Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(7th Ed)

Chapter 7B

Thinking and Language

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

Thinking

Cognition mental activities associated with thinking,

knowing, remembering, and communicating

Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities

concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation

Thinking

Concept mental grouping of similar objects,

events, ideas, or people Prototype

mental image or best example of a category

Ex. Describe what a bird looks like?

Concept

Chairs Flowers

Prototype

Solving Problems4 Strategies

Algorithms Step-by-step

HeuristicInsightTrial and Error

Thinking: Problem Solving

Algorithm methodical, logical rule or

procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

For example solving an equation using Order of Operations.

2x+6 = 14; Solve for X

Thinking: Problem Solving

Heuristic simple thinking strategy that often allows us

to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Rules of thumb derived from experience. No guarantee of accuracy or usefulness

Example, counting seconds between lighting and thunder to see how far away storm is.

Racial Profiling, stereotyping are heuristics.

Thinking: Problem Solving

Insight sudden and often novel realization of the

solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Trial and Error make attempts until correct solution is

found.

Thinking

Unscramble

S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithm

all 907,208 combinations Heuristic

throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?

Solving ProblemsCreativityCreativity – read pgs 301-302

Strernberg’s five components Expertise Imaginative thinking skills A venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation A creative environment

Thinking: Hurdles to Problem Solving

Confirmation Bias tendency to search for information that

confirms one’s preconceptions

Fixation inability to see a problem from a new

perspective impediment to problem solving

Thinking

Functional Fixednesstendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

impediment to problem solving

The Matchstick Problem

How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

The Candle-Mounting Problem

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

The Three-Jugs Problem

Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic judging the likelihood of things in

terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

may lead one to ignore other relevant information

Representativeness Heuristic

Two boxers are in a match scheduled for 12 rounds. (Pure boxing only – no kicking, UFC takedowns, or anything else). One of the boxers gets knocked out after only six rounds, yet no man throws a punch. How is this possible?

Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic Describe a NASCAR driver: Drivers 1 Drivers 2

Heuristics

Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events

based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind

(perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Example: airplane crash, Casino Winners & Losers, Jaws & swimming.

Thinking

Overconfidence tendency to be more confident

than correct tendency to overestimate the

accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments

Thinking

Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting

beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid

conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid

Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after

the basis on which they were formed has been discredited – read pgs 308-309 “Fear Factor”

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics

The Availability Heuristic

Thinking

Framing – read pgs 311-312

the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can significantly

affect decisions and judgments Example: What is the best way to market

ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean? Preferred Portion Size – Restaurants use

words such as small, regular, supersize for their portions.

Opt In vs Opt Out Those who understand the power of framing

can use it to influence our decisions…

Thinking

“When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it; THIS is KNOWLEDGE!” – Confucius

Work on Group Problems to Solve Worksheet.

Language

Language our spoken, written, or gestured words and

the way we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme in a spoken language, the smallest

distinctive sound unit. The sound of a letter as used in a word.

For example the letter A – sounds different in Ate and Cat.

Language

Morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that

carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word

(such as a prefix) ex. Uni, Bi, Tri (+ Cycle)

Grammar a system of rules in a language that

enables us to communicate with and understand others

Language

Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning

from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

also, the study of meaning Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Language Babbling Stage

beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which

the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during

which a child speaks mostly in single words

Language

Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development

during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child

speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words

Language

Summary of Language Development

Month(approximate)

Stage

4

10

12

24

24+

Babbles many speech sounds.

Babbling reveals households language.

One-word stage.

Two-word, telegraphic speech.

Language develops rapidly intocomplete sentences.

Language

Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience activates them as it modifies the brain

How do we Learn Language: Read pgs 316-317

Skinner: Operant Learning

Association : sights of things with the sounds of words

Imitation : of the words and syntax modeled by others

Reinforcement : With smiles and hugs when a child speaks.

Linda Linda Linda

Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammer

Language Acquisition Device: we are genetically prewired to acquire language. As we hear language, the switches get set for the language we are to learn.

Universal Grammar: All human grammars have the same building blocks, such as nouns and verbs, subjects and objects. Regardless of language, kids start speaking in nouns rather than verbs or adjectives.

Language

Linguistic Determinism Whorf”s hypothesis that language

determines the way we think Different languages impose

different concepts of reality. Ex. Spanglish, Pig Latin, Slang,

words with different meanings by location.

Language

The interplay of thought and language

Language Review

1. What are the structural components of Language?

2. What are the stages of Language Development?

3. What is the relationship between language and thinking?

For Next Class

Study for Test – Unit 6, 7A and 7B Combined.

For the rest of class, go over Unit Review for both sections.