natural vegetation master file

7/31/2019 Natural Vegetation Master File

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NATURAL VEGETATIONGEOGRAPHY ELECTIVE 2192

SIGLAP SECONDARY SCHOOLGo forth with wisdom and courage

Name:________________________ Class:______________ Natural VegetationSyllabus 2008

1. Types of Natural Vegetation (distribution and characteristics) Tropical rainforests and mangroves Tropical monsoon forests Coniferous forests

2. Adaptation of the Natural Vegetation to the Environment (particularly climate) Diversity of plant species Structure of the forest Density Leaves Flowers and fruits Roots Bark

3. Uses of Forests Habitat (humans, flora and fauna) Water catchment Green Lungs of the Earth Timber Medical

4. Case Study of Deforestation in a Tropical Rainforest Causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest (agriculture, logging, forest fires,urbanisation, housing, industrial activities and transport)

Problems caused by deforestationo Loss of habitat and extinction of specieso Changes in the nutrient cycleo Changes in water quality (pH level and sediment level)o Air pollution (haze)

Management of tropical rainforestso Sustainable management (controlled logging, afforestation and conservation)

1. Types of Natural Vegetation (distribution and characteristics)

Compiled by Mdm Rosmiyati Bustami 2008 TURN OVER 1


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Natural vegetation refers to plants that grow naturally in a place with little or nohuman interference.

It plays an important role in a forest ecosystem by providing food and shelter for the animals and native people that live in the forest.

TropicalRainforest

TropicalMonsoon

Forest

TropicalMangrove

Forest

Coniferousforest

Distribution -Found in placesthat experience atropicalequatorialclimate.

-Between 10 Nand S of theequator

-Mainly locatedin the AmazonBasin in SouthAmerica, theCongo Basin in

Africa & parts of Southeast Asia.

-Found in theTropics.

-Between 10and 25N and Sof Equator.

-Located inSouth Asia,Southeast Asia,Southern China& Northern

Australia.

-Found mainlyin areasexperiencingtropicalclimate, alongsheltered

coastal regionsand placeswhere riversconstantlydeposit clayand silt.

-Between23.5N and S of Equator.

-Mainlyfound in

places thatexperiencecooltemperate

continentalclimate.-Between60N and70N of theEquator.-Mainlylocated inAlaska,

NorthernCanada,

NorthernUSA etc.

ClimateCharacteristics

-Hightemperature(27 C)-High rainfall(1 500mm)

-Hightemperature( 26C )-High rainfall(1 500mm)-distinct wetand dry season

- Hightemperature of (26C )

- Annualrainfall of 3000mm

- experiencesseasons-temp rangefrom -40 Cto 21 C- low amountof

precipitation,usually in theform of snow,300mm to635mm in ayear

2. Adaptation of the Natural Vegetation to the Environment (particularly climate)



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TRF TMF MangroveForest

ConiferousForest

Diversityof plantspecies

- the high tempand rainfallthroughout theyear enables it tosupport a largevariety of plants- a wide diversityof plant species- 750 species of trees and 1 500species of other

plants in 1 hectare

- about 200species in 1hectare- less speciescompared totropicalrainforest dueto inconsistentrainfall

- four mainspecies whichare known ashalophytes- Avicennia,Sonneratia,

Rhizophora, Bruguiera- dense &luxuriant- adapted tolive in areasthat were

highly saltconcentrated( halophytes )

-few species asnot many treescan adapt tothe low tempandprecipitationeg spruce pineand fir usefulresources for makingfurnitures

-the trees growin pure stands

Structureof theforest

-5 vertical layers-Emergent (30m-50m)Tall, thick andstraight trunks.-Canopyumbrella shape

interlockingcrowns

presence of lianas ,epiphytesand parasitic

plants(15m-30m)-Understoreyoval shapedcrowns , filteringsource of lightfrom crowns(6m to 15m)- Shrub Layers tree saplings andwoody trees( 6m high)-Undergrowth

presence of fungi ,mosses ( 5m and

below

- 3 verticallayers

( 30m-50m)-Canopy more spread

out than thosein tropicalrainforest

( 15m -30m)-Understoreyconsists of shorter treesabout 15m inheight-Undergrowth

bamboothickets andgrasses growdensely hereduring the wetseason but areless denseduring dryseason

- 3 horizontallayers- coastal zone

needle likeroots ,

breathing rootstake in oxygen

expose to highsaltconcentration- Middle zone

prop roots tosupport itself tomuddy soils- Inland zones Bruguiera

plants

- no distinctlayers- generallyuniform inheight, about20m to 30m- trees grow

close together - littleundergrowthdue to lowamount of sunlightreceived in thetemperateregion and thelow soilnutrient levelbecause theneedle likeleaves do notdecomposeeasily to formhumus tosupplynutrients tothe soil.

Density -Due to hightemperature and

-canopys werenot

- dense andluxuriant due

- Not densedue to low



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rainfall , there ish igh densityinterlocking treestrees which growvery closely toeach other

interlocking-more sunlightis able to filterthrough thegaps in thecanopy ,resulting indenseundergrowth.-during wetseason , tmf isdense-during dryseason , tmf issparse

to high tempand rainfall-formcontinuouscanopy as theycompete forsunlight-little sunlightfilters thru thecanopy to theground,resulting insparseundergrowth.

temperatureand rainfalllimited growthof vegetation

Leaves -Broad and wide toabsorb max .sunlight-due to constanthigh rainfallthroughout theyear, the leavesare evergreen andshed at differenttiming- waxy with drip

tips to allowrainwater to drainoff easily , thus

preventing harmful bacteria fromgrowing on them,which protect the

plants fromdiseases as hightemp and rainfallpromote rapidgrowth of bacteria.

- presence of drip tips drainsoff water during wetseason to

prevent growthof harmful

bacteria- leaves weredeciduous,drop leaves

during the dryseason tominimize lossof water throughtranspiration.

-evergreen asthere are noseasonalchanges intemp andrainfall in thetropicalclimate .- With highrainfallthroughout

the year ,leaves are

broad and driptips to allowwater to flowoff the leavesquickly.-Due to hightemp, leavesare thick andleathery toreduce water loss throughtranspiration-to enable

trees to grow insalt water,some trees aresalt secretorsie. secreteexcess salts ontheir leaveswhich then areremoved by

- evergreen anddont droptheir leaves inautumn- retain leavesso thatphotosynthesiscan take placewhenevertemperaturerises above 6

C- needle-likewith smallsurface area toreduce waterloss due totranspiration- store water for use in winterwhen theground isfrozen



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wind or rain egAvicennia.But some treesareultrafiltratorsie, absorb saltand removedthe excess salt

by storing it inold leaves ,which then falloff egBruguiera,Rhizophoraand Sonneratia

Flowersand fruits

-temp andrainfall is highthroughout theyear , so trf

produce flowersand high variety of sweet-smellingfruits all year round.

-since the still airbelow the canopylayer does notallow pollinationto be carried outby wind, flowersare brightlycolored to attractsinsects for

pollination andanimals for seeddispersals.

- fewer invarieties of flowers andfruits- bear fruitsand flowers indry seasons

-Flowers aregenerallycolourful toattract insectsto pollinate egred lanternshape flowersattractive

bruguiera

-Some fruitsare buoyant sothat wavesand currentscan carrythem away egAvicennia-Some fruitsare elongatedwith sharp tipsto anchor insoft muddysoil egRhizophora

- trees bear female andmale cones- female cones

produce seeds- male cones

produce pollen- cones can bedispersed by

wind oranimals afterpollination

Roots -high temp andrainfall all yearround cause theleaf litter todecompose andform humusrapidly, supplyingnutrients to thetopsoil.

- since rainfallis not regularthroughoutthe year, deeptapped rootsreach deepundergroundfor water during dry

-Have unusualroots to adaptto the soft,waterloggedsoil whichlacks oxygen.-Aerial rootsexposed tooxygen eg

- shallow,spreading rootsto enable treesto absorb water easily from soilsurface whensnow melts



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-hence, roots areshallow andspreading as theydo not need toreach deep intothe soil for waterand nutrients.- buttress roots (of some tall trees)to support weightof heavy treesthat reaches 30mto 50m.

seasons Avicennia andSonneratia- Prop rootsadapted to

anchorthemselves tomuddy soil egRhizophora- Kneed rootsadapted for supportingthemselves onsoft muddysoil egBruguiera

Bark - thin and smooth branches becauseit does not needprotection againstcold or dryconditions- branches arefound at theuppermost one-third of the trunksto get as much

sunlight aspossible

- thick &coarse to protects thetrunk from heatand drynessduring the dryseason- withstandextreme heatfrom natural -forest fires

- branchesfound aroundmiddle of trunks as treesgrow lessdense thanTRF

- Thick barks towithstand coldtemperature - flexible

branches allowfallen slow toslip off to thegrounds

preventsaccumulationof snow that

may cause the branch to break -conical shapesof trees help towithstandstrong windsas the treessway withwind ratherthan toppleover.

3. Uses of Forests



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Habitat(humans,flora andfauna)

-approximately 60 million people lives in the tropical rainforests of South America, Southeast Asia and Africa.-Biodiversity is maintained , trees and fruits acts as homes to the animals- A natural homes to all types of habitateg: grizzly bears that were found in corniferous forest

Recreation -ecotourism has increased where activities like hiking and camping arecarried out.-ecotourism promotes activities which do not harm the env. And promoteecofriendly behaviour eg no-littering etc-eg Taman Negara is promoted as aecotourism destination.-Forest remain protected while income can be gain.

Water

Catchment-Quantity of Water

- serves as a catchment area to capture precipitation such as rain

- trees acts as an interception filter off bacteria , retain clean water back to the earth- rainwater is retain and collected

eg; Singapore Bukit timah Nature Reserve

Quality of water

Forestedarea

-when it rains in the forest, the soil layers help to filter theimpurities found in the rainwater by trapping them

between the pore spaces. Then the rainwater seepsunderground forming groundwater.-The veg cover intercepts the rain and reduces the speed of rainwater on the ground. This prevents soil particles from

being washed into the river.-Thus, the water collected in the river is of better qualityas it contains few soil particles and impurities.

Urban area -An urban area is usually covered with concrete surfacesthat do not allow water to seep through.More rainwater flows quickly over the concrete surfaces and carries alongwith it any impurities found on the ground surface.-Most of the rainwater flows into the drains and canals.

-As the water in the drains and canals contain moreimpurities, the quality of water is poorer.

GreenLungs of the Earth

-Replenish the oxygen supply-Remove carbon dioxide from the air -Reduce amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents globaltemperatures from rising.-Helps to regulate the temperature of the Earth.

Maintainingnutrients insoil

-Leaves die and falls to the ground and collects as leaf litter -Decomposition of leaf litter releases nutrients into the soil-Tree roots hold the soil particle and prevents soil erosion

-Nutrients are maintained in the soil and absorbed by treesTimber -Timber is a rich resource.



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-Used to manufacture furniture and paper, as well as construct buildings.-E.g. chengal and meranti trees used to manufacture furniture.-Rattan in tropical rainforests is used to make furniture and baskets.

Fuel andcharcoal

-In many less developed countries people still gather wood from forestsfor cooking and heating.-Charcoal is another source of fuel that can be obtained from forests.-Forests also provide food, medicines and chemicals.

Medical -forest is also a source for medicine- trees with medicinal values-Potential curers for AIDS ( acquired immune deficiency syndrome )- Another drug quinine able to treat malaria

Preventing

flood andcoast

-Protecting coasts - mangrove forests protect coastal areas from storms

and strong waves.-Forests prevent floods by reducing the likelihood of the river fromoverflowing

Naturaltreatment of waste water

-roots of mangrove trees help to trap waste materials and filter the water before it flows to the sea.-The soil in mangrove forests contain bacteria that can break down the

biodegradable wastes and convert them into nutrients for the mangroves.

4. Case Study of Deforestation in a Tropical Rainforest

Causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest

Deforestation-The permanent clearing and destruction of forests is known as deforestation.-This reduction in the area covered by forests is due to human activities.

Geography of Kalimantan-Kalimantan occupies two-thirds of the island of Borneo.- The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak occupy the northeastern portion of Borneo.- Kalimantan is about 4 times the size of Singapore.- Rapid rate of deforestation for the last 25 years.

- Between 2000 and 2002, deforestation rose to 12 000 square kilometres ayear in Kalimantan.

Agriculture -Population increase.-Increase in agricultural activities.-Increase in demand of land.-Small farms are built to grow crops such as rice, vegetables, coffeeand cocoa.

-To earn more profit.-E.g. Kalimantan, 10 000 km cleared for oil palm plantation.



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Settlement -As population increases in Kalimantan, more land is cleared for housing.-More people are moving to urban settlement such as towns and citiesto live and work.- This expansion is known as urbanisation.Eg Balikpapan in East Kalimantan is a town that is affected byurbanisation.

Logging -Trees cut down and sold as timber.-E.g. West Kalimantan, 1 656 km of forest to be lost annually.-Rapid deforestation is worsened by illegal logging.

Forest Fires -Caused destruction of more than 23 750 km in Kalimantan.-Most forest fires are deliberately set by people.

-Clear forests for oil palm plantation.-Cheaper than employing laborers to clear the forests.-Vegetation debris on the forest floor such as tree stumps, branches,twigs and leaves catch fire easily during dry season.

Urbanization -In Kalimantan, the increase in population is due to more jobopportunities for employment in urban areas.-Rainforest cleared for the expansion of towns and cities.-One of the largest cities in Kalimantan, Balikpapan, is a businesscentre for many national and international companies dealing withlogging, mining and oil extraction.-The growth of the city has reduced Sungei Wain Rainforest by a thirdfrom 98.7 km to about 35 km within a year, 1997-1998.

Industrialactivities

-Forests are cleared to support industries eg logging-Forests are rich in natural resources such as wood and minerals.-Heavy logging has resulted in West Kalimantan loosing an average of 1 656 square kilometers of forest each year.

-Mining are found underneath the Kalimantan rainforests-Vegetations must be clear in order to dig up the minerals.-Mining companies has caused loose soil to wash away into a nearbyriver.-Cause poisoning of animals as the use of chemicals are washed intorivers and lakes.-E.g. In Kalimantan, one mining company has been awarded a contractto mine 1290 km of the rain forests.

Transport-Transport networks like road and railways are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan.e.g. Trans-Kalimantan Highway, 230 km long cuts through rainforests& improve accessibility between two cites Banjarmasin andBalikpapan.

-The transport network allow access to previously remote forestedareas in Kalimantan.



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-This has made it easier for people to destroy more areas of therainforest.

Problems caused by deforestation

Loss of habitat andextinction of species

-Kalimantan rainforests are home to more than 380 bird speciesand 10 000 plant species, including 3000 trees and 2000 varietiesof orchids.-Deforestation caused the animals to lose their home.-Biodiversity of plants and animals in Kalimantan rainforests isreduced leading to extinction of species.-e.g. Proboscis monkey.-Reduction of biomass reduces the ability of the Kalimantan

rainforests to support various plants and animals.

Changes in thenutrient cycle

-Result in loss of leaf litter -Soils are leached due to the absence of roots-Soil becomes infertile and cannot support vegetation growth-In Kalimantan, very little of the original vegetation could bereplaced back.

Changes in water quality (pH level

and sediment level)

-Clearings of rainforests caused soil to be eroded and washedaway by rain into the nearby rivers.

-Sediment level of the rivers increased and become muddy.-Increased amount of sediment changes pH level, making thewater acidic (pH value less then 7).-Increased acidity affects the aquatic life in the rivers of theKalimantan rainforests.

Changes inquantity of water

-When trees are removed, less transpiration takes place.-Cloud formation is reduced and there is low rainfall.-Flood could also be triggered by deforestation.

Air pollution (haze) -Burning of trees and other plants caused dust and smoke torelease into the air.-Huge forest fires can cause dust and smoke to be suspended inthe air for sometime, resulting in the phenomenon of haze inother areas.-E.g. Since 1990, in SEA, widespread burning of rainforests inSumatra and Kalimantan. Strong winds have blown smoke anddust particles from forests to nearby countries.-Many people in the region suffered from health problems-e.g. eye, nose and throat irritations, coughs, headaches and lunginfections.

-Affected tourism industry in the SEA region.-e.g. Flights cancelled due to poor visibility.



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Management of tropical rainforests

Controlled logging -To minimize damage in rainforests that are being logged.-Logging allowed but controlled-Measures taken:

-Law enforcement-Education-Research programs

-Offences such as illegal logging will face severe penalties suchas fines and imprisonment.-MOF arranged education and research programs for timber companies to reduce the extent of damage.-E.g. selective cutting

-a sustainable method of logging forests-only commercially valuable trees are logged-non-valuable trees retained

-Much of the forest areas remain undisturbed.-Unlike clear cutting, all trees are logged.-Resulting in wastage and great damage.-Selective cutting enabled forests to regenerate and minimize soilerosion.

Problems-However, it is hard to monitor logging and detect illegal logging.

-Due to lack of manpower and the remoteness of forested areas.-A significant variety of plant species could be damaged.-E.g. One selected tree is logged; the other may topple due tolianas.

Afforestation -Planting of trees on areas that were originally not covered withforests.-Afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands that had beenabandoned by farmers.-MOF has set out to restore 900 000 hectares of forests annuallyin Kalimantan.-Involves local people and timber companies.-Timber companies must pay reforestation fees to fund the cost of replanting trees.-Teak trees are commonly planted.-It is commercially valuable timber species that grows well inrainforests.-It is fast growing and takes about 5 years instead of 20 years.-Teak can restore forests quickly.-E.g. With active participation, East Kalimantan has significantrestorations of forests.

Problems



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Conservation -Conservation is careful use of resources, such as forests, to protect them from destruction.-Protects rainforests in Kalimantan.-Set aside as nature reserves where activities do not damage theforests.-Ecotourism are allowed and encouraged.-Logging is not allowed in nature reserves.-E.g. Betung Kerihun Nature Reserve set up in 1992.

-Largest nature reserve in West Kalimantan-Total area of 8000 km.-Home to a diverse range of animals-Extends into Brunei and Malaysia.

Problems-However, illegal logging activities could still be detected.-This is due to the vastness of the nature reserve and theremoteness of the logging sites. Also, due to the lack of manpower.

Controlling forestfires

Problems


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