ACTIVITIES

1. Reread pages 97 to 98 and itemize Napoleon'sreforms under some broad categories, e.g., law.

Beside each item place a "P," if in your opinionthe change was positive, or an "N," if it wasnegative. Compare your categories and ratingswith those of a partner.

2. Do you think Napoleon betrayed the FrenchRevolution when he became emperor? Imaginethat Marat, Robespierre, and Danton bringNapoleon to trial after his defeat at Waterloo.Make up a list of the charges these leaders of theFrench Revolution might bring against him. Howmight he defend his actions?

3. Who was Madame de Stael? Why did she criticizeNapoleon? How did Napoleon respond? Create ashort dialogue between Madame de Stael and theemperor.

4. Do you think governments are justified in usingsome kinds of censorship? Debate the issue ofcensorship with the class and record the pointsother members of the class make, both for andagainst.

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Napoleon and Europe

In the 1800s, as he tried to expand

his empire, Napoleon would wagewar with most of Europe. Britain,with its powerful navy, was one of

Napoleon's greatest enemies. It gave

money and supplies to any countrythat would fight him. In 1805,Napoleon planned to invade Englandwith thousands of troops, but his shipswere spotted and captured by LordNelson before the invasion couldbegin. Losing this battle meant thatNapoleon could never control the seas,which were dominated by England.

THECONTINENTALSYSTEMNapoleon knew that Britain needed totrade with other countries in order toprosper. He tried to stop all its tradewith Europe with his ContinentalSystem. Through this system,

countries in Napoleon's empire (seeFigure 4-10) were forbidden to tradewith Britain or with its colonies, suchas Canada. Any European port thatallowed British ships to dock wasseverely punished. So much legal tradewas cut off that goods became scarceand expensive. Smuggling became soprofitable that private vessels took therisk of "running the blockade."Napoleon's blockade hurt his ownempire as much as it did Britain.

Without control of the seas,Napoleon could never enforce hisContinental System. British shipssmuggled goods into Europe, andEuropean ships had to stay in port,which was had for Europe's business.The British also made it illegal forships from other countries, such asthe United States, to trade withFrance or its empire. As a result, theContinental System helped start awar between Canada and the UnitedStates in 1812 (the War of 1812),which you will read about inChapter 10.

104 CHAPTER 4

Born to govern?'v ¦ -fe*

Napoleon explainshis motives forexpanding the empirein this quote. It isclear that hisambitions weregrand. Do Napoleon'swords indicate thathe was an excessivelycruel person? Howwould you describehis character?

I wanted to rule theworld, and in orderto do this I neededunlimited power... 1wanted to rule the world—who

wouldn't have in my place? Theworld begged me to govern it...

-Napoleon

NORTH \SEA '

POLANDRHINECONFEDER¬ATION ^

AUSTRIAFRANCEBAYOF

BISCAY

BLACK SEA

SPAIN

/ SARDINIA

SICILY |

CONQUERINGEUROPEAs emperor, Napoleon realized thathis power came from his militaryvictories. He would have to continuefighting to stay strong. He knew thatthe other rulers of Europe would tryto prevent him from achieving hisgoals, hut he believed he could defeatany army. Using a combination ofspeed and surprise, he won majorbattles at Ulm, Austerlitz, and Jena,where he defeated the armies ofAustria, Russia, and Prussia, andforced their rulers to come to termswith him. By the time his enemieshad agreed to sign the Treaty of Tilsit,in 1807, Napoleon had gained muchground in Europe.

Figure 4-10 This map shows how Napoleon's Continental System, in thea blockade, cut Europe off from Britain.

Areas barred. ! fromTrhpbrtingI 1 British goods

form of

ATLANTICOCEAN

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 105

StockholmNORWAY

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Russia)

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mediterranean

Figure 4-17 This map showsthe boundaries of Napoleon'sempire in 1807.

THE NEW MAP OFEUROPEAfter the Treaty of Tilsit, much ofEurope was divided into newcountries and provinces. Members ofNapoleon's family were mademonarchs of Italy, Naples, Spain,Sweden, Germany, and Holland.Napoleon demolished the old HolyRoman Empire, which had been inexistence for centuries. Parts of

Germany were made into the newConfederation of the Rhine. NorthernItaly was made into a single state,controlled by France. Napoleon'sministers reorganized much of Polandinto the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.Russia, Austria, and Prussia kepttheir own rulers, but becameNapoleon's allies. In all Europe, only

Great Britain remained independent.Napoleon insisted that all parts of

his empire base their governments andlegal systems on those of France. In thisway, the French Revolution reachedmany other Europeans. Napoleonabolished serfdom, as well as theinherited privileges of aristocrats. Hereplaced old laws with the NapoleonicCode, and encouraged religioustolerance. As a result of Napoleon's

efforts, many features of the old feudalsystem were finally laid to rest.

Figure 4-18 The people of Germany welcomeNapoleon's soldiers.

RUSSIA

Belostok

BISCAY

BLACK SEA

SPAIN

400 km

Added to the Confederation of the Rhine

BBjil Added to French Empire

_ ] Under French administration

JU Small German states outside the Confederationof the Rhine

110 CHAPTER 4

ACTIVITIES

1. What was the purpose of the Continental System?Did it succeed or fail? Imagine that you are asenior advisor to Napoleon. You have been askedto prepare a memo outlining the advantages anddisadvantages of disrupting Britain's trade withEurope. Your memo should examine the impact ofsuch a move from the standpoint of Britain,France, and the rest of Europe.

2. Why do you think Napoleon was a successfulgeneral? List the personal qualities that you thinkgave him an advantage as a military commander.

3. Study the topographic map on page 106 andcreate a three-dimensional model of the area outof modelling clay or a material or your choice. Usepaint to denote water and other natural features.

The Rise of IMationaeismWhat is the German fatherland}Now name at last that mighty land!

Where're sounds the German tongue

Where're its hymns to God are sung!

That is the land,

Brave German, that thy Fatherland ...

-GERMAN NATIONALISTIC SONG

When Napoleon's soldiers of

the French Revolutiondefeated the great empiresof Europe, many of the

people he "conquered" were happy.They loved the ideals of the revolution:liberty, equality, and fraternity. Theyadmired how the people of France hadcompletely remade their country—they had thrown out a tyrant, LouisXVI. Hated aristocrats and landownershad been killed or driven out of France.The Declaration of the Rights of Manand the Citizen had given people morefreedom, justice, and democracy thanany other bill of rights in Europeanhistory. The French were justly proudof their country and of theiraccomplishments. They were a realnation, a people who shared the samelanguage, culture, history, and ethnicbackground.

This idea of a people creating anation—called nationalism—was

appealing to many people. In theAustrian Empire, for example, peoplespoke many languages and belongedto many cultures. Many resented theirAustrian rulers and took the new ideaof nationalism very personally. Theywanted "nations" of their own people,where their own languages andcustoms would be the norm.

Napoleon used these feelings ofnationalism to help him defeat theAustrian Empire, one of his principalenemies. Promising that he wouldhelp people who shared language andculture to create new nations, he

worked to destroy the Austrian Empirefrom within. Of course, Napoleonalways placed France's interests first.

Nationalism was a new conceptwhen it appeared. People in theMiddle Ages, for example, did nothave nationalistic feelings. Instead,they would have identified with theirchurch and their social class. Whennationalism emerged, it was a forcethat could not be stopped. It was animportant concept in the nineteenthcentury, and it is an important ideatoday. Unfortunately, nationalismthat is too strong can become a kindof racism. Powerful feelings ofnationalism have helped to bringabout many wars, including World

memo: an official note orreport that communicatesinformation, usually in abusiness setting

nationalism: the beliefthat one's own country isthe best country

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 111

112 CHAPTER 4

Figure 4-20 This picture, bythe Spanish artist Goya,shows some of the horrors ofthe French invasion of Spain.Goya was one of the firstartists to expose cruelty andinhumanity through his art.

War I and World War II in thetwentieth century. Extremenationalism in Germany resulted inracial and religious persecution of theJewish people. Today, ethnic"cleansing" in Bosnia is also the resultof nationalism. Some people feel thatnationalism is a destructive force.

LOSS IN SPAINNapoleon's success could not lastforever. Forces such as nationalism,

which he had helped to unleash,would eventually work against him.The new French royalty, made up ofmembers of Napoleon's own family,was not accepted in the countrieswhere they were sent to rule.

Disillusioned Europeans began toview Napoleon as a tyrant, and asmerely replacing one form of bad

Figure 4-19 After World War II, nationalismplayed a role in fostering independencemovements. As a result, many new independentnations were created. Right, Tunisia gainedindependence in 1952 after nationalists fought toend almost a century of French rule. Below, Serbiafought for its independence from the formerYugoslavia for many years.

Figure 4-21 The "Maid ofSaragossa" was famous inthe last century for hercourage and leadership. Hername was "Augustina" andshe was about twenty-twowhen the French attackedher native city of Saragossa,Spain. Like many Spanishwomen, she was a memberof the guerrilla army thatresisted the invaders. WhenAugustina found that all thegunners on a section of wallhad been killed, and that theenemy was about to breakinto the city, she leapt overthe bodies of the dead andbegan firing the guns herself.Jumping on top of a cannon,she called her comrades tothe wall, vowing that shewould not leave alive untilthe siege was over. Herpatriotism served as anexample to other people inSpain. Enraged by thebrutality of Napoleon'stroops, they continued theirrebellion until France hadbeen defeated.

government for another. Resentment

was particularly strong in Spain, acountry where Napoleon's troops

proved to be brutal conquerors, ratherthan friendly saviours.

Spain had once had a mightyempire, but by the early nineteenthcentury it was no longer powerful.

The Spanish rulers had helpedNapoleon when his armies attackedPortugal, Britain's trading partner, butthe Spanish people did not acceptNapoleon.

When Napoleon replaced theSpanish king with his brother Jerome,

in 1808, the Spanish people rebelled.In spite of cruel punishments andterror tactics, the Spanish refused tosurrender their homeland. Theyfought the French using guerrillawarfare, not the traditional pitchedbattles in which Napoleon excelled.When the British sent troops—accompanied by the Duke ofWellington—to help the Spanish, theFrench found themselves fighting afive-year war that they could not win,French morale plummeted, andNapoleon knew he had lost manysoldiers.

guerrilla warfare: warfarethat is loosely organized,including volunteersoldiers, surprise raids,etc.

patriotism: pride in one'scountry

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 113

THE RUSSIANCAMPAIGNNapoleon's ambitions caused him tooverreach himself and to lose theempire he had built. The disastrouswar with Spain did not stop him fromfighting elsewhere. Britain remainedhis enemy, and some countries stillremained outside the ContinentalSystem (see page 104).

One of France's allies, Russia, hadTsar: the Russian monarch . i • i

before the Russian at first agreed to stop trade withRevolution of 1917 Britain. However, the Tsar did not

trust Napoleon, and changed hismind. Russia refused to follow thepolicies of the French, causingNapoleon to declare war. Although heknew that fighting on Russianterritory would be difficult, Napoleondecided that Russia could be defeatedif the Russian army could be drawninto a decisive battle. And so it wasthat, in 1812, Napoleon assembledthe largest army in Europe at thattime (about 600 000 soldiers, withreinforcements) and led it towardsRussia.

Like most of Napoleon's armies,his fighting force was made up ofmany different nationalities-—French,Dutch, Germans, Poles, and Italians.To ensure their loyalty, Napoleonpromised the soldiers of eachnationality that they would be able toform their own countries after thewar. He knew that nationalism wasbecoming a powerful force and usedthat knowledge skilfully. Napoleonalso continued to motivate his troopswith ideas about freedom andequality. Soldiers believed theemperor because many still thoughtof themselves as part of a greatrevolution in Europe. As fighters inthis revolution, they would make lifebetter for everyone—once the wars

were over.

Napoleon hoped that he would beable to trap the Russian army and

114 CHAPTER 41 I

destroy it, thereby forcing the Tsar tosurrender. However, the vast land

mass of Russia made it almostimpossible for him to succeed. Inbloody battles at Smolensk and atBorodino, he defeated the Russians,but the Tsar refused to surrender.Weakened, but still able to fight, theRussians retreated, burning food andshelters as they did so. SinceNapoleon's army lived off the landand were far from their bases, theRussian strategy proved to beeffective and deadly.

Arrival in MoscowWhen Napoleon arrived in Moscowwith his army, he hoped that theRussians would give up. Instead, thecity was deserted. There were noRussians to surrender. After theRussians set fire to their own city, theFrench realized that their situationwas hopeless. The Russians had notbeen victorious, but they had foughtintelligently. Napoleon was baffled bysuch fierce national resistance. InOctober, he ordered his army toretreat, hoping to return to friendlierterritory before the terrible Russianwinter began.

However, Napoleon's troops hadbeen lured too far. The long retreatfrom Moscow destroyed the GrandArmee. Napoleon had lost hisconfidence. The soldiers, like robbers,carried away any loot they could find,even forcing peasants to carry thetreasures which had been stolen.Later, soldiers would dump theirwounded comrades out of carts, andleave them to die along the route. TheFrench had to feed on their own deadhorses for food—so long as the meatdid not freeze, because then it couldno longer be cut.

In bitter winter weather,thousands of soldiers froze to deathon the road. The Russians attackedthe retreating Grand Armee wheneverthey could. Cossacks—fierce riders

The End of the Grand Armee

After the experience in Russia,the Grande Armee was ashadow of its former self. Oneobserver described the retreatingarmy in the excerpt that follows.

[T]hey saw in Napoleon's wake a mob oftattered ghosts draped in women's cloaks, oddpieces of carpet, or great coats burned full of

holes, their feet wrapped in all kinds of rags, theywere struck with consternation. They stared in horror as

those skeletons of soldiers went by, their gaunt, gray facescovered with disfiguring beards, without weapons,shameless, marching out of step, with lowered heads, inabsolute silence, like a gang of convicts.

Figure 4-22 This illustration shows soldiers from Napoleon's army as they retreated throughRussia, starving, demoralized, and cold. Why do you think the soldiers would not simply surrenderto the Russians?

from the Russian region of Ukraine—raided at will. Straggling through thebattlefield of Borodino, where theyhad fought a few weeks before, thesoldiers saw 30 000 corpses, stillunburied and scattered across thelandscape.

As the Russian winter deepened,many more soldiers died of exposureand cold. Others deserted, hoping toreturn to their homes in various parts

of Europe. But the Russians continuedtheir attacks, and the French had tofight back. In the end, only 9000 outof the original 600 000 soldiers wereleft to fight. In December, when theGrand Armee had virtually ceased toexist, Napoleon abandoned it andreturned to Paris. He had no use for adefeated army. The Russian campaignwas a disaster from which theemperor would never recover.

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 115

- -J _ _ O __ ^ "Xv.Russia

Logistics is the science ofmoving people andsupplies. Napoleon wasconsidered a genius when itcame to logistics. Tounderstand the logistics ofNapoleon's invasion ofRussia, use the followinginformation, along with yourcalculation of the distancethe army had to travel toMoscow (see Figure 4-23), todetermine the quantities ofsupplies that would beneeded for the Russiancampaign. Remember thatafter you calculate thedistance, you must determinehow many days the invasionwould take.

Table 4-1 The Grand Armee: Numbers

Soldiers (before reinforcements) 449 000

Horses (approximate) 330 000

Civilian drivers and other civilians 100 000

Wagons 2 000

Cannons 1 146

Table 4-2 The Grand Armee: Logistics of Russian Campaign

Daily supplies required

for 250 soldiers 4 wagon-loads* of food and other supplies*

for 250 horses 100 wagon-loads of fodder

for ammunition 60 000 cannon-balls (1 battle)

2 000 000 musket cartridges (1 battle)

* A large wagon held about 1000 kilograms.** A single military bakery could bake 60 000 loaves of bread a day.

Figure 4-23 This map shows the route the French army took when it invaded Russia in 1812, Itretreated along the same route. Perhaps this seems like a small distance, but it was not. The armycould march no more than 20 kilometres a day. To gain a better idea of the distance involved,measure the distance from the Rhine River to Moscow, then calculate the actual distance usingthe map scale. Now estimate the length of time it would take to reach Moscow,

116 CHAPTER 4