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SyllabusAssessmentResourcesMake your presentationsbetter!COMMAND TERMSExtended EssayThe IA

CoreSocioculturalBiologicalCognitive

Integrated topicsCriminal behaviorHappinessPrejudice and discrimination

OptionsHuman RelationshipsAbnormal

Research methodsAn overviewQualitativeQuantitativeEthics

ExamsPaper 1

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The information below relates to the new syllabus for IBPsychology (first exams 2011)

Main differences between what we do at SAS now and the syllabus for next year

The word 'perspective' has been replaced by 'level of analysis'.The humanistic and learning perspectives are no longer part of the syllabus.Psychodynamic psychology is no longer an option.Abnormal psychology replaces The Psychology of Dysfunctional Behavior

Part 1: Core (SL/HL)

The biological level of analysisThe cognitive level of analysisThe sociocultural level of analysis

Part 2: Options (SL/HL)Standard level will do 1 option, higher level must do 2.

Abnormal psychologyPsychology of human relationships

Part 3: Qualitative research methodology (HL only)Qualitative research in psychology

Part 4: Simple experimental study (SL/HL)

Introduction to experimental research methodology for your Internal Assessment

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Biological level of analysis

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IntroductionAt the most basic level of analysis, human beings are biologicalsystems. Our cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the anatomy andphysiology of our nervous and endocrine systems. Over the last few centuries,discoveries have shown that:

the nature of the nervous system is electrical in part (Galvani)different areas of the brain carry out different functions (Broca)small gaps exist between nerve cells that require the action of chemicals to carry neuraltransmission across these gapshormones play an important role in our psychological functioning.

Since the 1960s, with the invention and development of brain imaging technologies (forexample, CAT (computerized axial tomography), PET (positron emission tomography),fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)) it has become possible to directly studyliving brains in action as various tasks are performed, and to correlate specific areas ofbrain damage with specific changes in a person’s personality or cognitive abilities.Advances in psychopharmacology—the field of medicine that addresses the balance ofchemicals in the brain—have led to the development of new medications for problems asdiverse as depression, anxiety disorders and Alzheimer’s disease.

After Darwin published his theory of evolution through natural selection, animals came tobe studied in order to shed light on human behaviour. With the completion of the humangenome project, the chimpanzee genome project, and with other species having the fullstructure of their DNA mapped, the contribution of genes to our cognitions, emotions andbehaviour is becoming better understood. Behavioural genetics takes the skills ofbiological analysis used to study the differences between species and applies these skillsto studying individual differences in humans. These are the components at the biologicallevel of analysis needed to understand our complex biological system and thepsychological functions it supports.

Source: Diploma Programme Psychology Guide for first exams 2011, InternationalBaccalaureate Organization 2009

Principles of Biological LOA

Learning outcomesGeneral learning outcomes

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis (for example, patternsof behaviour can be inherited; animal research may inform our understanding ofhuman behaviour; cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of theanatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems).Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may bedemonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies).Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological levelof analysis (for example, experiments, observations, correlational studies).Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level ofanalysis.

Physiology and behaviourExplain one study related to localization of function in the brain (for example,Wernicke, Broca, Gazzaniga and Sperry).

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Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on humanbehaviour (for example, the effect of noradrenaline on depression).Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in humanbehaviour.Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes (for example,effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms, effects of deprivation on neuroplasticity,effects of environmental stressors on reproductive mechanisms).Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour(for example, agnosia, anosognosia, prosapagnosia, amnesia). Evaluate tworelevant studies.Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET, fMRI) ininvestigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour.

Genetics and behaviourWith reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does geneticinheritance influence behaviour?Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour.


Practice questions(Crane and Hadad, pages 381 - 387)

SAQsOutline one principle that defines the biological level of analysis. Choose one method anddescribe how this topic has been investigated (methodology) [8 marks]

1.

Outline one principle on which the biological level of analysis is based.Choose one studythat demonstrates how that assumption supports a biological explanation of humanbehavior. [8 marks]

2.

a) Explain how the biological perspective is reductionist [4marks]; b) Use one empiricalstudy to illustrate your point. [4marks]

3.

a) Explain how physiological processes may influence psychological behavior or visaversa in one topic of your own choice [4 marks]; b) Choose ONE study and describe howthis topic has been investigated. [4marks]

4.

(a) Describe one theoretical explanation of behavioural change in humans based on thebiologicalperspective. [4 marks] (b) Explain the one strength and one limitation of the explanation ofbehaviour described in part (a). [4 marks]

5.

Outline one study related to localization of function of the brain6.Outline one study that illustrates the effects of neurotransmission on human behavior.7.

Essays

Question 1(a) Describe assumptions on which key concepts from the biological perspective are based. [10marks](b) Evaluate the assumptions described in part (a). [10 marks]

Question 2Describe one interaction between cognition and physiology on behavior.Evaluate this explanation with reference to one other level of analysis.


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Cognitive

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The Cognitive level of analysis

There is one thing, and only one, in the whole universe which we know more about thanwe could learn from external observation. That one thing is Man. We do not merelyobserve men, we are men. In this case we have, so to speak, inside information; we arein the know.C.S. Lewis

IntroductionAt the second level of analysis, the products of our biological machinery can be seen in ourcognitive system, which includes our cognitions, emotions and behaviours.

Around the 1950s psychologists began systematically to explore cognition to furtherunderstanding of human behaviour. This shift in focus from studying observable behaviour tostudying mental processes, such as memory and perception, is called “the cognitive revolution”.Cognitive psychologists suggested that humans form internal mental representations that guidebehaviour, and they developed a range of research methods to study these. In recent years,researchers within social and cultural psychology haveused findings from cognitive psychologists to understand how mental processes may beinfluenced by social and cultural factors.

Cognitive psychology represents a vast array of research areas including cognitive psychology,cognitive science, cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Topics such asmemory, perception, artificial intelligence, amnesia and social cognition are studied. Cognitivepsychologists use traditional research methods (for example, experiments and verbal protocols)but there is an increasing focus on the use of modern technology.

Cognitive psychologists collaborate increasingly with neuroscientists, social psychologists andcultural psychologists in order to explore the complexity of human cognition. This approach isillustrated in the field of cultural and social cognitive neuroscience, indicating the complementarynature of social, cognitive and biological levels of analysis. Research that integrates these threelevels can develop more meaningful theories to explain the mechanisms underlying complexbehaviour and the mind.


Introduction to the Cognitive LOAWhat are mental processes?

What is a cognitive explanation of human behavior? How might a cognitive psychologistexplain why humans behave the way they do?

The cognitive approach is a 'mental explanation of behavior'. It argues that:

behavior can be explained in terms of mental processesthat minds consist of information processing systems where information isencoded, stored, altered, transformed etc

Cognitive researchers or psychologists investigate:

the way in which these mental or cognitive processes work (eg. how does memoryoperate? What are the key properties of memory?Can memory/recall be improved?)

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Learning outcomesSource: Diploma Programme Psychology Guide for first exams 2011, InternationalBaccalaureate Organization 2009

General learning outcomesOutline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis (for example, mentalrepresentations guide behaviour, mental processes can be scientificallyinvestigated).Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may bedemonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies).Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive levelof analysis (for example, experiments, observations, interviews).Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level ofanalysis.

Cognitive processesEvaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

Schema theory

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, memory,perception, language, decision‑making) with reference to research studies.

AttentionMemory

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process (for example,Alzheimer’s disease, brain damage, sleep deprivation).

Brain damage and memory**biological effects of sleep deprivation on memory and learning**

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process (for example,education, carpentered-world hypothesis, effect of video games on attention).

**culture and memory research**Culture, perception and physical reality

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive processreliable (for example, reconstructive memory, perception/visual illusions,decision‑making/heuristics)?

**The reliability of memory**

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes (for example, MRI(magnetic resonance imaging) scans in memory research, fMRI scans in decision‑makingresearch).Technology and memory

PET scans and AlzheimersMRI scans and memory researchfMRI and what it tells us about how experience affects neural networks (for this one,see the Maguire handout)

Cognition and emotion

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion (for example, two


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factor theory, arousal theory, Lazarus’ theory of appraisal)?

**Emotion and the brain****Ekman's facial affect program - neurocultural theory of emotional expression**

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process (for example, state-dependent memory, flashbulb memory, affective filters).

**flashbulb memory**


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Sociocultural

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IntroductionAt the third level of analysis, the biological and cognitive systems thatmake up the individual are embedded in an even larger system of interrelationships with otherindividuals. At its beginning, psychology largely confined itself to the study of the individualacting alone. As the discipline matured, a few psychologists recognized that human behaviourcould be fully understood only if the social context in which behaviour occurred was also takeninto account. This recognition led to many investigations of social influence, that is, how thepresence and behaviour of one or a few people affect the behaviour and attitudes of anotherindividual. It also provided a broader context for exploring topics such as aggression and helpingbehaviour that had largely been regarded as individual personality traits.

Although there has long been an exchange between the sciences of psychology andanthropology, the study of culture has largely been the province of anthropology. Recently, asmany societies have become more multicultural, the need to understand the effect of culture ona person’s behaviour has risen to a new prominence. Social psychologists saw the need not onlyto achieve an understanding of the role of culture in human behaviour, but also to devisemeans for alleviating problems that arise from misunderstandings when individuals from differentcultures come into contact with each other.

In what appeared to be a contrary movement, as social psychologists turned their attention toexploring the power of culture, other investigators were focusing attention on the biologicalbases of human social behaviour: the role played by genes. These investigators explainedimportant social behaviours as special adaptations to becoming social organisms acquiredthroughout the course of human evolution. As social psychologists continue to integrate thebiological and cultural contributions to social behaviour, there is a general consensus in thediscipline of psychology that a synthesis of the biological, cognitive and sociocultural levels ofanalysis holds out the greatest promise of bringing us closer to the goal of more fullyunderstanding the nature of the complex interacting systems that make up the human being.


Learning outcomesGeneral learning outcomes

Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis (for example, the socialand culturalenvironment influences individual behaviour; we want connectedness with,and a sense of belonging to, others; we construct our conceptions of the individual andsocial self).Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis may be demonstratedin research (that is, theories and/or studies).Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level ofanalysisDiscuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the sociocultural level ofanalysis.

Each of the general learning outcomes above will be applied to specific areaswithin our study of the Sociocultural level of analysis: Sociocultural cognition;Social norms; and Cultural norms.

Sociocultural cognitionDescribe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour.Discuss two errors in attributions (for example, fundamental attribution error, illusory

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correlation, self‑serving bias).Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies.Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour.

Sociocultural cognition

Social normsExplain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballing, foot‑in‑the‑door,reciprocity).Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.Discuss factors influencing conformity (for example, culture, groupthink, risky shift,minority influence).

Social norms

Cultural normsDefine the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”.Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour (for example,individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, Confucian dynamism,masculinity/femininity).Using one or more examples, explain “emic” and “etic” concepts.

Cultural norms

Practice exam questions

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Abnormal

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Abnormal psychologyIntroductionAbnormal psychology focuses on diagnosing, explaining and treating humans sufferingfrom psychological disorders. This option begins with a consideration of normal andabnormal behaviour. An understanding of issues related to diagnosis provides aframework for the subsequent study of disorders and therapeutic approaches.Although there are numerous psychological disorders this option focuses on thefollowing three groups of disorders:

anxiety (for example, agoraphobia)affective (for example, depression)eating (for example, bulimia).

By studying one disorder from two of these groups of disorders, students areencouraged to develop an awareness of the range of psychological disorders. Thisapproach embraces the etiology, symptoms and prevalence of each disorder. As aconsequence of this understanding, it is possible to administer effective treatments whileat the same time having an appreciation of relevant cultural and gender variations.

Therapeutic approaches to treating disorders may be broadly organized into threegroups:

biomedical therapies (for example, drug therapy)individual psychological therapies (for example, systematic desensitization,cognitive restructuring therapy)group psychological therapies (for example, encounter groups, family therapy,community‑based therapy).

Therapies from each of these approaches involve the use of specific techniques thatneed to be applied appropriately. These approaches should reflect a considerable degreeof efficacy and ethical appropriateness to the specific disorder.Source: Diploma Programme Psychology Guide for first exams 2011, InternationalBaccalaureate Organization 2009

Learning outcomesGeneral framework (applicable to all topics in the option)

To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence abnormalbehaviour?

1.

Evaluate psychological research (that is, theories and/or studies) relevant to the study ofabnormal behaviour.

2.

Concepts and diagnosisExamine the concepts of normality and abnormality.1.Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis.2.Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis (for example, cultural variation,stigmatization).

3.

Psychological disorders1. Describe symptoms and prevalence of one disorder from two of the following groups:Affective disorders

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Depression - Click on the Depression pagehttp://behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/mjrdepep.htm

Eating disorders.Anorexia nervosa - Click on the AN page

2. Analyse etiologies (in terms of biological, cognitive and/or sociocultural factors) of onedisorder from two of the following groups:Affective disordersDepression - Click on the Depression pagehttp://behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/mjrdepep.htm

Eating disorders.Anorexia nervosa - Click on the AN page

3. Discuss cultural and gender variations in prevalence of disorders.

Implementing treatmentExamine biomedical, individual and group approaches to treatment.Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual and group approaches to the treatment of onedisorder.Discuss the use of eclectic approaches to treatment.Discuss the relationship between etiology and therapeutic approach in relation to onedisorder.

OUTLINE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMESCharlotte, Janina, Anika

Dion, ---

Connie/Grace/Karen/Ragna

Statements:

CBT as an individual approach, has been proven to be very effective for patients with depression.Elkin et al. (1989): included 28 clinicians who worked with 28- patients diagnosed as having major depression.

1. Randomly assigned patients an antidepressant drug, interpersonal therapy (IPT), or cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

2. And a control group was given a placebo pill with weekly therapy.

a. Double blind experiment, neither patient nor doctors know which was which.

3. Patients assessed at the start, after 16 weeks, and after 18 months.

4. Found that over 50% of patients recovered in each of the CBT, IPT, and drug group.


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a. Only 29% recovered in placebo group.

- therapy is more effective than placebo group, but less effective than drug use

CBT is effective but CBT with a combination of biomedical drugs is proven to be most effective in cases of chronic depression.Riggs et al (2007): effectiveness of CBT in combination with a placebo or an SSRI.

1. Randomized double-blind with 126 adolescents (13-19 yrs) who suffered from depression.

a. 20 were not able to be followed up or participated.

2. Participants were rated afterwards by a physician who found that 67% of patients in the CBT + placebo group and 76% of patients in the CBT + drug group were classified as “very much or much improved.”

3. Conclude that the treatment with CBT and rugs is effective but with placebo and CBT is almost just as effective.

(Individual treatment has been proven to less cost effective than other treatments)Cognitive therapies are cost-effective because they do not usually involve prolonged treatment. They have also been found to be quite effective, especially for milder depressions. No negative effects have been found.

Nemeroff et al. (2003) found the CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) in combination with the biomedical approach (drugs) was the most effective in cases of chronic depression, from people suffering from traumatic childhood experiences.

(Above, disproves the fact that some may say it’s less cost-effective. However, Nemeroff discusses a eclectic approach.)

Cognitive therapies have been criticized to focus on symptoms rather than the causes.Personal bias coming from individual therapists or psychologists.

Psychologist have to take into consideration the specific cultural background of their client, because this treatment may be less effective for certain cultures. Not cost effective?

Siporin (1986) viewed 74 studies comparing individual and group treatment. Group treatment was more cost-effective than individual therapy in 31 per cent of the studies

Advantages with Individual Therapy:

No one except the therapist will know your secrets. The therapist gets more time to handle your particular problems. You can often penetrate deeper into your inner problems than with group therapy. You do not have to listen to other people, which may feel better if you have lots of your own problems. You can


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arrange a time which suits you and you do not have to co-ordinate your calendar with other people and available group therapy slots.


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Human Relationships

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Psychology of human relationshipsIntroductionThis social psychology option focuses on human relationships; these relationships may beromantic, friendship, familial, or antagonistic. Humans are social animals, but while we dependupon others for our well‑being, conflict with others can threaten our survival individually and associal groups.

Key goals of social psychologists are to understand the complexities of relationships, improveinterpersonal relationships, promote social responsibility and reduce violence. Psychologistsassume that we may actively change our environment and not simply be manipulated by it.Violence is defined here as a specific aspect of aggression characterized by victimization ofanother (for example, bullying, domestic violence, genocide). Though much of the research onaggression may be used to understand the basis of violence, the focus of this part of the optionis to apply this research to social problems in which violence is often manifested.

One approach to the study of human relationships concentrates on the role of hormones andgenetics. However, this gives a limited understanding of how relationships develop. Cognitivetheorists have contributed to the understanding of relationships by applying schema theory,whereas social psychologists have focused on attribution theory, social identity theory and therole of culture. Studying human relationships, however, has its challenges. It is tempting tooversimplify complex social issues or misdirect the blame for problems. When studying humanrelationships psychologists must also be concerned about the objectivity of the researcher, theright to privacy of the individual and the temptation of social engineering.

Learning outcomes

General framework(applicable to all topics in the option)

To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence humanrelationships?Evaluate psychological research (that is, theories and/or studies) relevant to the study ofhuman relationships.

Social responsibilityDistinguish between altruism and prosocial behaviour.Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans.Using one or more research studies, explain cross‑cultural differences in prosocialbehaviour.Examine factors influencing bystanderism.

Interpersonal relationshipsExamine biological, psychological and social origins of attraction.Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships.Explain the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of relationships.Analyse why relationships may change or end.

ViolenceEvaluate sociocultural explanations of the origins of violence.Discuss the relative effectiveness of two strategies for reducing violence.Discuss the effects of short‑term and long‑term exposure to violence.

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Qualitative

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Table of ContentsLearning outcomes

Theory andpractice inqualitative research

Interviews

Observations

Case studies

Qualitative researchAreas within this section of the course will be usedthroughout our 2 years of IB Psychology. This is also ourfinal unit, where we will pull together our understandingof the material and apply it to specific scenarios.

Data can come in many forms. It depends on what phenomenon youare interested in. Qualitative data is collected through directinteraction with the participants, such as

interviews (one-to-one or group)observations in the fieldcase studies

(Crane and Hannibal, p 345)

Learning outcomes(Source: Excerpts below taken from the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme,Psychology guide, First examinations 2011)

Theory and practice in qualitative research

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research.To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research.Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposivesampling, snowball sampling).Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research.Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.

InterviewsEvaluate semi‑structured, focus group and narrative interviews.Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview (for example,sampling method, data recording, traditional versus postmodern transcription, debriefing).Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interviewtranscripts.

ObservationsEvaluate participant, non‑participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations.Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation (forexample, audience effect, Hawthorne effect, disclosure).Discuss how researchers analyse data obtained in observational research.

Case studiesEvaluate the use of case studies in research.

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Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization orgroup (for example, a football team, a school, a family).Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study.

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