz., 6urma, Malaya, %ndonesia, Fhina and

=apan.

The upper classes in %ndia demanded luxury articles. %ts volume was considerable. The rich

created a great volume of demand for luxury goods as they loved good things of life and desired

expensive articles of fine ma$e. The producers of high #uality luxury goods wor$ed in their

homes or in the state 2ar$hanas +wor$shops in the- towns. *ome village artisans who had

ac#uired special s$ill in their respective crafts also contributed to the supply of these articles.

As most of the craftsmen were poor, they had to wor$ for merchants who advanced them money

through bro$ers or dealt with them through agents. Money was paid to craftsmen for implements

and raw materials and advance wages were given in return for finished goods. The finished

articles were usually collected and placed in the mar$et by middleman. *ometimes the nobles

held direct dealings with the artisans.

The %ndian village was a self-sufficient economic unit. The agricultural surplus went to the $ing

in the form of land revenue and the peasant after meeting the 5overnment demand, had little

surplus left with him for purchasing the goods of the urban industry. The stream of exchange of

goods between the village and the town was thin. ac$ of capital, rigidity of caste restrictions

and the meagreness of trade between the village and the town, were the factors which prevented

the development of the traditional business classes engaged in trade and ban$ing into a strong

and well-$nit middle class of the European type.

The tradesmen, ban$ers and moneylenders constituted the %ndian mercantile community. They

utilised their income in giving loans to the members of the ruling class. 3owever, they lac$ed the

spirit of enterprise.

THE ADVENT OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA

#he $%r&uguese in 'ndia

The coming of the Europeans to %ndia was an event of very great importance in the history of our

country as it ultimately led to revolutionary changes in her destiny in the future and the

Cortuguese were the first in this field.

%t is a matter of common $nowledge that %ndian commodities were in great demand in European

mar$ets throughout the Middle Ages. These things used to reach Europe either completely by

land or partly by land and partly by sea. 3owever, difficulties began to arise on +account of the

rise to power of the Tur$s. As the land route was practically closed, there arose the necessity of

finding a new route to %ndia.



The Cortuguese led the way in this matter. Crince 3enry of Cort ugal +(494Q(0", who is

commonly $nown as the ?/avigator@, did a lot in this field. 3e set up a regular school for the

training of seamen on scientific lines. 3e patronized all those who too$ up wor$ of navigation.

The result of the efforts of the Cortuguese was that practically the whole of the coast-line of

Africa came to be $nown to the Cortuguese. .They crossed the E#uator in ()( and reached the

Fongo river in (8(. %n (8), 6artholomew 1iaz was carried by storms past the Fape of ood

3ope. 3e was patronized by 2ing =ohn %%.

%n (9), asco da 5ama started on his expedition under the patronage of 2ing Emmanuel. To

begin with, he covered the whole of the route which had been followed by 1iaz and crossed the

Fape of 5ood 3ope. 3e reached Mozambi#ue. 3e got.help of an %ndian pilot and set sail for

%ndia in April (98. After a voyage of a month, he reached Falicut. 3e was cordially received by

2ing Gamorin who gave him certain privileges also.

%n (!"(, asco da 5ama came to %ndia for the second time and found ed a factory at Fannanore

and returned to Cortugal in (!"4. %n spite of the opposition from the Arabs, the Cortuguese were

able to establish their trading centres at Falicut, Fochin and Fannanore and they treated the

Arabs with cruelty and oppression. After asco da 5ama left %ndia, the Cortuguese suffered.

2ing Gamorin attac$ed the Cortuguese in Fochin, but was defeated. This established the

supremacy of the Cortuguese. 1e Almeida +(!"!-9. 1e Almeida was the first iceroy of the Cor-

tuguese possessions in %ndia. 3e was not in favour, of multiplying settlements on land.

Albu#uer#ue +(!"9-(!(!. 3e was the second iceroy of the Cortuguese in %ndia. Mr. *tephens

refers to four points on which his policy was based. %n the first place, he desired to occupy

certain important places for trading purposes, and to rule them directly.

Albu#uer#ue was a great con#ueror. 3e con#uered and annexed 5oa in (!(".

The power of the Cortuguese $ept on growing even after the death of Albu#uer#ue. They got 1iu

and 6assein in (!4. 'our years after, they con#uered 1aman. %n the same year they got

permission to establish a factory at 5oa. %n (!!, the fort of 1iu was attac$ed by the 2ing of

5u:arat but was successfully defended. %n (!)(, the rulers of 6i:apur, Ahmednagar and Falicut

combined together against the Cortuguese. 3owever, they failed to ta$e possession of 5oa.

The Cortuguese were not satisfied with merely a share in the trade. They were determined tocontrol the same. This they were able to accomplish by settitg up a strong navy which helped

them to command the seas. They also built fortresses to guard the narrow waters. They set up a

central establishment from which operations could be directed on which the navy could be based.

*o far as commerce was concerned, it cannot be said that the diversion of trade was accompanied

by any great expansion in the exports of %ndian goods. %t is probable that more pepper reached



estern Europe than before. 3owever, the only new development was the opening ot new

mar$ets for %ndian cotton goods in estern Africa and 6razil. The Cortuguese were not

successful in developing the import trade.

RISE AND GRO6TH OF THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANIES

i$e other Europeans, Englishmen also were desirous of getting the things produced in %ndia and

the 'ar East. After their victory over the *panish Armada in (!88, their desire to trade directly

began to increase. %n *eptember (!99, a resolution was passed under the chairmanship of ord

Mayor to form an association to trade directly with %ndia. >n 4(st 1ecember (0"", Bueen

Elizabeth granted a Fharter to the 5overnor and Fompany of Merchants of ondon trading into

the East %ndies. The Fharter authorised the ondon Fompany to traffic and trade freely ?into and

from the East %ndies, in the countries and parts of Asia and Africa, and into and from all islands,

ports, havens, cities, cree$s, towns and places of Asia and Africa and America, or any of them

beyond the Fape of 6ona Esperanza to the *treights of Migellan.@

THE FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANY

hen other European nations were desirous of trading with %ndia and having a share of the

profits, the 'rench also thought of trying their luc$. %t was in (0(( that 2ing ouis O%% of 'rance

granted letters patent to a Fompany for the monopoly of the eastern trade. 3owever, that attempt

ended in smo$e. %n (00, a new Fompany was started under the guidance of Folbert and ouis

O%. The 5overnment of 'rance undertoo$ to defend the territories of the 'rench Fompany. The

'rench Fompany was to concentrate on %ndia. Madagascar was to serve as a halfway house. %n

1ecember (00), the first 'rench factory was established at *urat by 'rancis Faron who was

nominated as 1irector-5eneral. Another 'rench factory was established at Masulipatam in1ecember (009. This was facilitated by a grant from the 2ing of 5ol$unda which freed the

Fompany from import and export duty. Faron was called bac$ in (0)& andshis place was ta$en

by 'rancis Martin.

ANGLO'FRENCH STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN THE DECCAN

6efore describing the struggle for supremacy between the English and 'rench East %ndia

Fompanies,7 it is desirable to explain , their respective positions on the eve of the< Farnatic

ars. To put it briefly, the English East %ndia Fompany was a private enterprise and

conse#uently possessed a lot of initiative and vigour. %t was a prosperous Fompany and carriedon a lot of trade. The despatches of the Fompany point out to the large volume of trade carried

on by it. %ts officers were putting their very best into their :obs and the Englishmen were loo$ing

forward to their good prospects in the future. As compared with it, the 'rench East.

%n later years also, even though the Mughal Cower had begun to disintegrate from the beginning

of the eighteenth century, it was yet strong enough to punish any impudence on the part of



foreign merchantsN so the Anglo-1utch rivalry reaching its climax in the second half of the

seventeenth century, could also not come completely out in the open, although it was more

virulent than the Anglo-Cortuguese rivalry. The Anglo-'rench rivalry, however, too$ place main-

ly after the fourth decade of the eighteenth century, when after the death of the Mughal Emperor

Aurangzeb in ()") the disintegration of the Mughal Empire could not pass unnoticed even by a

superficial observer. *o, a serious contest with a view to control %ndia for the supreme Ktrading7

advantages of one company at the expense of others, by means of subduing the power of the

%ndian rulers and using this power to the favour of one company only, a contest which could not

unfold itself in the previous phase of Kcommercial enterprises7 of the European merchant bour-

geoisie in %ndia, now came out very, openly.

T:idia Fompany was more the ?offspring of *tate patronage than the outcome of spontaneous

mercantile activity.@ There was too much control of the 5overnment and that destroyed all

initiative on the part of the officials of the 'rench Fompany. The volume of trade carried on by

them was not much and conse#uently the 'rench Fompany was poor. Moreover, the onlyimportant settlement of the 'rench was at Condi-cherry.

Fhandranagar was no good. There was nothing to compare with 6ombay. The English Fompany

had a brilliant record of progress and growth and conse#uently the people of England loo$ed

upon the English Fompany with a feeling of pride. 3owever, that was not the case with the

'rench Fompany which failed to fire the imagination of the 'renchmen. %t is obvious that the

'rench were handicapped in their race for supremacy with the English Fompany. All the

resourcefuluess of 1upleix could not change the state of affairs.

'irst Farnatic ar +()0-8. The 'rench are the English Fompanies fought the three Farnaticars in the 1eccan and these wars sealed the fate of the 'rench in the 1eccan. As regards the (st

Farnatic ar, it was merely an echo of the war of Austrian *uccession which bro$e out in

Europe in connection with the succession of Maria Theresa to the throne of Austria. %n spite of

the pragmatic sanction, 'rederic$, the 5reat, of Crussia occupied *ilesia. 3e ironically remar$ed

that it would have been better for Maria Theresa7s father to have left a few more battalions than

the pragmatic sanction which was nothing better than a waste paper. The news of the ar of

Austrian *uccession reached %ndia in (). 3owever, rumours of war were persisting ever since

()" and both the parties were ma$ing preparations to oust each other.

The first Farnatic ar was ended by the Ti*baty of Aix a Fhappelle of ()8. The net result ofthis treaty was that the English got bac$ Madras and the 'rench got bac$ ouisburg in /orth

America. Although the treaty did not bring about any changes, yet, according to < Crof. 1odwell,

this treaty mar$s an epoch in %ndian history. To #uote him, ?%t demonstrated the overwhelming

influence of sea power, it displayed the superiority of European methods of war over those

followed by %ndian armies, and it revealed the political decay that had eaten into the heart of the

%ndian state.@



%t the 'rench had helped Muzzafar =ung and Fhanda *ahib, the English helped /asir =ung. /asir

=ung too$ the field in ()!". Muzzifar =ung was defeated, captured and imprisoned. 3owever,

there was a change of fortune. /asir =ung was deserted by his troops and was captured and put to

death. At this time, Muzzafar =ung gave S!",""", to the Fompany, 3e also gave 1upleix a =agir

worth S(",""" a year. Fhanda *ahib was recognized as the /awab of Arcot. hen Muzzafar

=ung was $illed in =anuary ()!(, *alabat =ung was put on the throne by 6ussy.

ithin a few months, 6ussy was able to set the forces ot *alabat =ung on a sound footing by a

strict discipline and incessant vigilance. 3e was able to train a large number of troops and paid

them well and punctually. 3is discipline was so strict that even *alabat =ung began to tremble

before him. The intrigues of the officials of the *tate were put an end to. 'or his own expenses,

6ussy got possession of some districts which came to be $nown as the /orthern Fircars. Those

were entirely managed by the 'rench. ,

Third Farnatic ar +()!0-()04. The peace between the 'rench and the English Fompanies in

%ndia was a short-lived one. The *even ears7 ar started in Europe in ()!0 and before long the

two nations started fighting in %ndia also. The 'rench 5overnment sent Fount ally as the

5overnor and Fommander-in-Fhief. ith great difficulty, ally reached %ndia on account of the

naval supremacy of the English. 3e had some success at the start. 3e was able to capture 'ort *t.

1avid. 3e recalled 6ussy from the 1eccan.

ESTIMATE OF DUPLEI7

Jndoubtedly, 1upleix was one of the greatest of the 'renchmen who were sent to %ndia by the

'rench Fompany. %t was he who dreamt the dream of founding a 'rench empire in %ndia. 3e

critically analysed the political condition in %ndia and came to the conclusion diat by helping one

*tate against the other, the 'rench could add to their resources and ultimately set up an empire of

their own in the country. %t has already been pointed out that to begin with, he did very well. 3e

was able to put Fhanda *ahib on the Farnatic throne. 3e was also able to put Muz-&aSar =ung on

the 1eccan dirone. hen Muzzafar =ung diedN he was modern history of a nation being betrayed

to this extent by its own 5ovable to put *alabat =ung in his place. 3e got the /orthern Fircars

from *alabat =ung. 6ussy was stationed with *alabat =ung. %t appeared that the 'rench .lifluence

in *oudi %ndia was to be supreme. 3owever, things changed. Flive appeared on the scene and

captured Arcot. Fhanda *ahib failed to carry out the instructions of 1upleix and wasted his time

in Tan:ore while he should have finished the opposition of Mohammed Ali in Trichinopoly atonce. The delay on the part of Fhanda *ahib gave the English time to prepare. The result was

that ultimately Fhanda *ahib was defeated and the plans of 1upleix miscarried.

THE ENGLISH IN BENGAL FROM #$%$ TO #$$8

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire began to disintegrate and various parts of the

empire became independent under different heads. %n the case of 6angal, Ali ardi 2han made



himself independent.7 3e was possessed of a lot of resourcefulness, and uncommon ability. The

Marathas gave him a lot of trouble but ultimately he made peace with them by handing over to

them the province of >rissa. 3e also promised to pay a sum of ;s. (& la$hs a year as Fhauth. 3e

maintained friendly relations with the Englishmen. 3owever, he did not allow them to fortify

their settlements. 3e continued to rule up to ()!0.

After the death of Ali ardi 2han, his grandson called *ira:-ud-1aula became the /awab of

6engal. 3e was a young man of hardly &. 3e was not only self-willed but also self-indulgent.

*oon after ?his succession to the throne, the young /awab came into conflict with the English in

6engal.

?6lac$-hole.@ The result of all this was that *ira:-ud-1aula captured the English factory at 2asim

6azar and also too$ possession of the city of Falcutta. >ne hundred and forty-six persons

including one woman were captured and shut up in a very small room at night. The heat was so

great and the space was so small that (&4 of them were suffocated to death. >nly &4 survived and

one of them was 3olwell. This incident is $nown as the 6lac$-hole Tragedy.

Mir =afar +()!)-()0". Mir =afar was the /awab of 6engal from ()!) to ()0". 3e was neither

brilliant nor active. 3e had not the capacity to carry on the administration of the province with

his own hands. Throughout this period, he was merely a figurehead and the real power was in the

hands of Flive. Moreover, he was surrounded on all sides by difficulties. 3e had no money in the

treasury. hen he ascended the throne, he had not enough even to meet his previous

commitments. As a matter of fact, the English Fompany had to agree that one-half of the amount

should be paid by 4(st of >ctober, ()!), and the ?remainder to be r.aid within the compass of

three years by e#ual payments every six months@.

Mir =afar had to meet the danger from the 1utch. The real cause of the 1utch trouble was their

:ealousy of the 6ritish influence in 6engal. Although they had remained neutral when the

English and the /awab fought, they were feeling worried about their own future in the province.

?The 1utch were in fact in the same position in 6engal now, as the English would have been in

*outh %ndia had *aunders done nothing to counteract the schemes of 1upleix. 6isdom and

ernet, the 1utch leaders, have therefore the same :ustification for attempting to overthrow the

English supremacy as *aunders and Flive have for contesting that of the 'rench in the *outh.@

%n ()!9, six or seven 1utch vessels with 4"" European and 0"" Malayan soldiers appeared in the5anges. The English also got ready to meet them. The 1utch were defeated at 6idderra by

Folonel 'orde. The 1utch fleet was also defeated and captured. They made peace widr the

English. .They ac$nowledged themselves as the aggressors and agreed to pay costs and damages.

At this stage, Miran, the son of Mir =afar, also appeared on the scene. 3e was indignant against

the 1utch.



1eposition of Mir =afar. There were many causes which were responsible for the deposition of

Mir =afar in ()0". 3is treasury was empty and he had no money to pay either to the Fompany in

the form of instalments or bribes to the servants of the Fompany. The servants of the Fompany

also thought that if there was a change of 5overnment in 6engal, there was every li$elihood of

dieir getting presents or bribes from the new successor. The invasions of A3 5ohour and the

1utch had also cost Mir =afar a lot of money. hen the Marathas attac$ed 6engal, he had again

to as$ for the English help.

Mir =afar left the throne and went away to Falcutta. There he began to live as a pensioner of Mir

2asim. %t cannot be denied that the deposition of Mir =afar was ?in breach of a treaty founded on

the most solemn oaths.@ The members of the Falcutta Founcil deserve all the condemnation.

They were bound to support him by ?the most solemn ties@. 3is deposition was ?an indelible

stain upon our national character@. Cerhaps, Mir =afar deserved this fate. 3e himself had betrayed

his master in ()!). Mir 2asim +()0"-04. %t is admitted on all hands that Mir 2asim was the

most efficient of all the /awabs of 6engal from ()!0 onwards.

Mir 2asim made a very good beginning. 3e suppressed the rebellious zamindars of 6engal and

6ihar, who had challenged the authority of the /awab on previous occasions. 3e forced the old

officers to give-up the money which they had misappropriated. 3e levied some Abwabs or

additional cesses. 3e tried to organise his army in the same way as the Europeans did. 3e made

arrangements for the manufacture of fireloc$s and guns at Monghyr.

mpii - 6 - modern history - 1

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