Created: 970227 Last modified: 010106 Return to main Nahuatl page

Inadequate Nahuatl Reference Grammar D.K. Jordan

Preliminary Note: This material began life as my notes on various Nahuatl grammars and texts that I have used over the last few years. In printed form it has provided a handy reference for our local Recreational Nahuatl group, although the notes are too compact to serve as a first introduction to any of this. I question how

much value it is likely to have as a web page, especially in view of my only amateurish ability to put web page material in tabular form. However it might be useful to somebody, at least if it is printed out.

The same text is available from my ftp location if you would like to produce a more convenient print out. The version on the ftp site is very slightly revised from the form given here and is in Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) format.

Table of Contents

• 1. Notation Conventions • 2. Aide-Mémoire to Verbal Subject & Object Affixes • 3. Aide-Mémoire to Pronominal & Noun Affixes • 4. Summary of Noun Morphology • 5. Summary of Verb Morphology • 5.1 Verbs & Their Forms • 5.1.1 Verb Table 1: Examples of Bases & Time/Mood Endings • 5.1.2 Verb Table 2: The Four Irregular Verbs • 5.1.3 Verb Table 3: Assigning a Verb to a Class • 5.1.4 Verb Table 4: "Passive" Endings • 5.2 Causatives & Applicatives • 5.2.1 How to Form a Causative: -tia -ltia • 5.2.2 How to Form a Semi-Causative • 5.2.3 How to Form an Applicativë -lia -ia • 5.3 Auxiliary & Intentional Verb Suffixes • 5.3.1 Table of Auxiliary Suffixes • 5.3.2. Table of Intentional Suffixes • 6. Consonant Mutations • 7. Summary Table of Nahuatl Numbers • 8. Reference Table of Most Affixes

• 8.1 Prefixes • 8.2 Suffixes

Return to top.

Nahuatl Grammar Notes

Notation Conventions

# = shows a word boundary when compulsory (e.g., a final i is shown as i#). - = sign that shows where an affix attaches to another element. (e.g., a suffix may be shown as -lo.) : = Two dots over a vowel (huän) show that it is long. (In standard orthography a macron is used.) Two dots on the front of a suffix (-:an) show that it lengthens the previous vowel. < = what follows is a plural form. (E.g. pilli < R-tin means that the plural of pilli is pïpiltin. See below for meaning of R.) > = what follows is a preterite (past) form. (E.g., päca > päc means that päca has the preterite form päc.) << = derived from >> = produces, goes to, gives C = consonant DO = Direct object IO = Indirect object k = the sound k, whether spelt c or qu. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.) kw = the sound kw, whether spelt cu or uc. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.) Launey = Tags usage from Launey's Introduction à la Langue et à la Littérature Aztëques. R = first syllable is reduplicated (and the vowel lengthened) in the plural. (Used only in abbreviating plural formations, e.g. pilli < R-tin means the plural of pilli is pïpiltin.) s = the sound s, whether spelt z or c. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.) V = vowel V1, V2, V3, V4 = verb of class 1, 2, 3, or 4. (I have normally tried to indicate the transitivity of the verb, e.g. Vt2.) Vb = verb

Vi = intransitive verb (usually followed by a class number: Vi3) Vr = reflexive verb (sometimes followed by a class number: Vr3) Vt = transitive verb (sometimes followed by a class number: Vt3) Vtt = bitransitive verb (always takes two objects) w = the sound w, whether spelt hu or uh. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.)

Return to top.

Aide-Mémoire to Verbal Subject & Object Affixes

Subject Prefixes

Singular Plural 1. ni- (n-) ti (t-) I we 2. ti- (t-) am- (an-) you you 3. -- -- s/he they

Object Prefixes

Singular Plural 1. nëch- tëch- me us 2. mitz- amëch- you you 3. c-/qui- quim- (quin-) him/her/it them të somebody tla something

Reflexive Prefixes

Singular Plural 1. no- (n-) to- (t-) myself ourselves 2. mo- (m-) mo- (m-) yourself yourselves 3. mo- (m-) mo- (m-) him/her/itself themselves

Return to top.

Aide-Mémoire to Pronominal & Noun Affixes

Possessive Prefixes*

Note: The -o- is dropped before a, e, or "strong" i. Singular Plural 1. no- (n-) to- (t-) my our 2. mo- (m-) amo- (am-) your your 3. ï- ïm- (ïn-) his/her/its their

Possessive Suffixes (added to possessed nouns)

Singular Plural C-hui -huän V-uh

Absolutive Suffixes

Singular Plural C-tli -tin/meh V-tl -(me)h l-li -tin -in* -meh, -tin *-The absolutive suffix -in is largely used in a small number of words related to bugs, worms, and other very small animals.

Agentive Suffixes (Deverbative Nouns)

Singular Plural C-qui -queh C-co V-c

Return to top.

Summary of Nahuatl Noun Morphology

Note that plural is marked for animate items only, although this is compromised by the creation of animatizing and inanimatizing metaphors. All nouns are either possessed (composed 1-2-3) or absolutive (composed 2-4). Addition of item 0 creates a clause.

• 0. Subject prefix (only if the remainder is a predicate complement to the subject prefix)

1 ni / ti (I/we) 2. ti / an (you) 3. -- / -- (he/she/it/they) The prefixed subject pronouns render the remainder of the compound a predicate nominative on an assumed present-tense linking verb. (Ti-toltecatl = "You are a Toltec.")

• 1. Possessive pronoun prefix (incompatible with 4; requires 3)

Specific Possessor (common): 1 no / to (my/our) 2 mo / amo or mo (your) 3 ï or mo / ïm or mo (his/her/its/their)

Non-Specific Possessor (uncommon): të (somebody's) tla (something's) ne (dummy possessor on reflexive verbs made into nouns [a relic pronoun])

• 2. Noun Stem

(Dictating some reduplicative plurals in the absolutive, some replacive items in the possessive)

• 3. Possessive suffix (incompatible with 4, required by 1)

plural: huän

• 4.Absolutive suffix (incompatible with 1 and 3)

singular: tli or lli or tl or in or -- plural: tin or meh or h

Return to top.

Summary of Nahuatl Verb Morphology

A Nahuatl verb is composed of the following elements:

• 0. Optative/Imperative Marker (separate word)

mä = if, should it be that, let it be that tlä = if, should it be that, perhaps, let it be that (more polite than mä) mäca[mö] = if not; let it not be that (from mä + ahmo) tläca[mö] = if not; let it not be that (more polite than mäcamö)

• 1. Negative marker

ah (prefix) or ahmo (separate word) negative marker ("not"). (Incompatible with optative/imperative marker, item 0.)

• 2. Antecessive Prefix (Showing action is or will be finished by the time of speech or the time of the main verb. Compulsory with preterite.)

ö (already)

• 3. Subject pronoun

1 ni / ti (or xi) (I / we) 2 ti (or xi) / am (or an) (or xi) (use xi in optative/imperative) 3 -- / -- (he / she / it / they)

• 4. Object prefix (Specific Benefactive, IO, or DO) (incompatible with 7, below). (See "How to Choose" box after item 12.)

1. nëch / tëch (me / us) 2 mitz / amëch (you) 3 c/qui* / quim (him/her/it/them) *-Use c before or after a vowel, qui elsewhere. (quim >> im as extra DO pronoun if pressed)

• 5. Directional marker (for space or time)

on (thither) huäl (hither)

• 6. Reflexive pronoun

1 no / to (myself / ourselves) 2 & 3 mo (yourself / yourselves / himself / themselves)) remnant ne (used when reflexive verb is used nonreflexively)

• 7. Non-specific Benefactive, IO, or DO pronoun (incompatible with 5, above). (See "How to Choose" box after item 12.)

(This is a dummy object for use with transitive verbs without a stated object..) të (for humans) tla (for non-humans) (Note that tla in this position can also serve as a depersonalizing mock subject for use when the real subject is a place name and hence inherently locative.)

• 8. Verb in Appropriate Stem Form (See below for way to figure out what verb is in which class.)

• 9. Tense & number suffix (See table below.) • 10. Causative ending (added only to intransitive verbs) (Caution: many irregularities in

this formation!)

tia/ltia ("to cause [somebody] to verb")

• 11. Passive/inactive ending

lo or hua or o or ohua or hualo

• 12. Applicative ending (to increase number of objects by one)

(i)(l)ia (to, at, on, for, against [somebody])

How to Choose Object Pronoun

(Relevant to items 4 & 7 above.) The object pronoun prefix always agrees with the rightmost in the following sequencë

Direct Object < Indirect Object < Benefactive Object ("I give it < to you < for her.")

Return to top.

Verbs & Their Forms

A normal Nahuatl verb has nine "time/mood" forms. How they are formed depends on which of four "classes" the verb falls into. Further, the nine time/mood forms are sometimes usefully thought of as derived from three "bases," although these may not be of much interest to a beginner. Table 1 shows the forms for regular verbs. Table two shows the four "irregular" verbs of Nahuatl. Table three explains how to assign a verb to a class. (Remember: In these tables, C = consonant, V = vowel; but Vi, Vt, Vr = verb intransitive, transitive, reflexive.)

Return to top.

Verb Table 1: Bases & Time/Mood Endings (With Examples)

(Letters in paretheses are added only in the plural.)

Verb Class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 cry live bathe eat

BASE 1: chöca- yöli- ältia- cua-

Present -(h) -(h) -(h) -(h)

Quotidian* -:ni(h) -:ni(h) -:ni(h) -:ni(h)

Imperfect -ya(h) -:ya(h) -:ya(h) -:ya(h)

Examples: ti-chöca-h = we cry ti-ältia-:ni = you are in the habit of bathing am-qui-cua-:ya-h = you were eating it *-The quotidian form stresses that an action is usual or customary. Some writers call it the "customary present."

Verb Class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 cry live bathe eat

BASE 2: chöca- yöl- ältih- cuah-

Preterite* -k(eh) -(queh) -(queh) -(queh)

Pluperfect -ca(h) -ca(h) -ca(h) -ca(h)

Admonitive** -h(tin) -(tin) -(tin) -(tin)

Examples: ö-ti-älti-h-queh = we bathed ti-yöl-ca = you had lived mäca qui-cuah-tin = let them not eat it, lest they eat it *-Also called the perfect, the preterite is used for single past events. Note that the use of the prefix o: is compulsory with the preterite. **-The admonitive form is sometimes called the vetative. It is used to warn against something. My sources conflict on whether it is more usually used with mä or mäco. Apparently it contains a negative within it, but is not negated by a separate negative added to it.

Verb Class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 cry live bathe eat

BASE 3 chöca- yöli- ältï- cuä-

Future -z(queh) -z(queh) -z(queh) -z(queh)

Imperative* -(cän) -(cän) -(cän) -(cän)

Conditional -zquiya(h) -zquiya(h) -zquiya(h) -zquiya(h)

Examples: chöca-z-queh = they will cry mä yöli-can = let them live cältï-zqueh = they will bathe him cältï-zquiyah = they would bathe him ö-c-ältï-zquiya = she would have bathed him *-What I have here called imperative is usually called optative. It is used to express the wish that something be done. Note that in the imparative, 2nd person singular and plural subject prefixes become xi-.

Return to top.

Verb Table 2: The Four Irregular Verbs

Note: What is irregular about these verbs is that they do not have complete paradigms based on the same root, but rather mix two different roots together, also using the preterite forms for the present. It is easiest simply to call them irregular and memorize the table.

Letters in paretheses are added only in the plural

Irregular Verbs Dictionary

Form cä/ye huïtza yä/huih huällä/huälhuih

To be To go To come To come BASE 1:

Present sing. cah huïtz yauh huällauh Present pl. . cateh huïtzeh huih huälhuih Imperfect. yeya(h) yäya(h) huälhuiya(h)

BASE 2: . catca- ya huälla- Preterite. -(h) huïtza(h) -h(queh) -h(queh)

BASE 3. ye- yä- huälla- Future. -z(queh) -z(queh) -z(queh)

Return to top.

Verb Table 3: Assigning a Verb to a Class*

(Examples show production of preterite from present.) *-This table has been remarkably robust. So far it has accurately predicted the verb class of every Nahuatl verb I have seen.

1. Closed List of "Exceptions"

Four irregular verbs: cä/ye, huïtza, yä/huih, huällä/huälhuih (See previous table.) päca (päc) = to wash (V2 not V1) töna (tönac) = to be warm; to prosper (V1 not V2) zöma (zömah) = to irritate (V4 not V2)

2. Verbs in -hua and -ya

-hua (Vi) >> 1 ëhua >> ëhuac = he departed -hua (Vtr) >> 2 ëhua >> mëuh = he arose (raised himself) -ya (Vi) >> 1 or 2 as you like

3. Selected Monosyllables

Monosyllables in #Ca# >> V4 Monosyllables in i# >> V1 (and i >> ï) i >> quïc = he drank it

4. Verbs in -o, -tla, and -ca

Co >> V1 (and o >> ö) pano >> panöqueh = they passed temo >> temöc = he descended -tla >> V1 mötla >> quimötlac = he threw stones at him -ca >> V1 chöca >> chöcaqueh = they wept tëca >> motëcac = he lay down

5. Other Verbs

CCV >> V1 itta >> quittaqueh = they saw it ahci >> ahcic = he arrived

VCV >> V2 quïza >> niquïz = I sent out miqui >> mic = she died; miqueh = they died tzacua >> niquitzauc = I covered it nëci >> nëzqueh = they appeared xima >> ninoxin = I shaved myself chiya = nitlachix = I looked mati = quimah = he knew it

VV >> V3 ihtoa >> ihtoh = he spoke, quihtohqueh = they said it

Return to top.

Verb Table 4: "Passive" Endings*

*-I find passives confusing and unpredictable. This table is helpful, but I do not guarantee that it accounts for all cases.

Classes 1 & 2

-o, -ö, ï -:hua transitive in -i, -a -lö intransitive in -i -ïhua, -ohua intransitive in a -ohua

Class 3 -:lö

Class 4 -lö

Irregular verbs:

cah >> yelohua yä >> huïlohua For some verbs -lö optionally alternates with -o.

Note that applying the passive endings always produces a Class-l verb, with past in -c/-queh and future in -z.

Root Consonant Mutations With the Suffix -:hua

cV# >> cöhua mV# >> möhua huV# >> öhua VsV# >> Vxöhua VtzV# >> Vchöhua CsV# >> Cxïhua CtzV# >> Ctzïhua

Usage examples:

The passive, better called "non-active" or "middle-voice," cannot show an agent. When applied to an intransitive verb, it shows a general condition.

ï = Vt1 to drink ïhua = it is drunk teca = Vt1 to lay down tecahua = he is laid out äna Vt2 to capture änalo or äno = he is captured tläza = Vt2 to hurl tläzalo or tläxo = he is thrown itta = Vt1 to see ittalo or itto = you are seen miqui = Vi2 to die miquih = they are dying mico = people are dying

Return to top.

Causatives & Applicatives

Example: quiza = exit (Vi) quix-tia (causative)= remove (cause to exit) (Vt) quix-ti-lia (applicative of causative) = remove (something) from (somebody) (Vtt)

How to Form a Causative: -tia -ltia

Causatives From Intransitive Verbs:

Example: Vb + tia = to make sb Vb [st] -ti# (verb derived from noun) >> -lia -i# >> ïtia Vqui# & Vca# >> Vctia :huV# >> :uhtia :mV# >> :mtia :nV# >> :nVtia zV# >> xtia tV# >> chtia

Causatives From Transitive Verbs:

Passive formed in -lo# >> -ltia Passive formed in -o# or -hua# >> tia

Causatives From All Verbs (optional variant)

-a# >> -altia (less common than above)

Causatives From Irregular Verbs:

cah >> ? yäuh >> huïca (Vt1) = conduct, lead

Causatives from Non-Verbs

N+ti(y)a = to provide somebody with N Adj+tia = to render something Adj

How to Form a Semi-Causative

(Converts Vi to Vt. Not a productive device? but many pairs of verbs conform to this.)

-a# >> -ia# -i# >> -a# -ki# >> -tza# -i# >> -ia# -ti# >> -tla#

How to Form an Applicative: -lia -ia

-ca >> quia (or quilia) -hua >> huia (or huilia) -iya# >> -iyalia -sV# >> xlia -tlV# >> tilia or chtlia -tV# >> chlia -tzV# >> chilia

#Ca# >> #Cälia -Ca# >> -Cilia

Return to top.

Auxiliary & Intentional Verb Suffixes

Table of Auxiliary Suffixes

Singular Verbs, Preterite Stem (Base 2)

verb present past future formula nemi = live -tinemi -tinen(ca) -tinemiz to go about Vb-

ing yauh = go -tiuh

(<<ti+yauh) -tia (<<ti+yah) -tiaz (<<ti+yaz) to be Vb-ing

cah = be -ticah -ticatca -tiez to be Vb-ing (on)oc = lie -toc -toca -toz to lie Vb-ing huetzi = fall -tihuetzi -tihuetz -tihuetziz to Vb quickly

quïza = emerge, pass

-tiquïza -tiquïz -tiquïzaz to pass,

Vb-ing ëhua = rise, depart

-tëhua -tëhuac -tëhuaz to depart, Vb-ing

ihcac = stand -tihcac -ticaca,

-ticaya

-ticaz to stand Vb-ing

huïtz = come -tihuïtz -tihuïtza to come Vb-ing mani = be (spread out)

-timani -timan, -timanca -timaniz to be Vb-ing

Return to top.

Table of Intentional Suffixes

"Coming & Going in order to Vb" Use present stem (Base 1)

Come (Introverse conjugations) Go (Extroverse conjugations) tense sing plural tense sing plural fu -quiuh -quihuih pres/fu -tïuh -tïhuih pres/pret -co -coh pret -to -toh optative -qui -quih optative -h, -ti -tih, tin

Return to top.

Consonant Mutations

Vh always produces a short vowel all final vowels become short

Arranged by Input

ch + ch >> ch (optional) ch + tz >> tz (optional) l + tl >> ll l + y >> ll m# >> n# mC >> nC unless C = m or p n + y >> yy t# >> h# (usually written t anyway) tz + ch >> ch (optional) tz + tz >> tz (optional) uc + c >> cc uc + o >> co uh + m >> mm (optional) uh + o >> o uh + p >> pp (optional) y# >> x# z + ch >> zz (usual) z + l >> zz (usual) z + t >> xt z + tz >> zz (usual) z + x >> zz (usual) z + y >> zz (usual)

Arranged by Output

cc << uc + c ch << ch + ch (optional) ch << tz + ch (optional) co << uc + o h# << t# (usually written t anyway) ll << l + tl ll << l + y mm << uh + m (optional) n# << m# nC << mC (unless C = m or p) o << uh + o pp << uh + p (optional) tz << ch + tz (optional) tz << tz + tz (optional) x# << y#

xt << z + t yy - n + y zz << z + ch (usual) zz << z + l (usual) zz << z + tz (usual) zz << z + x (usual)

zz << z + y (usual)

Return to top.

Summary Table of Nahuatl Numbers

0/5 1/6 2/7 3/8 4/9 prefix forms >> cëm- or cën- öm- or ön- (y)ë(y)(i)- nähui- or näuh- cë = 1 öme = 2 ëyi (= ye)= 3 nähui = 4 mäcuïlli = 5 chicua + 1 = 6 chic + 2 = 7 chicu + 3 = 8 chiuc + 4 = 9 mahtlactli = 10 10 on 1 = 11 10 om 2 = 12 10 om 3 = 13 10 on 4 = 14 caxtölli =15 15 on 1 = 16 15 om 2 = 17 15 om 3 = 18 15 on 4 = 19 cem-pöhualli = 20

20 on 1 = 21 20 om 2 = 22 20 om 3 = 23 20 on 4 = 24

20 om 5 = 25 20 on 6 = 26 20 on 7 = 27 20 on 8 = 28 20 on 9 = 29 20 om 10 = 30 20 om 10 on 1 =

31 20 om 10 om 2 = 32

20 om 10 om 3 = 33

20 om 10 on 4 = 34

20 on 15 = 35 20 on 15 on 1 = 36

20 on 15 om 2 = 37

20 on 15 om 3 = 38

20 on 15 on 4 = 39

öm-pöhualli = 40

40 on 1 = 41 40 om 2 = 42 40 om 3 = 43 40 on 4 = 44

40 om 5 = 45 40 on 6 = 46 40 on 7 = 47 40 on 8 = 48 40 on 9 = 49 40 om 10 = 50 40 om 10 on 1 =

51 40 om 10 om 2 = 52

40 om 10 om 3 = 53

40 om 10 4 = 54

40 on 15 = 55 40 on 15 on 1 = 56

40 on 15 om 2 = 57

40 on 15 om 3 = 58

40 on 15 on 4 = 59

cem-pöhualli. = 20 öm-pöhualli. = 40

yë-pöhualli. = 60 näuh-pöhualli. (or nap-pöhualli). = 80 mäcuïl-pöhualli. = 100 chicua-cem-pöhualli. = 120 chic-öm-pöhualli. = 140 mahtlac-pöhualli. = 200 mahtlac-pöhualli once. = 201 caxtöl-pöhualli. = 300

cem-pöhualli. = 20 = 20^1 cen-tzontli. = 400 = 20^2 cen-xiquipilli. = 8000 = 20^3 cen-pöhual-xiquipilli. = 160,000 = 20^4 cen-tzon-xiquipilli = 3,200,000 = 20^5 ? = 64,000,000 = 20^6

1997 = (näuh-tzontli) + (caxtölli-on-näuh-pöhualli) + (caxtölli-on-öme) (4 four-hundreds) + (15 + 4 twenties) + (15 + 2 ones)

Return to top.

Reference Table of Most Affixes

The following alphabetical table is intended to include all of the affixes in the foregoing tables in a single list. It is divided into prefixes and suffixes (based on which side of the root the affix goes on).

Prefixes

• ah- = negative verb prefix • ahmo- = negative verb prefix • am- = 2nd person plural possessive & subject prefix • amëch- = 2nd person plural object prefix • amo- = 2nd person plural possessive prefix • an- 2nd person plural subject prefix • c- = 3rd person singular object prefix • huäl- = directional prefix ("hither")

• ï- = 3rd person singular possessive prefix • ïm- = 3rd person plural possessive prefix • ïn- = 3rd person plural possessive prefix • m- = 2nd & 3rd person singular & plural reflexive prefix • m- = 2nd person singular possessive prefix • mä- = optative verb marker (= if), normally written as separate word • mäca = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word • mäcamo- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word • mitz- = 2nd person singular object prefix • mo- = 2nd & 3rd person singular & plural reflexive prefix • mo- = 2nd person singular possessive prefix • n- = 1st person singular possessive, reflexive, and subject prefix • na- = reciprocally • ne- = dummy possessive prefix on nouns derives from reflexives • nëch- = 1st person singular object prefix • ni- = 1st person singular subject prefix • no- = 1st person singular possessive & reflexive prefix • ö- = preterite prefix • on- = directional prefix ("thither") • qui- = 3rd person singular object prefix • quim- = 3rd person plural object prefix • quin- = 3rd person plural object prefix • t- = 1st person plural possessive, reflexive, and subject prefix • t- = 2nd person singular subject prefix • të- = non-specific human possessive prefix • tëch- = 1st person plural object prefix • ti- = 1st person plural subject prefix • ti- = 2nd person singular subject prefix • tla- = non-human possessive prefix • tlä- = optative verb marker ("if"), normally written as separate word • tläca- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word • tläcamo- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word • to- = 1st person plural possessive & reflexive prefix • - = 3rd person singular & plural subject prefix

Return to top.

Suffixes

• -a = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -i# • -ahui = non-productive transitivizing suffix • -altia = alternative causative suffix for any very ending in -a# • -c = agentive suffix? used after V • -c = in, at, among • -c = interparticle ligature when the second particle is negative • -c = preterite verb form (V1) • -c(a) = interparticle ligature when the second particle is negative • -ca = pluperfect verb form • -ca = through, by, with, for • -cän = optative plural marker • -cän = in the place/time of • -chöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in VtzV# (The first vowel is

retained before the ch.) • -co = agentive suffix? used after C • -co = "come"; singular present/past intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -co/c = in, at, among • -cöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in cV# • -coh = "come"; plural present/past intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -eh (pl. -ehque) = possessor of (after C; see huah.) • -h = "go"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -h = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tl • -h = present, quotidian, imperfect, & pluperfect verb form plural marker • -h = admonitive verb form (V1) (lost in plural) • -hua = passive suffix (added to Base 2 ending); see lö. • -huän = in the company of, with • -huän = possessed plural suffix • -huah = possessor of (esp. after V; see -eh) • -hualo = passive/inactive verb ending • -hui = possessive singular suffix used after C • -ïcampa = behind • -ïxpan = before, in the presence of • -ia = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -a# or -i# • -ia applicative formant (adds an object); see -lia. Also occurs as misspelling of -iya. • -icpac = on top of, on someone's head, above • -ihtic = inside, in the belly of • -ihua = passive formant; see lö • -ihui = non-productive transitivizing suffix • -ilia = appicative verb ending (adds an object) • -itic See -ihtic

• -ïxco = on the surface of • -lan = next to, in the place of • -lhuia See -lia • -li = absolutive suffix for nouns ending in l • -lia = causative suffix used with denominative verbs in -ti# • -lia applicative (or -lhuia or -ia) • Used to introduce additional oblique object, often benefactive. • -liztli (1) entification, (2) abstraction • -lö (-loh) = passive formant. • -loh = covered with, characterized by; see -yoh • -lotl = -ship, -ness; see yötl • -ltia = causative suffix • -ltia = See -tia. • -meh = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tl • -möhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in mV# • -nähuac = next to, close to, near, within shouting distance of • -ni = quotidian verb form singular (V1 V2) • -nï = quotidian verb form singular (V3 V4) • -o = passive/inactive suffix (added to Base 2 ending in C) • -öhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in huV#; also occurs as

misspelling of -oa. • -oa = non-productive transitivizing suffix; also occurs as misspelling of -ohua. • -oh = covered with, characterized by; see -yoh • -ohua = passive/inactive suffix; see lö • -otl See -yotl • -pampa = account of, for, reason for, through, because of • -pan = in, on for, above, in the time of, in the presence of • -queh = future verb form plural marker • -queh = plural suffix, especially for preterite agentives • -queh = preterite verb form plural marker • -qui = agentive suffix used after C • -qui = "come"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -quih = "come"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -quihuih = "come"; plural future intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -quiuh = "come"; singular future intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -tëhua = to depart Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.") • -tëhuac = departed Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.") • -tëhuaz = will depart Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.") • -tech = joined to, upon, as far as, concerning, beside, next to (general connector in verbal

idioms)

• -ti = "go"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -tic = adjective suffix • -tia = was Vb-ing (ti+yah) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.") • -tia = causative suffix (or -ltia) • N+ti(y)a = to provide sb with N • Adj+tia = to render st Adj • Vb + tia = to make sb Vb [st] • -tiaz = will be Vb-ing (ti+yaz) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.") • -tica = ca = on account of (a person), by means of (a thing), at the place/time of, during. • -ticaca = stood Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.") • -ticah = to be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.") • -ticatca = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.") • -ticaya = stood Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.") • -ticaz = will stand Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.") • -tiez = will be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.") • -tih = "go"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -tih = admonitive verb form plural marker • -tihcac = to stand Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.") • -tihuetz = Vb-ed quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.") • -tihuetzi = to Vb quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.") • -tihuetziz = will Vb quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.") • -tïhuih = "go"; plural present & future intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -tihuïtz = to come Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huïtz "come.") • -tihuïtza = came Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huïtz "come.") • -timan = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.") • -timanca = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.") • -timani = to be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.") • -timaniz = will be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.") • -tin = "go"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -tin = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tli or glottal stop • -tin = admonitive verb form plural marker • -tinemi = to go about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.") • -tinemiz = will go about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.") • -tinen = went about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.") • -tinenca = went about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.") • -tiquïz = passed Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.") • -tiquïza = to pass Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.") • -tiquïzaz = will pass Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.") • -tiuh = to be Vb-ing (ti+yauh) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.") • -tïuh = "go"; singular present & future intentional suffix added to Base 1.

• -tl = common absolutive suffix used for stems ending in V • -tla = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -gi# • -tlah = place of, place abundant in N. • -tlan = next to, under, between, under • -tli = absolutive suffix for nouns ending in C • -to = "go"; singular past intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -toc = to lie Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.") • -toca = lay Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.") • -toh = "go"; plural past intentional suffix added to Base 1. • -toz = will lie Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.") • -tza = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -ki# • -tzälan = between, amidst, in the middle of • -tzïhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in CtzV# (The C is retained

before the tz.) • -tzintlan = below • -uh = possessive singular suffix used after V (except where V is left by dropping -atl or -

itl from absolutive). • -xïhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in CsV# (The C is retained

before the x.) • -xöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in VsV# (The first vowel is

retained before the x.) • -yötl (after z: -zötl, after l: -lötl) = -ship, -ness • -yoh (-oh) = covered with, characterized by • -z = future verb form (V1 V2) (lengthens prior vowel in V3 & V4) • -zquiya (-h) = conditional verb form. • - = optative verb form (V1 V2) • - = possessive suffix used after V or C (alternative) • - = present verb form singular • - = preterite & admonitive verb form (V2 V3 V4) • : = optative verb form (V3 V4)

Return to top.