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CS 208 989

Language Aits Guide 9-12.Georgia State Dept. of Education, Atlanta. Office ofInstructional Services.84150p.; For the Language I% is Guide K-8, see CS 208988.Guides - Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.Check Lists; *Evaluation Methods; *IntegratedActivities; *Integrated Curriculum; *Language Arts;Reading Comprehension; *Reading Skills; SecondaryEducation; Student Evaluation; Study Skills; TeacherEvaluation; Teacher Role; Vocabulary Development;*Writing Skills

ABSTRACTIntended for use by curriculum specialists,

administrators, resource teachers, classroom teachers, and teachersof special reading programs, this guide for language arts in grades 9through 12 offers general suggestions and specific activities forintegrating the language arts. Skill areas covered include (1)

imagining, (2) describing, (3) telling, (4) explaining, (5)persuading, (6) researching, (7) interpreting, (8) socialinteracting, (9) reading comprehension, (10) content area reading,(11) vocabulary development, (12) assessing print material, (13)functional reading skills, and (14) study skills. The numerousappendixes include a list of basic skills test reading indicators, alearning environment checklist, a silent reading checklist, areadability graph, directions for preparing a cloze procedure,standards for basic skills writing programs, standards for effectiveoral communication programs, guidelines for minimal speaking andlistening competencies, eighth grade criteria referenced testobjectives in reading, a list of essential skills in language artsfor Georgia schools, and a self-evaluation checklist for classroomteachers. (HOD)

**********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the beet that can be mady

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I IN111..1 .ER1(., . A. Moughont

,,Acts. 4,41.v.

'iv 'p" " ""% I"" TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESNit INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

Georgia Department of Education

Georgia Department of Education. 1984

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ForewordThe language arts curriculum in Georgia's schools should ensurethat each student obtains the listening, speaking, reading andwriting skills necessary to function effectively. The curriculumshould integrate various areas of the language arts discipline andavoid the fragmentation that can result when instruct ion focuseson isolated skill development. It should accommodate eachstudent's individual needs, abilities and learning rate.

As students master the concepts and skills of language arts,opportunities and encouragement for more advanced study willhelp them become independent, lifelong learners.

Charles McDanielState Superintendent of Schools

AcknowledgmentsThe Office of Instructional Services, Division of CurriculumServices, gratefully acknowledges the time, efforts and energiesof the many persons responsible for the writing of this guide. Thiswork could not have been achieved without the services renderedby the reading, oral and written communication committeemembers. These committees were composed of classroom andresource teachers, system level coordinators, graduate studentsand university professors representing various geographical areasof the state.

To these educators and to the state language arts staff memberswho were instrumental in the development and production of thisdocument, we extend our appreciation.

Advisory Committee

Matt ie EleyCharles MasonVirginia MickishCarol O'NealRobert ProbstPatricia StewartRaymon Veal

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Writing Committee

Alice AdamsRobert BrownRebecca CooperLynn CrovattMaureen DeLoachCharles HackerBill HammondCherry HorneSally HudsonGale Hu lmeDan KirbyLanie La BlancTom LinerEd MerrymanRobert ProbstDon RubinEunice SimsRaymon VealDan Ward

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PrefaceAn individual must be able to communicate to function effectively.Those who cannot adequately give and receive information arehampered in every aspect of their daily lives. Providing instruc-tion in reading and writing and in speaking and listening hasbeen a role of the public school since Its beginning. The LanguageArts Guide, which addresses the areas of reading and oral andwritten communication, will help school systems carry out thiscritical task. The importance placed on these abilities arereflected in Georgia's program of statewide assessment and inthe U.S. Department of Education's Basic Skill's Initiative.

The Language Arts Guide provides general suggestions andspecific activities for developing and improving instructionalprograms in the fundamental communication skills. It does notreplace or displace local curriculum development. Adaptationand thorough development remain the province and responsibil-ity of local school system personnel, those teachers, supervisorsand administrators most familiar with the specific needs of thechildren within their classrooms.

Lucille G. JordanAssociate SuperintendentOffice of Instructional Services

R. Scott BradshawDirectorDivision of Curriculum Services

ContentsIntroduction

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Philosophy7

Questions and Answers for Supervisors9

Questions and Answers for Teachers 11

Oral and Written CommunicationIntroduction to the Model 13

Imaging21

Describing26

Telling31

Explaining37

Persuading42

Researching47

Interpreting53

Social Interacting (Ritualizing)58

ReadingReading Comprehension in the High School 65

Teaching Reading in the Content Areas 67

Building Bridges to Reading in the Content Areas 69

Assessing Print Material71

Levels of Reading Comprehension73

Vocabulary Development79

Functional Reading Skills82

Study Skills86

AppendicesAppendix A Evaluating Speaking and Listening Skills 93

Appendix B Learning Environment Checklist 111

Appendix C Self-evaluation Checklist for Classroom Teachers 113

Appendix D A Quick Checklist for Learning Centers 115

Appendix E Learning Style Indicator 117

Appendix F Silent Reading Checklist 119

Appendix G Survey of Vocabulary Skills 121

Appendix H Readability Graph 123

Appendix I Cloze Procedure125

Appendix J Eighth Grade Criteria-referenced Test Ubjectives in Reading 127

Appendix K Basic Skills Tests Reading Indicators 129

Appendix L Language Arts Essential Skills for Georgia Schools 131

Appendix M Standards for Basic Skills Writing Programs 141

Appendix N Standards for Effective Oral Communication Programs 143

Appendix 0 Guidelines for Minimal Speaking and Listening Competencies 147

Appendix F Instructional Resources 155

Bibliography157

Resources161

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IntroductionIntegrating instruction in the language arts means teachingspecific skills in such a way that they reinforce each other. Theskills listed under "Reading".and the skills listed under "Oraland Written Communication" should build developmentally uponeach other. The sample activities listed in each section illustrateways. in which language arts iritruction can be integrated, Theseactivities provide an alternative to the teaching of isolated skills.Fur hermore, the examples provide an opportunity to applythose skills in practical situations.

This method of instruction is intended to encourage greaterstudent unde standing and use of acquired skills through anorganized, supportive system of instruction. A student can learnto read by writing, listening and speaking; the creative teacherwill find ways which allow this kind of exploration to occur.

PhilosophyThe communicative arts listening, speaking,reading and writing are basic to our humanity.By mastering them we gain knowledge of our-selves, 'arid we acquire the accumulated know-ledge of our civilization.

Teaching the communicative arts is a complexand difficult task. Without a coherent frameworkfor constructing curricula, the efforts of even thebest teachers are sometimes ineffective and of-ten unduly laborious.

This guide was prepared to help those responsi-ble for curriculum development to think throughthe nature of the communicative arts so thatteachers and students may work together in amore efficient, effective and gratifying manner.

A strong program in the communicative artsrespects the skills and experiences students bringo school. Some students enter school withwell-developed communicative resources anintuitive understanding of the grammar of theirlanguage, an understanding of sound/symbolcorrespondence and a sense of narration. Otherstudents enter school with only a limited set oflanguage experiences.

Because there is this range of differences, assess-

ment and identification of learner strengths andweaknesses are the beginning points for instruc-tions' planning. As learning progresses, individ-ual differences in rate and sequence of growthamong learners also become apparent. Curricu-lar and instructional strategies must be sensitiveto these differences, providing options for teach-ers to personalize communicative arts learning.

A fundamental basis of communicative arts isthat children learn to communicate best in anexperience-based setting. Language learning isan active process. Classroom experiences shouldhave a real purpose for the student. Teachingabout listening, speaking, reading or writingmust be subordinate; it must support. not replace,active learning experiences.

This guide does not attempt to resolve all theconflicts inherent in teaching the communica-tive arts. The writers are aware of the necessityfor local adaptation and for personalized instruc-tion. What follows is a guide for local curriculumdevelopers. It must be adapted to meet the specialneeds of the young people who enter classroomsat the beginning of every school year.

Questions and Answers for Supervisors1. What is the purpose of this guide?

This guide provides instructional personnelwith a resource tht can be used as a basisfor integrating the lan§uage arts curriculumthrough program planning and programdevelopment. The guide also provides re`-.sources for staff development and imprr,..e-ment in the areas of skill development, teach-ing strategies, classroom organization andevaluation.

2. How will this guide help us improve ourprograms?The guide interrelates communication skillsin such a way that skills are learned andreinforced in a natural context as opposed toan isolated, single subject approach. Theguide may be used to improve pirograrnsthrough staff development in.the areas ofskill development through activities, class-room organization and evaluation.

3. How will this guide relate to what weare currently doing in language arts?Regardless of the type of program being used(i.e., basal, language experience), the guideprovides purposes and objectives that areappropriate for any program. The organiza-tion suggestions cover most of the languagearts systems currently used in Georgia schools.

4. How may this guide b;... used to movefrom a separate subject curriculum(reading, spelling, English) to an inte-grated curriculum?The guide provides purposes and objectivesfor teaching reading with all of the communi-cation skills. These can be used as a startingpoint for identifying systemwide goals andobjectives. Once goals and objectives areidentified. the teaching activities, materialsand texts that are available for meeting thesegoals may be identified.

Suggested steps for implementation

a. Use guide goals as a starting point foridentifying systemwide goals.

h. Identify activities, materials, texts andother resources that can he used to meetthe identified goals at appropriate in-structional levels.

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c. Develop appropriate evalua' on tech-niques and follow-up activities.

d.' Establish a scheciule for the revision ofgoals and priorities.

5. .,How may this guide be implemented?Teachers might be divided into grade levelgroups or subject matter groups. The pur-poses of the guide should be discussedthoroughly. The format of the guide should --be examined in terms of grade level andareas covered under each section. After theteachers are familiar with the format, theyshould be shown Low to begin at the appro-priate grade level, how to select the skillarea under consideration and how to findthe skill(s) to be taught. After the skill isidentified, activities should be selected appro-priate to the type of program and organiza-tion being used.

6. For whom was the guide written andto whom should it be disseminated?This guide is intended for use by curriculumspecialists coordinators, administrators. re-source teachers. classroom teachers andteachers of special reading programs. Multi-ple copies of the guide should be sent toeach school so that it is readily available forreference by administrators and staff. Eachcurriculum specialist coordinator involvedwith language arts should have a copy. Cur-riculum specialists coordinators of ethersubject areas should also be encouraged tobecome familiar with sections of the guidewhich are appropriate to their subject areas.

7. What specific curriculum areas areaddressed in the guide?The overriding philosophy of the guide isintegration of the language arts. Speaking.listening. reading and writing are addressedin terms of their iaterrelationships.

8. Must the total guide be used or cansections of it be used individually?Each instructional level portion of this guideis divided into sections dealing with selectedareas of language instruction. However,because of the integrated nature of theguide, examplesofactivities which will improve

3

the teaching of reading, oral and writtencommunication will be found in m',st sec -tio.is of the guide. Therefore, to derive maxi-mum benefit from this guide, the user isadvised to examine all of an instructibnallevel portion.

9. How may the community be involvedin the implementation and use of thisguide?The community must be made aware of theeducational advantages of teaching r Jadingand the other language arts in an integratedfashion. Actual classroom observations orinstructional simulations of this integratedapproach at community meetings will effectawareness. Many of the activities included

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in the giiide could be conducted by commu-nity volunteers. Each school should selectthe rfiethods which are most appropriate for

its community.

10. How m\y help be obtained from theGeorgia DepartiOsent of Education inthe implementation of this guide?Consultants from the Division of Curricu-lum Serteices-of the Georgia Department ofeducation will provide help when requested.Requests may-be made by contacting thedirector, Division of Curriculum Services,Georgia Department of Education, 1952 TwinTowers East, Atlanta. Georgia 30334, (404)656-2412.

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Questions and Answers for.Teachers1. What is the purpose of this guide?

This guide serves as a practical resourceinstrument to help the instructional staffimprove the planning and organization ofthe language arts curriculum. It also pro-vides suggested activities and sources forclassroom teachers.

2. What is meant by integration of lan-guage arts?The integration of language arts means thatthe communication process (listening.speaking, reading and writing) is interrelated,not fragrr.. .ed.

3.. What is the difference between lan-guage arts and reading?Reading is a part of the language arts.

4. Who will explain the guide?This guide will be explained by princiand curriculum directors.

5. Do I have to use the gu e?All teachers will be encour ed to use thisguide and its suggested activities to sup-plement their local program.

6. How do I use this guide with thesystem's reading program?This guide may be used as a resource toprovide additional activities and strategiesfor reinforcement of the language arts skills.

7. How do I use this guide with the schoolEnglish and spelling programs?The guide is so designed that the materialsbeing used in the existing school programmight gain greater vitality. All aspects of thelanguage arts program are taught in sup-port of the total language development ofthe student.

student's current level of academic performance and a thoughtfully prepared pro-gram of instruction.

10. How relevant is this guide to specificsituations?The guide follows a general format makingit adaptable to any situation. Its relevancy isfound through the use of many state docu-ments which address concerns for a varietyof student populations.

11. When will I have time to do the sug-gested activities?The suggested activities outlined in this

8. What levels does the guide cover?This guide covers instructional levels Kthrough 12 in two documents. K-8 and 9-12.

9. How will this guide help teachers pro-vide for indiv;dual student differences?Because the activities and suggested re-sources are designed to personalize the in-structional program. all students will benefitfrom the methods suggested in this guide.Effective student learning comes about as aresult of a thorough understanding of the

guide may be incorporated inplans whee applicable. The usguide will actually save you time in tplanning activities and teaching skills.activities are intended to be an integral

e teaching plan, not an addi

aily lessonof thems of

The',artonal

activit

12. W ere will et the materials fo thesetivities?

he materi s suggested can be obtainedfrom a v. iety of sources in uding theschool me a center, corm ity resourcefile and the n aper

13. Where will I find the suggested refer-ences?The t 2ferences may be obtained from vari-ous community libraries/media centers, thesystem-maintained professional library, lo-cal colleges and universities and throughthe state department of education library.

14. How does this guide relate to the otherstate department language arts prod-ucts and guides?This guide is one of several language artsdocuments published by the state department.It serves as a coordinating reference de-signed to address organization and manage-ment techniques as well as suggestedteaching' classroom activities. It reinforcesthe language arts positions of the depart-ment as set forth in the Kindergarten inGeorgia guide, the Georgia Criterion-refer-enced Tests, the Standards for Georgia Pub1k Schools and other relevant state pro-grams.

tA

,t)

Oral a d W.aia./1114111111.

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Introduction to the ModelThe acquisition of oral and written language is acomplex human process. Competency in speak-ing and writing is far more than the mastery of acollection of skills. A competent speaker orwriter has developed a process for translatingthoughts and feelings into language'that can beread and understood by a wide range of audiences.While the processes lively vary, they are notrandom or wholly individualized.

The instructional strategies in this guidebase on the notion that the ability to uslanguage develops as a child actually use!languag-. The model for instruction which follows e volved as a result of observing youngchildren acquire oral language and from discuss-ing children's individual processes with writersand teachers of writing.

FluencyThe initial gefals in the teaching of oral andwritten language center around the need tofamiliarize students with the medium. Whenstudents begin to produce language, just aswhen they begin to acquire any other complexbehavior. they need practice, support and response.Experimentation is encouraged. Children musthave the opportunity to speak and write often.Judgments about the fine points of correctnessand form are suspended. Children, in their initialattempts at language production, are trying tofind a personal voice and to gain confidence. Theteacher must keep in mind the importance ofencouragement and acceptance: frequent posi-tive response is crucial. Specific skills are far lessimportant than whole pieces of discourse or thediscussion of those oral or written efforts. Work-ing to develop ease and familiarity with lan-guage is the primary goal during the fluencyperiod.

ControlAs students begin to feel comfortable with theiroral and written efforts as a means of expression.instructors gradually begin to help students be-come more precise in their speaking and writing.Because these media make many complex de-mands on the students, teachers must help themlearn the appropriate controls through practiceand particularly through revision. Arranging puoposeful settings and responsive audiences forstudents' efforts will provide opportunity for muchof the direct teaching of rhetorical and usageconventions: publishing student writing and di-recting students to write for diverse audienceswill accomplish similar ends in written commu-nication. The teaching of the controls, especiallyin writing (e.g., usage and mechanics. punctua-tion and spelling), should be integrated grad-ually into activities. Evaluation of these particu-lars should also be cumulative. beginning firstwith a few criteria and slowly adding to them asstudents gain more familiarity and sophistication.Careful control of language, oral and written.grows gradually: instructors should not try tohurry the process by making inappropriate de-mands on the inexperienced student.

EffectivenessAs students learn to control language. they learnto make judgments about their efforts and tomake conscious decisions about the effective-ness of these efforts. They learn to function astheir own critics and editors and to accept adviceand counsel from other editors. They exploreand consider syntactic and rhetorical options.selecting those appropriate to form and audience.Practice and criticism build an intuitive sense.Students develop a "feel" for what works in.effective speaking and writing.

Growth from fluency to control to effectiveness isa cooperative venture between students andteachers. Teachers who work with their studentsduring the process have many opportunities tomodel the behaviors of a competent speaker andwriter and to gain a fuller understanding of theirstudents' development.

Remember, no single speaking or writing activity,teacher or grade level can provide a studentevery language skill. Language is a complexhuman behavior; it develops gradually throughpractice. The activities in this guide are designedto help teachers lead students through the pro-cess in an incremental, step-by-step manner.11w cumulative effect of such concentrated prac-tice should produce competent speakers andwriters.

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The chart on page represents an abbreviatedlist of behaviors for both teachers and students.It offers some suggestions for assisting studentsas their speaking and writing matures. It is left tothe teacher to determine at what point Controlshould become a factor in the instructionalprogram, (i.e., third grade, fifth grade or evensecond grade). This point varies according to theexperiences and the maturity of the studentsinvolved. The same is true of Effectiveness; itsintroduction might be most appropriate in theninth grade with some students and the 12thgrade with others. The stages, as the arrows onthe chart suggest, do not displace each other;they are added. Efforts at fluency should becontinued throughout grades K through 12.

Fluency

A Developmental Model for Oral and Written Communication

Student behaviors1. Produces language (oral and written).2. Enjoys words.3. Experiments with structures.4. Shares thoughts, ideas, feelings.5. Responds supportively to oras and

written presentations of classmates.6. Develops self-confidence and finds

a personal voice.

Teacher behaviors1. Encourages participation.2. Creates a stimulating and supportive

classroom environment.3. Develops nonverbal. oral and

written practice activities.4. Listens and responds to students'

oral and written efforts withencouragement.

5. Provides opportunities for students topractice and demonstrate publiclyaccomplishments, i.e., pro-vides audiences for oralpresentation, displays and pub-lishes written material.

6. Develops students' skills in respond.ing to and helping each other.

7. Provides through personal action andbehavior a model for the students'use of oral and written language.

Control

Student behaviors1. Seeks and provides feedback.2. Experiments with mode and

audience.3. Experiments with different voices.4. Considers alternative methods

of delivery-style. syntax,organization and presentation.

5. Works within constraints andlimits.

6. Seeks peer audience evaluation,reaction. response.

7. Proofs and edits writings.

Teacher behaviors1. Encourages participation.2. Responds to students' oral and

written products withsuggestions for improvement.

3. Structures real speaking andwriting situations.

4. Analyzes problems and developspractice activities.

5. Evaluates students' oral andwritten presentations.

Adapted from a model by Dan Kirby. 1981. Reprinted with permission.

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Effectiveness

Student behaviors1. Adapts language choices to

situation and audience.2. Controls a variety of

rhetorical and syntacticdevices.

3. Speaks and writes with polishand technical precision.

Teacher behaviors1. Offers technical advice and

assistance.2. Develops real speaking

and writing situations.3. Acts as editor and critic.4. Challenges students to

attempt difficult exercises.5. Evaluates students' oral and

written products with a varietyof previously established andannounced criteria.

Classroom and InstructionalMancgement

Proficiency in oral and written communicationrequires frequent and regular practice. For toolong students have been admonished to be quietrather than encouraged to take part in profitablediscussion. For too long they have had insuffi-cient opportunity or demand for written composi-tion. To provide for adequate opportunity forboth of these activities, classroom exercises shouldhe quite different from the usual oral questionand answer routine or the lack of opportunitiesfor written communication. Such r 'actices willafford more productive and surely exhilaratingexperiences for teachers and students.

Many of the classroom strategies and activitieswill involve not only oral and written communica-tion but also the companion skills of listeningand reading. Oral panel discussions and pressconferences will require research and note taking.careful listening and the making of judgments.Role playing will in many cases demand anunderstanding. through reading, of the fictional.legendary or historical characters to be portrayed.Regular class discussion on subjects of scholarly.general or humorous interest will foster courte-ous and attentive listening, increase ability tospeak clearly and coherently and will call forfurther reading to gain adequate information onthe subject under discussion.

Writing will take place quite frequently and peerevaluation of these writings discussed in smallgroups will cut down appreciably (:n the need forthe reading and grading of each paper by theteacher. Also. it will give students practice inreading aloud. in listening critically, in becomingaware of the structure and use of language.Finally, it will help develop the insight andjudgment needed for students to decide if theyhave written what they intended their audienceto read.

Meeting in small groups of five or less, studentsread their short papers to one another. After abit of practice they learn to give positive. helpfulcriticism to each other in matters of content.coherence. style. mechanics and conventions.1 he teacher, as monitor or arbitrator. is ready torespond to a raised hand or a spoken query tosettle differences of opinion or answer relevant

questions. Students then have the opportunity ofrevising their papers, using or rejecting the sug-gestions of their peers as they wish.

Perhaps only one student paper among fiveneeds to be read and evaluated by the teacher;or the teacher may give each student the opportu-nity to select the paper thought to be the best ofhis or her most recent five, and collect onlythese from the students. The teacher may varythe method of selection and reduce the possibil-ity of a student preparing only one good paperwhen several were to be written.

Short speeches, prepared by each student forpresentation to the class, may be evaluated bypeers in much the same way. Each student in thesmall group, making a speech to the group. hasthe advantage of hearing helpful suggestions orrequests for clarification which are not oftenpossible when addressing a large audience.

A trial run before this small group, prior topresentation to the teacher and entire class, isbeneficial to the speaker, demands careful atten-tion from peers and trains the peers in audienceconduct.

Teaching students to work in groups is an art initself. But the patience required is rewarded instudent performance and teacher satisfaction.

The teaching and learning of grammar andusage take place in a variety of ways. Studentswill work on the errors they make rather thancorrecting flawed sentences written by someoneelse or published in grammar texts: the latterexamples do not address the problem and mayactually introduce, develop or reinforce a newerror.

Sentence-combining exercises make use of cor-rect sentence structure and encourage inventive-ness and judgment. while introducing the moresophisticated structures of the English sentence.Learning new vocabulary and spelling practiceare worthy side effects to the process of sentencecombining.

Small group or paired activities will replace thewritten short answer exercises usually graded byteachers or aides. Students using textbook exer-

17 1

cises will work individually, but they will discussthe exercises and their answers and conclusionsin small groups, teaching and learning fromeach other, with adult arbitration when needed.

The most effective method of teaching grammarwill result from full class discussions of errorsfound in the students' own speech and papers.The papers, reproduced without student identitydisclosed, will be written on the board or anoverhead transparency. Healthy discussions oc-cur over what may be wrong, how it can becorrected and what rule of grammar is involved.Working with examples from their own speechand writing makes a personal impact on students;the information is more vivid and more thor-oughly absorbed than filling in the blank or cor-recting sentences.

A factor which is frequently overlooked, particulady in the classroom, is nonverbal communica-tion between teachers and students. A teacher'sprotracted frown or pursed lips, the hands infront. all fingers touching, or the fierce glare withhands on hips, can indicate disgust or disap-

18

proval as clearly as a verbal tirade. A student,squirming and uneasy, may need only a trip tothe bathroom, while another, making repeatedtrips to the pencil sharpener may need encour-agement about th e writing assignment.

In oral communication, paralanguage, the de-nial of the spoken words by tone of voice or facialexpression, can convey more meaning than thewords themselves. The simple phrase, "goodmorning," can be said with genuine good humoror with such venom that it approaches an insult.Too little attention is given to this form ofcommunication, yet it is an essential medium forunderstanding.

Finally, a positive classroom climate and genu-ine praise for worthwhile effort will accomplishmore teaching and learning than all the negativecriticism and red marked papers. The classroomshould always be a cooperative place whereteacher and students join in decision making, inoral and written communication and in the excit-ing business of learning.

Grammar and UsageThe following sections address specific activitiesand suggestions for implementing instruction invarious modes of discourse. Much is said ofpraise and of editing; little is said of what wecommonly label grammar. There is good reasonfor this; it is not simply an omission. Languageinstruction will be the subject of another document,one that will consider the teaching of mechanics,syntax and usage.

This is not to say that we intend for languageinstruction to be a separate area of languagearts. Problems in correcting grammar and usagearise as soon' as children begin to speak or toWrite and continue throughout their lifetime.Similarly, correction begins at that same pointand continues until an individual is no longerconcerned with precision in language use.

Instruction in conventional usage and in usageconventions is and ought to be an integral part ofthe language arts classroom. There is no profes-sional way to avoid it. However, an overdose ofcorrection is detrimental to the individual.

When prc*,lems arise in a student's use oflanguage, as they will from the beginning, in-struction must follow; but this instruction shouldaddress the needs of the student in terms of hisor her own writing, not in terms of a textbook. Asa student begins to write dialogue, for example,that is the time to explain the use of qootationmarks. As students seek to say more compli-cated things and attempt to say them in motecomplicated ways, that is the time to explain anddemonstrate the punctuation of clauses and

19

phrases. The acquisition of skills will be uneventhroughout any group. Some students will learnto handle commas, for example, rapidly; otherswill be laboring with them into college.

While periodic reviews of mechanics are notharmful, annual repetitions are. Repeating thesame exercises year after year to the samestudents will simply age both student and teacherprematurely. Such repetition and the lack ofappropriate change only disaffect everyone andwaste time.

As problems in the students' writings develop, thestudents should be given proper corrective in-struction and subsequent papers should be checkedfor anticipated improvements. If improvements donot develop, repeated instruction may be neces-sary for those who need it. Changing instructionaltechniques or approaches may be helpful. Sub-jecting an entire class to repeated exercises re-quired by only 40 percent is futile. The result isan inefficient use of teacher and student time.

For best results a personal approach to teachingis required. Group instruction is needed to intro-duce and develop new topics, concepts and ideas,but errors emerging in the work of some studentsare signals that some need additional help, i.e.,those students still producing the errors. Thereare numerous ways to do this, from the use ofspecial text exercises designed to correct specificerrors as well as individual tutoring. The teacher'sgoal is to help students acquire a skill as soon aspossible and to eliminate reteaching.

A Note From the WritersObjectives for this document are to provideteachers with a model to help students learn toexpress themselves ROI; to regard languagedevelopment with little fear or apprehension; andto assure as much success as the individuals'poteNtials and the teachers' skills can jointly ac-complish.

We realize that school is not necessarily a train-ing ground for future literary prize winners. Weare aware the majority of the students whoattend public schools will probably never pro-duce written works of classic quality. Our intentis to help make all students more comfortableand rnor,? effective in their use of language. Weare not dismissing the budding literary geniuses;it is our conviction that they, too, will be servedby the program that follows.

Our plan is deceptively simple. To learn to speakor to write, inevitably, one must speak or writeoften. as much as possible and in every imagin-able contekt. Injunction must be balanced withencouragement: correction with praise. Thestudents' faltering beginnings must be receivedwith the same pride, excitement and reward aswere their infant attempts at speech and move-ment.

Regular Opportunities for trial and error. forsuccess and failure, must be an integral part of

. .

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the program. Every note of praise must soundlouder than every comment of correction.

One does not learn to speak without correction,but neither does one learn by being silenced. Therepetition inherent in the natural process thatenables the young to acquire their native tonguecan and should be a regular facet of a programof language instruction provided by the school.

A communication program is offered thar-sup.ports both the receptive and the expressive modes.of language. Opportunities for each are a regularfeature; they must be the norm not the exception.While we do not always capitalize on it, wealready provide a great deal of practice in listen-ing within our schools; but opportunities for ourstudents to talk seem lacking.

For this program to succeed, for young people torealize their potential, students must be encour-aged to talk and to write as much as they arenow being exhorted to listen and to read. Thisresponsibility rests with those of us who workwith young people: we must talk to them, listento them, read what they have written and com-ment upon their work. We must provide suitableand varied audiences for our students, audiencesresponsive and meaningful to the studentsthemselves. This is one of our greatest challenges.

I 9

ImaginingSchool talk and school writing are too oftendominated by the academic and the drab. Yet ineach of us. at every age, lurks delightful imagi-nation. fleeting fantasy. even gruesome possibility.We dare not dwell on them. Instead, we learn tosubmerge them and concentrate on the reality ofeducational and sociological demands.

Children come to school strong in imaginationand full of make-believe. Some have engaged inmade up conversations among their dolls orstuffed animals; many have enjoyed imaginaryfriends or playmates. Such behavior is some-times tolerated and sometimes discouraged by par-ents and teachers.

In the early school years lists of things. wordsand people are often memorized: stories becomemere sequences of events. In later years poemsare desecrated by reducing them to mere iambicpentameter or anapestic trimeter. Term papers

21

on assigned subjects become chores rather thanjoyful explorations. Frequently, such papers re-sult in counterproductive student-coping strate-gies such as plagiatism.

The need for some of the exercises mentionedabove is not to be denied. The exercise of theimagination. however, should also be permitted.Evidence indicates its use should be encouragedthroughout the years lf formal schooling. Surely.in the area of the spoken and the written word,imagination should play a major role.

Imagination sparks the use of various sentencestructures and invites the search for the rightword. the succinct phrase. And it is not only inthe area of creative activities that imagination isa necessary ingredient; oral and written discourse in any area is enriched and enlivened byimaginative and selective use of language.

Sample ActivitiesDialogue

Grades 9.10

Purpose

Previous study of one-act plays and short storieswill enable students to fabricate brief situationswhich lend themselves to the writing of dialoguein a short story or lines in a play. This activitypermits students to have this experience.

Objectives

The learner will

create a brief, original episode requiring dia-logue which might be a part of a short story ora one-act play.

choose between wiling the dialogue as part of

a short story or as a play.

write the dialogue in the chosen form.

preface the completed dialogue with a briefwritten presentation of the situation in whichthe dialogue takes place, including whateverexplanation concerning the characters is es-sential for understanding the piece.

MaterialsCopies of one-act plays and short stories contain-ing several good examples of dialogue.

Grammar handbooks as references fcr properpunctuation of direct quotations.

Summary

Dialogue enlivens many different forms of writ-ten discourse, but learning to write dialogue is aspecial skill. This activity encourages the imagi-native development of dramatic episodes usingdialogue and reinforces the knowledge of thecorrect form for conversation in a story or linesin a play. (This activity will take several classperiods.)

Procedures

1. Read to the class an example of a shortstory with a great deal of dialogue.

2. Lead a class discussion concerning the waysin which the dialogue enhances the story."Does it make a particular character's per-sonality more vivid?" "Does it add informa-

22

tion you need?" "Is the action furthered bythe dialogue?" "How does dialogue accom-plish these things?"

3. Read a one-act play. If there are severalcopies available, have students read thedifferent parts.

4. Direct a class discussion about how thesecharacters reveal themselves through theirown speeches or through comments madeto them or about them by other characters.Include some consideration of the way theaction is also revealed by the lines of thecharacters.

5. Have students spend sufficient time (perhapsan entire period or a homework activity)inventing a situation in which they will beable to create dialogue to advance a :tion ina story or play or to reveal characters. Thesesituations can ti, sketched in note or outlineform.

6. Assign students to write the prefaces to theirdialogues (brief explanations of the situationand whatever information is necessary con-cerning the characters). This may be donebefore or after the next step.

7. Students are to decide upon the written formthey will use (play or thort story) and writetheir dialogues.

8. Meeting in small groups of three. studentswill read their pieces to each other forcriticism and suggestions.

9. Time is allowed for revision following thegroup sharing.

10. Selected finished products are read aloud oracted out. The manner of selection will vary

one from each group, volunteers or what-ever seems appropriate.

(The remainder cf this activity may be done i:

small groups of thrt. e to five students, dependingon the size of the class and whether students areable to w. k well independently.)

2j

Evaluation

Peet evaluation will take place in the smallgroup activity and when the final papers areread.

Teacher evaluation can be done rapidly as pa-pers are read, but a thorough evaluation will nodoubt be desired. Positive comments on eachpaper and suggestions for improvement will beemphasized. If the level of achievement in someof the finished products suggests a need, stu-dents should revise and improve their papers.

Grading will be done after revision. Errors inmechanics and punctuation should be kept on achecklist for future teaching.

Follow-up Activities

To acquire agility in both forms of using dialogue.students can rewrite their dialogue in the formnot used with the first writing.

Students should be encouraged to write theentire short story or one-ad play which theyhave started. Pe.rhaps a group would like tocollaborate on this activity. These could be put

23

in a booklet and copies placed in the schoolmedia center.

Resources

Writing Incredibly Short Plays, Poems, Stories,by James H. Norton and Francis Gretton (Har-court)

Some suggested short stories"Miss Phipps Improvises," by Phyllis Bentley"Tobermory," by Saki"The Dressmaker's Doll," by Agatha Christie"My Queer Dean," by Ellery Queen

All of the above are found in Suspense, A Trea-sury for Young Adults, edited by Sean Manleyand Gogo Lewis (Funk and Wagnalls)

One-Act Plays"P nicable Parting," by George S. Kaugnianand Leueen Mac Grath"The Patient," by Agatha Chr

The above plays and other appropriate ones canbe found in Twenty One-Act Plays, edited byStanley Richards (Doubleday).

Nursery RhymesGrades 11-12

Purpose

Many nursery rhymes and stories children enjoytoday just for the story element were originallypolitical or social satires written in England toridicule individuals or situations. The simplicityof these small literary pieces lends itself toimagined symbolism geared to present social.theological or psychological thinking. This activ-ity permits students to invent modern symbolismas it may be deduced from a story or poem andto justify their choices of symbols.

Objectives

The learner willfabricate meanings in the simplest stories andpoems using the total situation of the pieceand the most insignificant details as symbolicjustifications of these meanings.

present these meanings orally and in writing.attempting to convince the 'fence that theyare possible intentions of the authors.

MaterialsSeveral copies of children's stories and rhymes

Summary

A free use of the imagination will permit studentsto create out of simple situations profound sym-bolism which may be ridiculous, but will appearto be the intentions of the authors.

Procedures

1. Divide the class heterogeneously into groupsof five.

2. Distribute copies of nursery rhymes andtales to each group.

3. Explain that they are to try to see into one ortwo of these pieces of imaginary symbolismmeanings which were never intended by theauthors.

4. Read a short excerpt from The Pooh Perplex,by Frederick Crews. or a story by someauthor who has done this sort of absurd butamusing speculation. to ii:ustrate the kind ofactivity in which they are engaged.

5. If it seems wise, suggest general areas whichmight be addressed; e.g., economy, religion.manners, mores, social justice or psychology.

6. Instruct each group to choose a nurseryrhyme or story on which to work. Be certainthat no two groups choose the same piece.

7. In their groups let the students brainstormpossible symbolic implications in the cho-sen piece and in the details included.

8. Using the material suggested in the brain-storming sessions, each student wig write anindividual analysis of the symbolism in thepiece. Remind them that the most insignifi-cant details are to be considered as symbolsor justification of the total symbolism.

9. Reconvening in their groups, probably thenext day, students will read their papers toeach other for enjoyment. helpful criticismand suggestions, and for choosing the mostinteresting paper in the group to be read tothe class.

10. Have all papers revised and proofread bythe individual writers according to sugges-tions made in group discussion, and havethe one selected in each group read to theclass.

Evaluation

1. Peer evaluation will take place in the groupsessions described in #9 of the Procedures.

2. Teacher evaluation will be done only afterrevisions and proofreading have been com-pleted.

3. A booklet containing a copy of each of thefinished pieces may be put together.

Follow-up Activities

Since this is a difficult piece of imaginativewriting to have accomplished, it may be well tohave students repeat the process with a piecewhich was not used or heard in class. In this storm-

ing on one selection and let each student operateindependently. If the group activity seems neces-sary, repeat that part of the procedures as well.

24 23

Whether the preceding activity is used or not,students are ready to analyze the symbolism in apoem which has not been studied previously.The group procedure may be used, or individualanalysis may be undertaken. In either case,several pieces should be analyzed, each one byseveral students, for comparison, criticism andsuggestions in preparation for revision andevaluation.

Resources

Books of nursery rhymes

Books of children's stories or fairy tales

The Pooh Perplex, by Frederick Crews

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, by C. S.Lewis, in the Narnia Series

Books containing poems selected for analysis ofsymbolism

Any textbook on literary analysis

General Suggestions

Positive reinforcement of student effort has provedmore beneficial to learning than negative criticism.Praise for unworthy effort, however, is poorpractice. Students are quick to detect sham.

Creating an audience other than the teacher forstudent work is important. This can be achievedthrough mobiles, bulletin boards or hall displays,school newspapers, completed booklets in thelibrary, quarterly creative writing student maga-zines and various other methods.

The teaching of grammar and usage can bemost effectively taught from lists of studenterrors with anonymous examples. This teachinginvolves class discussions concerning the errors.their possible correction and the rules governingthe usage. Using the students' own writings,encouraging whole class discussions of problemsand solutions, are more relevant than the gram-mar text rules and exercises and result in morepermanent learning.

DescribingDescription has traditionally been considered

one of the four main types of writing, along withnarration, argumentation and exposition. To de-scribe something is to convey an image orimpression of it in words which reveal appearance,nature or characteristics.

The most effective description usually includesdetails based on clear, concrete images. These

details are presented, not merely cataloged. Se-lection for a definite purpose and a definite point

of view becomes a consideration. Details aregenerally arranged in some logical pattern; thatpattern may be spacial, associative or progressive.

The discreet use of words of color, sound, motion

and other adjectives which affect the sensesenriches a descriptive piece of work. Descriptivewriting reveals or implies the vividness, strengthand intensity of the writer's personal observationof the world and its people.

Descriptive writing is evident in almost every-thing we read from a novel with real charactersand an enticing setting to a good news storywhich so accurately reports the facts that thereader feels he or she is there. Most often,description is combined with narrative to create

a vibrant story line or with other types of writingas a supporting device. Occasionally, it is used

for its own sake.

This guide suggests that instruction in descrip-

tive writing begins in the early grades as thechild produces descriptions that merely catalogdetails. Gradually, in the middle grades students

may begin to perceive the importance of discreetwording and point-of-view. Finally, the high schoolstudent probably matures into an effective de-

scriptive writer. The teacher should always re-member that this is a gradual process whichdevelops only through extensive practice. se-

quential. purposeful instruction and student in-sights that deepen with time.

The teacher must encourage and develop inindividual students the skills of keen observation.

26

Lessons in observing details may in fact be ends

in themselves at first as well as in the laterstages of development. Gradually, students will

come to see that although we can be overbur-dened with details in closely observing a scene or

person, observations, should be translated andorganized into selective, purposeful details to be

effective in a piece of descriptive writing.

Instruction in description must build on theexample of excellent writing from a variety ofmedia; e.g., newspapers, books, film, magazines,texts. Students should be encouraged to readand to listen to outstanding passages of descrip-

tion so they begin to develop a feel for effectivewriting. Passages might be compared for de-grees of effectiveness and rewritten for improve-ment. Shakespearean drama and old radio pro-grams provide surprisingly good bases for discus-

sion of the need for description in oral language.

Gradually description is combined with othermethods of composing as it becomes appropriate.

Since description is generally used to supportother types of writing, students should be helped

to see how its use can make all types of writingmore effective. An exercise which produces adetailed character or descriptive scene might be

used as the basis for a short story, for a collec-

tion of pieces from several students, or for anovel. Expository writing or persuasion may be

enriched by strong descriptive support.

An emphasis upon real situations, scenes, peo-

ple and things with which student writers canidentify and which elicit feelings or ideas theywould like to communicate to others is important.

The descriptive writing process should always be

kept in the perspective of real communication toreal audiences for real purposes. Students should

have the freedom to describe that which ismeaningful to them, whether it is a special toy

in first grade or a special elderly person in high

school.

`',4:'t

Sample ActivitiesMemoriep

Grades 9-10

Purpose

Students will develop interview questions, carryout an interview with an older person and use theresponses to write a descriptive paper about anobject, process or everyday experience no longercommon.

Objectives

The learner will

design questions for an interview.

' interview an older person.

.record the interview.

write an account of the interview in a style andform appropriate to content, purpose andaudience.

revise the account based on suggestions andfurther information from the person interviewed.

present an informal oral report of the interview.44,

submit for publication the written account in areference booklet for the school media center.

Materials/Aides

Paper and pencil

Older persons (preferably over 60) willing to beinterviewed by students (e.g., relatives, neighbors,friends, members of local historical societies)

Foxfire books and magazines (optional)

Summary

After discussing this project. developing inter-view questions and practicing an interview inclass. students will interview an older person toelicit detailed information and description aboutan object, process or everyday experience nolonger common. Students will discuss appropri-ate form and style in class and write a first draft.They will discuss the draft with the personinterviewed and obtain comments or suggestionsfor improvement and additions from those people.Finally, the students will share their accountsorally with the class and submit edited copies fora reference booklet to be placed in the schoolmedia center.

Procedures

Allow three weeks for this project.

1. Discuss the objectives, goals and range ofactivities for this project with the class.(Reading and discussing articles from Foxfirebooks and magazines or'frora other similarmaterials may help inspire interest.)

2. Encourage brainstorming of idea's for inter-'views and subjects and list suggestions onthe chalkboard. (Enthusiasm is the key.)

3. Ask each student to locate a willing inter-viewee as homework.

4. Discuss interviewing and questioning tech.:niquek xplain to students that early ques-tions sh Id elicit a flow of ideas about objects,processes or everyday experiences which areno longer common but which were-once famil-iar to the interviewee. Point out that specific,detailed questions should center around one -of those ideas and should allow the students aclear, lifelike impression of the interviewee'sremembrances. Once students have the idea,provide some examples. They should thendevelop a set of questions for the next day.

Note: Questions will of necessity be open ended toelici the most information and must be subject tochange or quick adaptation. The questions should onlybe a basis for the lAteview. Student interviewers shouldbe prepared to adapt to any subject of interest to theinterviewee. One which may be surprising can also beenlightening.

5. Briefly discuss recording techniques for useduring an interview. A tape recorder wouldbe most helpful, but brief, inconspicuousnotetaking (fully developed immediately af-ter the interview) can be equally helpful.

6. Explain that notations about the interviewee'sappearance, gestures and voice quality mayadd great life to a final account of theinterview.

7. Provide class time for students to practicetheir interviewing techniques in pairs with.each student having a turn at each side ofthe interview.

8. Encourage sharing of observations, revisionof questions as necessary, consciousness of

the interviewee's feelings and effective note-taking.

9. Allow at least five days, including a weekend,for students to complete their interviews.

10. When the students have completed theirinterviews, discuss form and style choicesappropriate to audience, purpose and con-tent (i.e., who will read the material; what isthe intent ofthe pieceentertainment, history,information, and what should be included).Any choices meeting this criteria should beacceptable. Follow-up conferences with indi-vidual students having problems might beneeded.

11. Allow at least two days to write the accountderived from the interview. This is a firstdraft, but should be clear enough for theinterviewee to read and discuss with thestudent.

12. Students should ask interviewees to read orlisten to their first drafts and comment,correct or add details. In this process thestudent might note further details about theperson.

13. Students should then revise papers based oninput from interviewees.

14. Students should read their accounts aloudto the class emphasizing enjoyment andinformation sharing.

28

15. Discussion should follow each reading: inter-esting writing and clear observations shouldbe highlighted and complimented.

16. The class should assemble their accounts ofthe interviews in a reference book to bedonated to the school library/media centerfor use in similar projects.

EvaluationParticipation and success in meeting each objec-tive should be the basis for the teacher's evalua-tion and for each student's self-evaluation.Interview, tapes or transcripts, student enthusi-asm and reflection of student involvement withinterviewee in final paper might also be considered.

Followup Activities

This project could. lead into a study of regionalwriters of the time period described by most ofthe interviewers and lend new insight to thisliterature.

After reading books of an even earlier historicalperiod, students might repeat this activity byhypothetically interviewing a character from thebook or the author and supplementing theirimaginings with further research. Students mighttry to assemble accounts of similar daily eventsthrough four generations (such as modes oftravel) from personal accounts of representativesfrom each generation.

Local HistoryGrades 11-12

Purpose

Students will research various aspects of life intheir locality from 1900 to present.

Objectives

The learner will

research regional aspects of American life in20 year segments.

participate in oral discussion of various timeperiods.

participate cooperatively in class and smallgroup discussions.

wi ite and revise articles based on input fromthe students' own lives. research and peers.

present papers aloud to the class.analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of theresearch and of the reporting.

Materials/Aides

Paper and pencil

School media center or public libraries andpublic archives

Chalk and chalkboard

Summary

Students will discuss and research regional as-pects of past and modern American life. Theywill share their findings with their classmates.This research will be used to develop individualpieces for a time capsule describing modernAmerican life intended for an audience 20 yearsfrom now. These papers will be presented to theclass and analyzed for completeness. Boundcopies will be provided each student to reopen in20 years.

Procedures

1. Draw a time line with 20 year segmentsfrom 1900 to the present.

2. Ask students to krainstorm aspects of Ameri-can life appropriate to those time periods.This might include entertainment, sports.travel. furniture, fashion, books, music.technology, appliances, daily chores, jobs.education. economy. reflections of world scene.

3. Students should discuss each aspect in 20year blocks. It is likely that their knowledgewill be sketchy; use this lack of informationto lead into the assignment for the next fewdays.

4. Divide students into committees based ontheir interests. Each committee will addressone or more aspects of American life suchas education or entertainment. As a grpup,students will divide their major topic intosubcategories for individual research in thelibrary. (For example, entertainment may bedivided into home, public, teenager, adult,children.) Each group will then be given twoto three days to research its topics. Fam-ily photographs, advertisements, statisticsfrom Almanacs and many other resourcesmight be helpful. Notes will be helpful;however, the information gathered is not tobe prepared as a report.

5. Continue the class discussion of the timeline. Each committee should have an oppor-tunity to participate and to contribute itsnew information.

6. Explain the full assignment to the students,each group of students will describe Ameri-can life in the locality for an audience 20years from now. Encourage enthusiasm andimagination. Remind students to considerall aspects worth developing.

7. Divide the class into small groups by areasof interest.

8. Allow a class period for groups to brain-storm specific topics within their category.The group should determine which topicseach student will be responsible for deve-loping. Students may need to write severalpapers or articles on each topic to addressit adequately.

9. Allow several days for research. Encouragestudents to be open minded and wide rang-ing in their research; e.g., human resources.newspapers. other media.

10. Encourage small groups to share information.

11. The groups should comment and sort impor-

2928

taut details to be included and limit overlapswhile covering noticeable gaps.

12. Actual writing of the articles might takeseveral days and should include commentsand input from other students.

13. Share papers within small groups and, per-haps, across groups to edit and to revealareas of weakness.

14. Revise accordingly.

15. Present papers aloud to the class. Afterreadings, discuss the completeness of theproject and make additions as necessary.

16. Bind copies of the final document for eachstudent. the school media center, other ap-propriate locations.

30

Evaluation

1. The teacher's evaluation should focus on thestudents' accomplishment of the objectives,their participation and enthusiasm in theoverall project and the new insights gained ofthe present and the past.

2. Individual and small group evaluations shouldsupplement those of the teacher.

Follow-up Activities

Students can share their project with the public.Teachers might arrange a local newspaper cover-age or panel discussions for civic organizations.

The class could move on to the group writing ofa longer work using the description of the cur-rent place and time they now have all that isneeded is character and plot.

2

TellingStorytelling has as its basis the relating of aseries of events. A story, however, contains morethan just a narrative. It contains descriptionsthat support the events by relating significantdetails which enhance the enjoyment and theunderstanding of the story. Stories also containdialogue between characters, showing us howthey feel. think and react.

Telling has varied purposes. A story may simplyentertain. It may teach new ideas or lessons. Inmany instances a combination of these purposesappears in a story. In some more contemporaryliterature, the main purpose seems to be to cre-ate a mood or feeling. The narrative becomespoetic in the sense that imagery and ideasreplace events as the vehicle for relating. Whileevents are a part of the stories, characters andimpressions are the focus of the piece. Teachersmust be aware that such literature is difficult formany students to understand.

The purposes of writing that tells, then, are toentertain and to convey information or to createa mood through the elements of narration, de-scription and dialogue. One of the purposes forteaching students to communicate in this modeshould be to present and explain these principleswhich improve the students ability to communi-cate and to read and understand all forms ofliterature that tell, whether fictional or factual.

This should help the student discover what maleswriting, their's or other's, good or bad. This canbest be accomplished through discussion of whathappens in a piece of writing and what caused itto happen; why the writer chose to have it hap-pen instead of something else. Through suchdiscussion, students arrive at a clearer under-standing of a writer's purpose and develop anappreciation for the inventiveness and languageskill involved in writing.

The activities that follow deal with telling as acommunicative act; they are based on certainassumptions.

In the elementary years (K through 4) studentsshould learn the elements involved In telling astory and how to create their own stories. Thesebasic principles should be taught through regu-lar exposure to stories (read. seen or heard) andthrough structured and unstructured discussion

31

led by the teacher rather than through thelecture method. The students become familiarwith many different stories through this exposure.They begin to recognize certain characteristicsof stories; e.g., some will begin to recognize thata story is about someone or something. otherswill realize that something is going to happen tothat person or thing and that it may affect them.Generally, because children are introduced tomany fairy tales and children's stories duringthese years, most of the stories will be romanticin nature with good winning over evil. Thesetales are sufficient for teaching the elements of astory.

Besides exposing students to many different sto-ries in grades K-4, teachers should encouragestudents to tell their own stories. The studentsmight relate true stories or invented ones. Bothtypes of stories have their importance. In encour-aging.students to relate true stories, the teacheris better able to see how the students view them-selves, their families and their world. On the otherhand, when students make up stories they dealwith romanticism and idealism as well as real-ism not only what happened or what probablywould happen but also what possibly could hap-pen. Through inventive norytelling, students learnalternative courses of action and possible resultsof these actions. They also decide which arepreferable. The perceptive teacher can use suchimaginative information as well as the child'sreality to help direct a child's learning experi-ences about relationships with others.

After creating these stories, students should havethe opportunity to share them. They might actout their story for another class or an assembly;they might tape their story for others, or eymight draw pictures for the story and makebound and covered story book. A project theentire class can carry out is to create a series ofstories about the same character or characters.Students should discover early that writing is notusually an end in itself. Writing is a means ofcommunication. it is meant to be read, considered.performed and. most of all, enjoyed.

At the 5 through 8 grade level, students shouldcontinue to develop an understanding of theelements of telling (what it is and how to do it).

and they should begin to understand the stepsinvolved. During these years, students should beexposed to a wider variety of stories. The focusshould broaden from romanticism and comedy

) include tragedy and irony. As the studentsread more and more. they should begin to iden-tify stories according to purpose. The teachermust supply good ex Amples of stories with differ-ent purposes and help the students see how theauthor achieves purpose. Questions concerningcharacterization, actions and language help stu-dents see that the author's purpose determinesthe type of story written and that the author'sstyle determines how well the purpose is accom-plished. However, in-depth study of structureand style should not be attempted. Discoveringthe author's purpose through discussion andteacher questioning will help the student be-come more involved with literature and reinforcethe concept of reading as a pleasurable activity.

The students should have the opportunity to writetheir own stories after deciding on a purpose.This age enjoys group work and can help brain-storm ideas for the story. The result is usually amuch more interesting story and a much moreenjoyable learning experience for the students.Again, these stories can and should be published.

Students begin to read stories with differentpurposes and in different forms (novels, shortstories, dramas, narrative poems, musical l' clads).

They should begin to recognize these forms andexpand their writing to include them. By theeighth grade students should begin to answerquestions dealing with the structure of the story

32

and why authors build their stories in certainways. They will not be able to formulate theirown questions about structure, but they shouldbe able to respond intelligently to teacher ques-tions about tit_ elements and function of storytel-ling. It is not until high school or after that moststudents become independent readers capable ofunderstanding, enjoying and learning throughself-directed efforts. This 's the ultimate goal forwhich we are striving.

In grades 9-12 students should become moreinvolved with critical reading of stories and withwriting and using different forms of fiction to meettheir own purposes. Also, the students shouldbegin to use the different forms of presentations(drama, chamber theatre, oral interpretation) forpublication of their own works. More focus shouldbe put on what makes a good story. Studentsshould begin asking themselves why the authorused certain words and decided on certainevents; they should become familiar with widelyused symbols and feel more comfortable aboutinterpreting the literature personally. Such exer-cises help students discover the author's purpose,a precondition in many cases to a student under-standing or enjoying a selection.

The goals for storytelling can be accomplishedthrough integrated activities in the languagearts: i.e., reading stories, listening to and discuss-ing stories, writing stories and ultimately publish-ing and performing stories. Such activities fulfilltwo basic needs the need to create and theneed to communicate and thus become animportant part of the learning experiences.

31

Sample ActivitiesPersona

Grades 9-10

Goal

This activity provides students the opportunity todevelop an understanding of the effect percep-tion has upon the manner in which a story istold.

Objectives

The learner will

recognize that perception affects one's view ofreality.

recognize that perceptions vary.

study the effect of perception in a first personnarrative.

retell a narrative from the perception of aselected character.

Materials

Pencil and paper

Two short, first person narratives

Transparencies or visuals of optical illusions

Picture file

Summary

Students will learn the importance of perceptionand its affect upon reality through direct experi-ence with illusions that challenge perception andby reading and examining first person narratives.They will discuss and write a narrative of their ownretelling a story from an adopted perspective.

Procedures1. Present visual images or devices which can

be viewed in separate ways and which candistort reality (such as the "vase faces" illu-sion used as the cover picture of EnglishJournal. September 1974 or the young womanseated before a mirrored vanity and the over-all skull impact in the picture "All is Vanity"by C. Allan Gilbert.)

2. Explain the effect of individuals' mind-setsupon their perception of reality, i.e., how themind acts as a filter.

3. Allow students ample time to discuss, argue,deny and agree that different people see thesame things differently.

4. Assign a short, first person narrative, suchas Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado" orKeys' "Flowers for Algernon" for studentreading.

5. In large or small groups, have students con-sider the effect of the narrator's personal-ity upon the story: In the above works,Montresor's obsession and madness affectthe way he perceives Fortunato, the eventsand the outcome of the story. And Charlie'shandicap, while creating a different situation,equally influences his view of the events sur-rounding him.

6. After limited time for discussion in step five,ask students to list in order (jot outline) someof the major ecrents or issues in the storyread.

7. Ask students to use their outlines to discusshow the events and issues might have beenaltered if another character related the story,i.e., Fortunatc's view in ". . . Amontillado"or that of Dr. Strauss or Miss Kinnian in"Flowers . . .." (This may be used as a writ-ing assignment in itself, but keep the origi-nal goal of the activity in mind.)

8. Allow students time to discuss and to pres-ent their ideas about the inevitable change(s)as a result of the shift in perception.

9. Review the importance of the individual'sperception upon narrative development. i.e.,the statements and observations which aremade in a first person narrative must be con-sistent with the known attitudes. biases andlimitatioh of the individual.

10. Collect from magazines pictures of variousinteresting people. Select pictures that ar-rest attention, e.g., an elderly person rollerskating. Include an assortment of charactertypes young, old, voluptuous, squat.

33 3 2

11. Allow students to flip through the file. Invitethem to choose a picture they find appealingor use a Jotter) method of selection.

12. Ask students to form small groups. Advisestudents to bring their pictures to their group.

13. In small groups have students study eachpicture.

14. Using character profile questions below, havestudents suggest how each group member'scharacter might respond. The following aresuggested questions for the students' charac-ter profiles. The questions should be ex-panded or extended.

How well-educated is your character?a. grade schoolb. high schoolc. trade schoold. collegee. professional schoolf. self-made person

How does your character viewthe world?a. suspiciouslyb. ope.11yc. prejudiciallyd. broadmindedlye. hesitantlyf. fearfully

How does your character speak and converse?a. authoritativelyb. loudlyc. slowlyd. quietlye. pompouslyf. nervously

How does your character deal with conflict?a. escapesb. agressivelyc. directlyd. sarcasticallye. diplomaticallyf. deceitfully

What is your character's public image?a. generous f. loving

gb. stingy g. chillyh. sulleni. petty

c. nastyd. pleasante. friendly

What is your character's private or personal face?

a. generous c. nastyb. stingy d. pleasant

34

e. friendly h. sullenf. loving i. pettyg. chilly

What is your character's employment?

What is the view the community takes ofyour character?

15. Encourage students to assume the character'sidentity. Reinforce role playing as much aspossible, i.e., use character's name in ad-dressing the student.

16. Use a story (film, print or audio version)such as "Bernice Bobs Her Hair" as anarrative stimulus for retelling (i.e., as thestudents' characters might tell the story).

17. In the same working groups as step 12, askstudents to discuss how each individual'scharacter might tell the story.

18. Assign students to retell in writing the storyfrom their character's perception.

19. Suggest students use working groups foreditorial purposes.

20. Collect final papers for evaluation.

Evaluation

1. Peer and self-evaluation are an inherent partof the small group work and editorial efforts.

2. Teacher evaluation should focus upon thestudents' in-class work as participating groupmembers and upon the final written product.In ter is of the student's paper, the primaryobjective is the successful use of an adoptedperception.

Followup ActivitiesExtend this experience by assigning composi-tions for retelling other narratives.

Have students tell an incident from their livesfrom their own perspectives, then from theirparents' perspectives.

Resources

English Journal, September 1964, Volume 63,Number 6.

Wakefield, Beverly. Perception and Communica-tion, Theory into Practice Series.

"Spaces and Illusions" poster available fromThe High Museum of Art. Educational Division.Atlanta. Georgia.

33

PRI

Dear DilemmaGrades 11-12

Purpose/Goal

This activity provides a chance for students totell a series of events that might have led to aparticular situation. Students give advice on howto solve a hypothetical dilemma.

Objective

The learner will

develop a series of events that might precedea given situation.

organize these events in a logical sequence.

tell these events to a larger group or the entireclass.

give advice on how to solve a hypotheticalsituation.

Materials

Cards containing hypothetical situations

Samples of "Dear Abby" columns

Summary,

In this activity students will brainstorm a seriesof possible events leading to a hypotheticalsituation. They will then organize those events ina logical sequence and tell that sequence to theclass within a limited time period. Additionally,students will brainstorm possible solutions for aproblem. then write a letter offering their per-sonal advice.

Procedures1. Have the students choose a partner with

whom they can work amicably.

2. Without previewing, have each student choosea card on which a situation is written (i.e.,they pick a card from a collection that isface down on a table).

3. Tell students to share each situation withtheir card partner.

4. Have students' brainstorm events which mighthave led to the situation (i.e., students coop-eratively develop a series of events whichmight have preceded the main event).

1115. Each student organizes the preceding events.

This can be done on paper in jot list form orsimply practiced for presentation frommemory.

6. Each student must tell the events whichwere selected to a larger group or to thewhole class in no less than one minute norno more than two minutes. The list of situa-tions below is not exhaustive. The teachershould supplement with items that are ap-propriate to the region and to the students'environment, experience and ability. Itemswhich may result in undesirable responsesshould be deleted.

a. Tell your teacher or principal the eventswhich led to

your innocent possession of the school'sburglar alarm and master keys.

your innocent possession of the answerkey to tomorrow's final exam in mathe-mat ics.

your parking your car in the principal'sreserved parking space.

your driving your car through the school'sprize rose garden.

your ramming into the vice principal'sbrand new, diesel-powered station wagon.

the failure of your chemistry experimentand the resulting damage to the lab, twoexternal wails and 14 windows in anadjoining building.

your innocent presence in the girls'/boys'locker room while members of the oppo-site sex are preparing to dress,

your 14th and final tardy to your fourthperiod, after lunch class.

your parking the school's new educa-tional training vehicle in the 15-foot ravinebehind the school cafeteria.

b. Tell your parent or guardian the eventswhich led to

your being brought home from a date ina police car.

your arriving home at 2 a.m. when youwere due at 10:30 p.m.

35 :3

your late arrival at your sister's (brother's)wedding when you had been entrustedwith the rings.

your breaking both headlights out of thefamily car.

your charging $100 worth of merchan-dise (new clothes) to their account.

Other stem sentenrs may include siblings.dates. ministers, civil officials and so on.

7. After completing steps above, organize groupsof three to five students and appoint a re-corder from each group.

8. Distribute samples of "Dear Abby" newspa-per column for students to use as a mod. 1.

9. Discuss with students the task (that is. theywill collectively discuss a hypothetical prob-lem and then individually write a letter as aresponse).

10. Arbitrarily give each group two cards withdilemmas. Some possibilities are

how to ask for a date

how to graciously turn down a date

how to tell a person you have dated steadilythat you wish to date someone else

how to tell someone you are sorry

how to back out of an.unsupervised situationthat you consider unwholesome without beingcalled a prude or a chicken

how to tell someone you like very much thatthey have bad breath or dandruff

11. Have students decide which dilemma theywould like to discuss.

12. Tell students to brainstorm at least threedistinct alternatives for the selected dilemma.Tell students to suggest steps for eachalternative. The recorder is responsible for

36

preparing and, finally, submitting jot lists forthe alternatives.

13. After adequate time has been provided fordiscussion, have students prepare individualletters telling the dilemma writer how toproceed in resolving the problem. The styleof students' response matches the "DearAbby" format.

14. Have students use group revision or editingprocess to refine their individual letters.

15. Give students opportunity to share the di-lemma and one or two of the groups' individ-ual responses with the whole class.

16. Submit final copies of letters and each group'sjot lists,for teacher evaluation.

Evaluation

Peer evaluation is inherent in the group editingprocess.

The jot list from group work and teacher observa-tion are evidence of participation.

Letters themselves become evidence of individ-ual effort.

Follow-up Activities

Reverse "Dear Abby" responses by having stu-dents tell the distressed person the step-by-stepworst possible course of action.

Using student-selected want ad from local news-paper, have students prepare business letterinquiries to the advertiser. Responses are toinclude statements telling what experiences qual-ify the students for the desired positions.

Develop a column siiitilar to "Dear Abby" as anintegral part of a classroom newspaper or sug-gest such a column to the sponsor of the schoolnewspaper.

ExplainingExplaining undergrids other modes of discourse,such as interpreting. It involves activitiPa quitesimilar to those in other instructioi:! areas, suchas reading. Thus, it becomes doubly important initself as a mode of communication and as abuilding block for other phases of instructions.

The similarity of activities in both instancesoffers the teacher the opporunity to reinforce,through additional practice, elements commonto several skills. However, if the activities seemredundant, economize through careful planning.One or a series of activities could be used tobuild concepts useful for reading and writing andfur specific disciplines such as social studies,science or mathematics.

In explaning an individual must be rt'le to makesomething clear to someone else. The stated orunstated how must be answered. "How did thishappen?" "How do I get to your house?" "Howdo you bake a cake?"

To satisfy this how question an individual must

recognize that a process or procedure is com-prised of steps.

identify the steps in the process or procedure.

recognize the order inherent in the steps.

organize and present the data in a fashionappropriate to the audience.

As students progress in age and ability, theirefforts should obviously take on a greater level ofsophistication. Providing logical development,making connections and demonstrating relation-ships will require more effort and rely upon thestudents' increasing maturity.

The how question for older students will becomemore abstract. Their responses will require theuse of appropriate examples and appeals to pre-cedent for justification.

When working with older or younger students,the teacher will need to alert them to the differ-ences in an explanation that is face-to-face (i.e..one in which the receiver's reactions can be seenand his or her confusion resolved by the other)and one that must stand on its own merits (onein which the sender is unable to react to thereceiver's confusion or responses, such as a setof written directions).

37 3 6

r

Sample ActivitiesFeature StoryGrades 9.10

Goal/l

This activity will help students deve:np a height-ened sense of audience. Students experimentwith writing for an outside audience. The ftmurestory is explored. Students make appropriatelanguage choices suitable for the wGrk and theaudience.

Objectives

The learner will

develop a feature story.

make appropriate language choices for thatstory.

. write for an outside audience.

participate in a small group editorial board.

Materials

Copies of good feature stories

Examples of strong end paragraphs

Chalk chalkboard

Summary

Students write a feature story on the subject of

why is a good teacher. Arti-cles are presented in small groups which select,

edit and submit the best to the' school paper.

Procedures

1. Have students brainstorm for the qualitiesthat make a good teacher. Encourage stu-dents to elaborate on characteristics.

2. Through the use of the criteria developedabove, ask students to indentify a teacherpast or present who exemplifies these char-acteristics.

3. Students complete a free writing assignmentabout this person and share their work insmall groups.

4. Discuss the aspects of a good feature storyusing examples selected for this purpose.(See Materials.)

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5. Have students write a feature story for theschool paper on the subject why

is a good teacher. They areindividually to write an in-depth article ontheir favorite teacher, enumerating the goodqualities of that teacher as a model. The freewriting assignment may form the basis ofthis article, or the students may by nowhave changed their minds.

6. The form of the article is that of a featurestory, which is a long, researched article forthe front page of a paper.

7. Instruction in form should concentrate onthe lead paragraph and pyramid organiza-tion of material typical of journalistic style.

8. Careful proofreading is a part of this step.

9. Have students present articles in small groups,exchange feedback and then revise theirefforts.

10. Ask students to return to small groups withrevised articles. The group selects the bestpaper (s) and suggests further revisions.

11. Have the final drafts shared with the entireclass.

12. The class then decides which papers to sub-

mit to the school newspaper.

EvaluationTeacher evaluation should be begun throughobservation of student work. Join several of thesmall group's proceedings. Notice process andstudent's interaction in offering and acceptingcriticism.

The students' efforts in free writing and in individ-ual feature story writing can be evaluated. Theevaluation should focus the directions given andthe students' success or failure in adhering tothem.

37

F011ow-up Activities

Repeating objectives and procedures above, stu-dents can write similar stories about adults out-side the classroom who are or were significantindividuals to them.

Similar stories can be developed about class-mates.

Students can modify material used in the feature

4S

story or the follow-up and write editorials asappropriate (i.e., important of good teachers ormeaningful adults).

Any of the above ideas can be redeveloped in theform of a narrative using a nonfiction or a fictionapproach.

Resources(See Explaining, Grades 11-12.)

39 3

\ RGra d:13°Grades II-12

Goal/Purpose

The purpose of this activity is to help studentsdevelop a heightened sense of audience in their

writing.

Objectives

The learner will

make language choices based on audience

considerations.

develop a personal. interesting and coherent

paper.

emphasize audience appeal.

Materials

Pencil and paper

Appropriate print and nonprint materials onrobot themes

Summary

The following activity takes students beyond thepedestrian and routine assignments that some-times stifle writing. This activity calls for imagi-native fiction, but other options can be created.

To assess audience appeal students read theirexplanations to peers as a culminating activity.

Procedures

1. The teacher sets the stage for the activity byassigning an approprial reading such asIsaac Asimov's 1 Robot or Karel Capek'sR.U.R. or showing a film or filmstrip about a

robot.

2. Instruct students to design a robot. Eachmust produce a sketch and provide a namefor his or her design.

3. Each student then jots down notes on thefollowing.

The robot's components, functions and ma-

teriak,

Its capabilities and limitiations

Its special features

4. Using their notes. the students individuallywrite a paper explaining their robots to poten-tial buyers. The papers are to be accurate.(This isn't a used robot.)

40

5. In small groups the students test market theirdesigns and explanations.

6. Based on peer responses students make ap-

propriate revisions.

7. The students read their papers to potentialbuyers from other small groups. The buyersprovide feedback on whether the explana-

tions are clear or adequate.

Evaluation

1. Self and peer evaluation are integral parts ofthe activity. (See steps 5 and 7 above.)

2. Teacher evaluation focuses upon complete-

ness of exercise, quality of description andeffectiveness of audience appeal.

Follow-up ActivitiesMaintaining the futurist theme, students candesign a spaceship for travel in deep space. Forthis activity blueprints can be drawn, internaldivision indicated, floor plans provided and soon.

Jot down notes explaning

what life support systems have been included

and how these systems work.

what recreational facilities have been included.

what propulsion systems have been designed

and how they work.

what other provisions for living have been made.

Using the notes and drawings, write a paper toconvince others to join you on the trip into deep

space or to buy the product and use it themselves.

Read your paper to a potential space voyager.After the space voyager has made a decision

have the voyager give you feedback on yourpaper.

Alternate ActivityReverse the entire time sequence and ask stu-dents to design a product or products whichcould be used by colonial settlers.

These products must be of wood and capable ofmanufacture with hand tools only.

OThe written' description can be in modern.(anachronistic) lailgudie-Tortonvenience or forcomic effect. The description can"be made morechallenging by requiring students to researchthe language of the time period and produce-)their descriptions as pear to that language aspossible. .

Resources/Referenees

lrmscher, William E., Teaching Expository Writing.NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979.

Kirby, Dan and Liner., Tom Inside Out: Strate-gies for Teaching Writing as a DevelopmentalProcess. NY: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc., 1981.

Koch and Brazil. Strategies for Teaching theComposing Process. Urbana, Ill: NCTC.. 1978.

Martin. Nancy, et.al., Writing and Learning Acrossthe Curriculum, 11-i 6. London: Ward Lock Edu-cational for the Scl ,Is Council, 1976 (availablefrom Hayden).

Maxwell, Rhoda J. and Judy, Stephen. Composing.Michigan: The Michigan Council of Teaching ofEnglish, 1978-79.

Miller, James E. Jr., Word. Self. Reality: TheRhetoric of Imagination. NY: Dodd, Mead. 1972.

Newan, Beth. Teaching Students to Write.Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.1980.

Olsen, Gene. Sweet Agony: A Writing Manual ofSorts. Oregon: Windyridge Press. 1972.

Stanford, Gene and Smith. Marie A. Guidebookfor Teaching CreativeWritiiig. Boston: Allyn andBacon, Inc. 1977.

Stanford, Gene. and Smith, Marie A. Guidebookfor Teaching Composition. Boston: Allyn andBacon. Inc. 1977.

Television Shows Channels 8 and 17

Professional Media and Methods

41 4 0

PersuadingAs members of a highly communicative socialgroup, we regularly send and receive numerousmessages;' many of these messages are intendedto persuade. We exhort others to believe as wedo, and we are ourselves exhorted to accept thebeliefs, statements or opinions of others. In

addition, if the statistics describing our viewinghabits are to be credited, we are literallyinnundated with efforts at persuasion in the formof commercial advertising. It is, therefore, ex-tremely important to help young people becomemore aware of and effective in their use ofpersuasive discourse; furthermore, it is equallyimportant to help our students become more .

effective in their ability to identify persuasivearguments.

Predictably, efforts with younger students con-centrate on developing awareness, not proficiency.The teacher's initial task is to help studentsrecognize their own natural, normal attempts at

42

persuasion. Once students understand that per-suading is not a new or an alien activity, effortsshould be directed at helping students to presenttheir own ideas convincingly and to providesupporting information such as examples whichhelp substantiate a position.

Activities at the elementary level include evaluat-ing points of view, developing explanations, pro-viding supporting examples, identifying individ-ual motives, anticipating counter arguments andso on. At the high school level these practicesare pursued in greater depth. Students work torefine their persuasive skills and to become moreadept at penetrating the manipulative messagesaimed at all of us. Efforts focus on providingexperiences which will help students recognizeattempts (their own and those of others) atpersuading.

41

Sample ActivitiesPersuasive Messages

Grades 9-10

Goal/Purpose

As receivers of persuasive messages, we must bealert to proofs which seek to satisfy our motives.As initiators of persuasive messages, we must beconcerned with motive appeal. We must expressour messages in a manner that satisfies themotives of the listener. Students will have oppor-tunity to develop their understanding of thesefacts by writing persuasive messages.

Objectives

The learner will

select and narrow topics.

develop and write conclusions.

develop and write thesis statements.

gain insight into values and motives as anelement of audience appeal.

demonstrate logical thinking.

develop, write and present a persuasive argu-ment.

Materials

Access to media center. current periodicals andother related literature

Summary

Students, as a group, will follow a series of stepsto develop a sample persuasive argument.Individually, in pairs or in small groups, theywill then consider several topics for which per-suasive arguments would be appropriate, par-tially develop persuasive arguments for two oftheir topics, and, finally, develop one fully into apresentable argument.

Procedures1. Explain to the students that they are to

develop a persuasive argument that takesinto account motive appeal.

2. Explain to students that thesis statementsare essentially statements of purpose. Theyanswer questions such as "What am I tryingto prove?" or "What statement am I making?"

43

Often it is helpful to write a conclusionbefore writing a thesis statement, this allowsthe writer the opportunity to keep the end inmind while developing the introductorystatements.

3. Consider this conclusion Sky diving is achallenge because it presents the diver witha variety of unpredictable and dangeroushazards while requiring training and goodsense.

4. Students should construct a thesis from thisconclusive or final sentence.

5. Encourage students to develop introductionswhich present the thesis in palatable ways.

6. Assign students to work individually, in pairsor in small groups to develop, rehearse andrefine their products.

7. Students should consider a number of topicsthat lend themselves to persuasion and inwhich they have some interest and expertise.

8. Narrow the topic selection alternatives totwo.

9. Students should examine the usefulness andmanageability of both topics, which mustnot be too broad or general. Individual, peer,group and teacher assistance may be anecessary part of delimiting a topic.

10. Students should repeat the process above(skip 2-6) for their two topics; i.e., developconclusion, write thesis statements and de-vt..;op introductions.

11. Discuss the following rhetorical items indetail with the students. Be certain theyunderstand the meanings and importance ofeach. Questions and examples follow theitems. This should be done with the largegroup and repeated with the specific topicsselected by the students in small groups.

Thesis Statement

Reasoning (effect-cause and cause-effect)

'12

Proposition of fact (occurrence, existence

and causality)A. Occurence American leaders planned

in advance the Invasion ofCuba.

B. Existence The abominable snowmanreally lives.

C. Causality Spectator preference foraction sports will lead to thedeath of baseball as a pro-fessional sport.

Proposition of valueA. John Kennedy was a great president.B. Modern art is rubbish.

Proposition of policy tnA. A program of free medical care for all

citizens should be established by thefederal government.

B. The U.S. should continue its supportof the United Nations.

Students will use some or all of the abovetactics and activities in completing their.work.

12. Students should decide on the one topicthey would like to develop further.

13. Students should remember that a mere state-ment of purpose is not enough; the purposehas to be significant for the person who willbe reading or hearing the work. The as-sumed audience may respond to the thesiswith a thought such as, "I'm not sure I

agree, but I'd like to see or hear the writer'sreasons for that assertion."

14. Stoderts should develop ana present a per-suasive argument for the topic selected.

15. Students should analyze their products onthe following criteria.

a. Each product should be evaluated on theorganiiation, clarity, preciseness, persua-siveness and logic of the evidence pre-sented by the student.

b. Is there a clear-cut thesis?

c. there a strong introduction?

d. Did i select the criteria which I thoughtthe audience would accept for judgingthe truth of my proposition?

e. Did I develop my proposition thoroughly?

44

f. Does the conclusion make a final state-ment appropriate to my thesis?

Note: If the audience walks away. the speaker or writer fails

at the outset.

EvaluationPeer evaluation should be an integral part of the. ,

group process with students providing feedbackto each other.

Teacher observation of performance should bebased on students' participation in group discus-

sion as well as on their final products using thesame criteria as in step 15.

Follow-up Activities

Students sharpen their analytical skills by hav-ing them collect (from television, films, newspapers,books, magazines, signs) examples of messagesthat they think are designed to trick people or topersuade them by flattery or other less thanhonest means. Bring them to class for discussion.(They need not confine their selection to the

printed or spoken word. Pictures are designed topersuade, too.) Share these. See if the class re-

acts to it as the student did. Do the opinions ofthe group agree? What generalizations can be

made about the teenage appeal of the ad? Would

it appeal to an adult audience as much? Why, orwhy not? Check conclusions by asking parentsand other adults how they respond tothe ad, andthen report to the class.

Write an advertisement for a leading brand ofsoap or similar commodity, and then write aparagraph discussing the validity of the appeals

you have used.

Suppose you were planning a model of a new carto bring the buyer a new way of life. Whatevidence could you use to support this claim?

Conduct a discussion on these or similar topics

Does the audience believe advertising?

Why do you suppose that overadapting to theaudience is a more usual problem in advertisingthan in other kinds of communications?

Drug companies have found that news programshelp to sell their products, but airline companieshave found them ineffectual. Can you accountfor this?

Modern MotivesGrades 11-12

Goal/Purpose

This activity familiarizes students with the con-cept and use of motive appeal in audiencepersuasion.

Objectives

The learner will

identify the intended audience of an advertise-ment.

identify motive appeal in advertisements.

examine various persuasive devices.

develop a persuasive argument.

Materials

Access to media center

Magazines (older editions and current ones)

Reproductions of mail order catalogs such asSears, Roebuck and Company 1904 and 1906catalogs

Overhead projector

Summary

Students will identify the intended audience andappeal of advertisements which appeared inmagazines. They will then adapt this information.consider the current consumer and develop apersuasive advertising campaign to sell this prod-uct in today's market.

Procedures

1. Allow students to peruse advertisements forproducts which appeared in magazines pub-lished at least 10 years ago, preferably longer.

2. Remind students that the purpose of anadvertisement is to sell a product and,therefore, an ad must specifically appeal toits audience to be successful. Use an over-head transparency of such an ad for adiscussion example.

3. Divide the class into small groups.

4. Have students exchange information aboutthe ads they examine. (In this exchangethey must at least identify the audience towhich their ad was addressed and the particu-lar motive appeal or selling point.)

Note: Recognition of terminology such as bandwagonand glittering generalities is useful in identifying appealthrough propaganda devices but is not essential.

5. Tell each group to identify products or adver-tising strategies which are not widely used incurrent magazines. Formulate a master listof these items.

6. Consider older products for which interest- f'ing advertisements could be developed.

7. Tell students, either in pairs or small groups.to select a product from the list.

8. Have students make a list of selected product'sfeatures; e.g., usefulness, attractiveness,materials, accessories, cost.

9. Ask students to reflect on the current life-style of Americans and identify which fea-tures might appeal to modern buyers.

10. Consider current magazine advertisementsand identify appeals which can be adaptedin persuading potential buyers to considertheir product.

11. Remind students to identify a specific mar-ket (e.g.. children, teenagers, senior citizens,attorneys, teachers, health enthusiasts, sportsfans) to which they will address theircampaign.

12. Tell students to identify an appropriate ap-peal for that audience.

13. Have students examine various persuasivedevices that could be used in their campaign.

14. Tell students to combine their informationand to plan an advertising campaign whichwould persuade an identified modern con-sumer group.

15. Have students present their ad campaign totheir classmates.

16. After each presentation, have the class iden-tify three components of the campaign.namely audience appeal and persuasivedevice(s) and identify the point at which theywere convinced to buy or not buy the item.(Students must participate in the audiencerole as representatives of the intended group.)

451'i

idt

Evaluation

1. Peer evaluation is inherent in step 16.

2. Teacher evaluation should focus on the group.

Is the campaign targeted precisely?

Is the audience identification appropriate?

Is the attempt at persuasion logical?

Is the overall effort representative of thegroup's collective skill and ability?

Follow-up ActivitiesStudents cross compare advertising of the sameproduct in different market places such as GoodHousekeeing and Psychology Today.

Students compare advertising in American mag-azines and British magazines or other Englishlanguage foreign journals.

46

Using press books students consider variety ofappeals used by professional publicists for per-suading different segments of the population toattend the same movie. (The local theater ownershave quite a number of these press t, oks fortheir use in offering new films in local areas.)

Students design adjunct material for their initialad campaign such as buttons, bumper stickers,slogans, additional products including deluxemodels, inexpensive models and so on.

Students role play various situations in whichsuccessful persuasion was a crucial factor suchas talking a police officer out of a ticket of askingto borrow the family car or asking for an advanceon their allowance.

ResearchingResearch is literally a process of discovery andorganization. There are a number of steps in thisprocess.

Clearly defining the purpose and the directionof the research

Identifying the available sources of informa-tion (in and out of school)

Gathering data from among the sources

Organizing the information obtained

Reporting the results

Traditionally. school related research has reliedupon the school media center and the localpublic library. While these are valid and reliablesources, research should not be limited to or bythese facilities. Recognition of the community asa valuable adjunct to the classroom is valuablein researching. Community members. businessand governmental agencies and the media(national and local) are often underused sourcesfor student research; everything from rock con-certs to retirement homes should be given con-sideration as rich, relevant sources.

4 647

To be successful the researcher must gatheruseful information efficiently; most students willnot be able to intuitively accomplish this. Teachereffort and instructional time will acquaint stu-dents with tactics and strategies for streamliningtheir efforts. Since the majority of this work isdone outside the classroom and, frequently, out-side the school, the teacher must adapt somesystematic method for assuring that students areprogressing toward their goal(s).

Reporting findings is usually done in school tothe class or a small group within the class; theteacher should rarely, if ever, be the sole audience.This reporting can legitimately take a number offorms; e.g., an oral report. a project, a student-made tape or media product, or the traditionalpaper.

Ideally, the information sought by students shouldbe of value and interest to them. The specifiedtasks are more successfully accomplished whenthey are related to the students' needs and whenthe students perceive the process, methodologyand results of research as valuable means to agoal which they recognize.

Sample ActivitiesReal PeopleGrades 9-10

Purpose

Students are led,to see literature as products ofhuman effort, written by real people. Readingand responding are in-depth activities. Theyfocus on a single author rather than on briefpieces by several authors. The emphasis is onsharing insights and on individual studentresponses.

Objectives

The learner will

study the life and work(s) of one author indepth.

use current secondary sources on author.

respond to several writings of a single author.

write summary portraits of author and his orher work.

MaterialsLibrary resources about writers Current Bio-graphy, Who's Who

Books of library criticism, magazine reviews,biographies

Selected writings by the author

Relevant nonprint media (film, audio disctape)

Summary

This research procedure leads students to use avariety of primary and secondary sources. Litera-ture is presented as the product of human efforts;teachers help students learn that authors arereal people not merely literary giants. Eachstudent delivers a creative presentation of aportion of the author's work. The sharing offeelings and opinions about the author's work isencouraged. The final product of this effort is asummary essay.

Procedures

I. Toward the end of a class period write thename of an essayist. poet or novelist on theboard and simply say "find out more aboutthis writer."

2. Each class member must contribute at leastone piece of information about that author atthe next class meeting.

3. Pass out copies of the author's work(s) andread to the students from that author's material.Talk about the works and share your feelings.Ask the students to share their feelings andinvite them to speculate about the author, theauthors origins, attitudes, biases. Direct themto read other works by that author.

4. If possible, incorporate other media such asfilms, recordings, slides or music about theauthor or the author's work to increase thestudents' interest and involvement. (To broadenthe context for the writer's works, try some-thing with visuals and sound in a multimediapresentation.)

5. Read some of the criticism about the author'swork. If possible, read some of the author'sown criticism. Discuss the role of the critic.Encourage students to make critical judg-ments of their own.

6. Ask students to present a portion of thewriter's work to the class, perhaps as a shortinterpretive reading.

7. Involve the class or the group in a limiteddiscussion of the work presented.

8. Each student should write a summary criti-cism of the author and the work. The teachershould encourage the students to includetheir own opinions and feelings.

9. Preliminary drafts should be shared and

edited in small grows.

Evaluation

1. The teacher should be certain that thepapers represent the student's own effortand incorporate material from a varietyof sources. Criteria might include thefollowing questions and should be pro-vided to the student in advance.

48 4?

Does the reader get a feel for the author?

Does the writer hook the reader's interestin the author?

Does the writer offer adequate support forthe opinion stated?

Are papers developed portraits of the author?

Does the author's humanity emerge?

2. Students' interpretive readings are respondedto by the class to provide peer evaluation.Small groups should work together respond-ing to and editing the summary essays duringrevision for the final draft.

Follow-up Activities

The same procedures can be used for writers inseveral genres.

Students may also identify, interview and pres-ent to the class writers in their community.

Students might attempt writing in the genre oron the subjects of the author they have researched.

49

Resources

Films

From the Georgia Department of Education:

4261 Carl Sandburg Discusses His Work

9001 James Dickey, Poet

4296 Mark Twain Gives an Interview

7292 Why Man Creates

Disc or tape recordings

Weiss, M. Jerry. From Writers to Students: ThePleasures and Pains of Writing. Newark, N.J.:IRA, 800 Barksdale Rd., 1979.

Print

Janeezko, Paul. "In Their Own Words Inter-views with Authors." English Journal column.

Interviews

Paris Reviews, Series 1-4.

Other

Local writers

Kirby, Dan and Tom Liner. Inside Out: Develop-mental Strategies for Teaching Writing. Mont-clair, New Jersey: Boynton/Cook Publishers,Inc., 1981.

Detective StoriesGrades 11-12

Adapted fromW. Keith Kraus

Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem: A Process for Creative Research PapersUrbana, Illinois

National Council of Teachers of English1978

PurposeStudents approach research as a process ofdiscovery, a mystery to be solved.

Objectives

The learner willdevelop an understanding of the research pro-cess by going through the steps involved.

approach the research process and reportfindings with an unbiased attitude.

interpret and analyze sources.

document sources using an appropriate format.

present research findings appropriate to aparticular audience.

Materials

A tape of Poe's "Tell Tale Heart"

A murder mystery

A synopsis of an actual murder case

Library resources

An annotated list of topics

SummaryWriting a research paper is often a frighteningprospect for students. Allay fears by giving stu-dents an overview of the entire process. Let themknow what will be happening as they work thisproject. Establish the success-oriented nature ofthis project. Help students see themselves asresident experts on their topic. They are incharge of knowing more than anyone else onthat particular topic. Help students see thisprocess as one of discovery. one in which theyare detectives in search of clues. There will befalse starts and deadend streets and this should

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not be a signal to surrender. Present this activityas a case, as a mystery to solve, and emphasizeprocess. Allow five to six weeks for the unit.

Procedures1. Generate enthusiasm for the project by share

ing a Sherlock Holmes, Agatha Christie orother murder mystery. Play a tape of Poe's"Tell Tale Heart." Discuss the role of thedetective in these pieces.

2. Encourage students to give a brief summaryof recent real murder stories. Brainstorm fora list of famous real detectives. Discuss theglamour mythology of detectives; use TVshows such as Rockford Files or MagnumP.1. as examples.

3. Present a synopsis of a murder case (seeresources Murder, Mischief, Mayhem).Ask students how they might go about solv-ing it. Point out the hours of searching forand sifting through myriad details to locateclues. Reinforce the notion of the often labo-rious research that goes into solvi g a case.

4. Explain that students will partici ate in -asimilar process for their research. Give abrief overview of the research process.

5. Conduct a school media center tour. If possi-ble, take a field trip to a nearby regional orcollege library. Introduce students to poten-tial sources of information with which theymay not be familiar. Give them hands onexperience with microfilm or microfiche.

6. Create and distribute a research activitysheet that makes it necessary for students toactu Ily use the sources they have discovered.i.e., a ents which require the students

49

to use the information sources suggested instep 5. Be sure students can use indices suchas the New York Times Index; require themto put on a reel of microfilm and locateinformation; have students use the Reader'sGuide to Periodical Literature: Avoid sug-gesting that dry, lifeless details are desirable.A culmiciating activity for this might be ashort summary paper on the mood of thetimes as gleaned from details discovered incompleting the activity sheet.

7. Introduce the overall project in more t:?tailand assign topics. (see "An Annotated Listof Topics" in Murder, Mischief and Mayhem)Poll student interests based on the topicsavailable and assign topics based on stu-dents' interests.

8. Have students immerse themselves in thetime period of their topic. Create questionswhich they might wish to consider.

What was life like?

What did people wear?

What were the big headlines?

Who was President?

What was the popular form of entertainment?

Assure students that this is neither busywork nor wasted effort. Suggest that theymay be able to incorporate this informationinto their research papers and that theiradditional knowledge of the period will en-hance their ability to complete the research.

9. Have students use the New York TimesIndex to determine the general events oftheir cases as best t ey can. Have themsimply scan headlines f the Index and fillout what they can on th "Research PaperFact Sheet."

10. Have students go back to the New YorkTimes Index and choose the stories theywant to read. Assist students with somehelpful hints on how to carefully screen thearticles. -

11. As students read, have them note informa-tion necessary for locating the article againshould they need to go back to it.

12. Remind students that they are to check aminimum of 30 sources and that they are toconstruct a 10.to 12 page paper.

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13. Stress accuracy in notetaking. Point outdifferences in writing styles from 19th to20th century news stories. Remind studentsto maintain a researcher's detached view.(Encourage students to bring in examples ofattitudes and language that seem interesting.)Remind students to research words andphrases that they do not understand. Helpstudents with other aspects that may betroublesome such as trial material (see f*\146 through 147, Murder, Mischief. and \Mat hem). Alert students to be on the look- \out or materials, such as letters-to-the-editor, that were never cited. Finally, helpstudents understand the difference betweentheir synopsis of material and outrightplagiarism.

14. Help students brainstorm alternate sourcesof information such as trial transcripts.

15. Allow two to four weeks for students to reviewmaterials, take notes and construct roughdrafts.

16. The major portion of in. cias time can bedevoted to helping studenft, learn to writemore effective introductions, to search forstrong quotations and then to weave inthose quotations, to actually construct thepaper, to document sources and to buildmore effective conclusions. Students shouldat this time also be writing in a journal. Itwould not be inappropriate for teachers toprovide a range of writing opportunities whichare not necessarily related to the researchpaper.

17. Construct a checklist that reflects thoseresearch items you hate been helping stu-dents learn. Let students work with a partnerto check rough drafts. Students can helpeach other in the revision process.

18. Allow time (one week) for final drafts to bewritten and submitted.

Evaluation

1. Emphasize the process. Let the student knowin advance that they are to be evaluated onthe process, i.e., selecting pertinent facts,maintaining a researcher's objectivity, choos-ing quotations that strengthen their papers.arranging findings in an organized and effec-tive manner. Therefore. the teacher must use

O U

the same checklist form that was given thestudents when evaluating the process.

2. Self-evaluation should involve the student inusing the checklist provided.

3. Peer evaluation should be done with a part-ner to check drafts for revision.

4. Final products may be shared with the class.

Followup ActivitiesStudents may write their own mystery stories,possibly withholding solutions, for the class tosolve.

The checklist may, be applied to other researchprojects on other subjects.

ResourcesKraus, W. Keith. Murder, Mischief, and Mayhem.

A Process for Creative Research Papers. Urbana,Illinois, NCTE. 1978. Within this title see "AnAnnotated List of Topics."

52

Newspaper Articles

Locate (or have students locate) articles onmurders or mysteries.

Trials

Have students sit in on court proceedings orinterview attorneys, jurists or others who havehad experience with murder trials.

NovelsIn Cold Blood by Truman CapoteMurder in Coweta County by Margaret Ann

Barnes

Drama

Twelve Angry Men by Reginald RoseMusic

"Night Moves" by Bob Seegar

TV

Tape of "Mystery" hosted by Gene Shalit. PBS

..---**"`

Interpretingif"

Interpreting is the ad of deriving meaning fromsomething. The something might be a fairlysimple experience or a very complex philosophi-cal treatise. We may interpret a child's throwinga pencil to mean that he or she is angry or thathe or she seeks attention; on the other extremewe may interpret Kant's Critique of Pure Reasonto mean whatever it might mean.

Constraints upon the interpretation vary. Some-,thing may be interpreted in light of its personalsignificance what does this event or thisstatement mean personally or privately? Thingsmay be interpreted to determine the intent oftheir author what does a gesture or statementmean? There are other constraints what is thesignificance of this statement to a nation, to alistener, to the future of education or to thedetective who overhears it? These, varying con-straints may be thought of as differences in thepurposes of the interpreting.

Finally, the situation or the context for interpreta-tion may vary. It may be undertaken alone inpreparation for a paper: it may be presentedorally as either a carefully prepared or an im-promptu statement: it may be the consensus of agroup; it may be the winning position in adebate; or it may simply be a discussion in whicha variety of possibilities are explored and noresolution is necessary.

Within this wide range of subject, purpose andsituation, there are two constant elements. Allinterpretation demands both explanation andinference; that is, all interpretation attempts tomake something clear or understandable, to findreasons for something or to identify significance.These are all explanations of a sort; however,interpretation also demands reference to thingsoutside the speaker or writer. h is not simply thereporting of feelings generated from within. It

553

demands an accounting for things outside. Itdemands that the-tVriter observe features in theevent or the statement and draw inferences fromthem. Interpretive writing is not unchecked. It isbound by the subject being interpreted. If thefeatures of that subject are neglected, then thewriting is no longer interpretation.

A program that intends to provide students withexperience and instruction in interpreting mustdraw upon a wide range of subjects. purposesand situations for writing assignments appropri-ate to the age and ability,of the student, assign-ments that require explanation and inference. Avariety of assignments are necessary to encour-age the student to interpret. Drawing all topicsfrom a narrowly conceived pool of resources,giving all assignments an identical purpose orasking the student to perform in only one situa-tion is clearly inappropriate. A program, forinstance, that directs all interpretive writing topoems, asks the author's intent and uniformlydemands a three-to-five page paper on eachtopic, might be considered anemic. The opportu-nity to consider several genres or other materialsshould not be -:nissed. A broadly conceivedprogram, encouragirig the teacher to vary assign-ments by subject, purpose and situation wouldcertainly better sustain the interest of the studentand more effectively teach him or her the preci-sion of thought and expression demanded by theact of interpreting.

Clearly, the few plans offered below do notexhaust the possibilities. They simply suggestways of varying interpretive writing assignments.The individual teacher, reflecting upon the na-ture of his or her students, the subject matter ofthe course and the aspects of interpretive writingthat might be varied will find a vast range ofpossibilities for instruction in this mode.

..t

Sampfe ActivitiesLogical Analysis!

Grades 9.10

Goal

The purpose of this lesson is to Kterpret apersuasive essay in the form of a speech. Thestudents are invited to examine the speaker'sassumptions and logic in an effort to assess thequality of the presentation.

Objectives

The learner will

. analyze the logic of a passage.

identify fallacious arguments In that passage.

explain the fallacy in the identified arguments.

analyze the passage in a clear and orderly

essay.

Materials

The enclosed speech

Several articles or items illustrating clear, logi-

cal arguments.

Several articles or items illustrating unclear orspecious logic.

Summary

The task is to analyze the logic of a persuasivepassage. It assumes some preyiods work in theuse of logic and critical thinking and in readingand discussing short persuasive essays whichememplify both strong and weak reasoning. Know-ledge of a technical terminology is unimportant;however, previous experience is necessary in

clarifying premises, providing evidence for gen-eralizations, evaluating conflicts in evidence and

opinion and documenting information.

in this activity students analyze a short passageexemplifying inadequate perhaps even fraudu-

lent argument. A follow-up may be a choice ofmore interesting or more difficult passages.

Procedures

1. Use a passage that clearly exemplifies someillogic for students to detect.

2. As a brief introduction, remind students ofprevious work on rational argument. Point

54

out that words do shape events. Remindstudents they are to ascertain if the words arehonestly and reasonably arranged.

3. Have the class discuss the following example.

"The City Council of Cambridge. Massachusetts. unani-

mously passed a resolution (December 1939) making itillegal to possess, harbor, sequester, introduce or trans-

port, within the city limits, any book, map, magdzine,

newspaper, pamphlet, handbill or circular containing the

words Lenin or Leningrad." (Hayakawa, p. 33)

4. Suggest the class consider these questions.

What might the city council have had. in

mind?

What is the problem with the thinkingevident in this resolution?

5. After discussing the passage, use other exam-ples drawn from Hayakawa or elsewhere for

additional practice.'t9

6. When the students have warmed to the huntfor the nonsense underlying the examples,

present the passage below. Suggest to tclass that it is current and that it mightpersuade those who listen to it. Read it aloudfirst, and then distribute copies for the students.

"Mister President, fellow councilmen. The time has

come for us to make a concerted effort to save this greatcity from the tidal wave of teenage crimefind destructiopwhich threatens each day 'to inundate it. The citizenrOfour great and historic metropolis have suffered longenough at the hands of these baruaians now we mustarise and demand Justice. We can no longer tolerate the

senseless vandalism committed against the churches

and monuments of our forefathers. the brutal beatings of

our elder citizens. the continuous theft from our smallbusinessmen, those storeowners and shopkeepers whoare the lifeblood of our great city's economy. We musttake action against this, the most serious threat to our

pc.ace and security.

**And there is no denying that Juvenile crime has become

our greatest problem. Look at the facts. Within the last50 years. the number of crimes committed by theseyoung hoodlums has more than doubled. And yet society

still handles the criminals with kid gloves. I propose toreplace this passive, spineless tolerance of adolescent

outrages with a firm and practical approach. a program

of action. It is not the nature of the American people to

5

stand aside and watch antisocial groups tear at the rootsof our democracy. The American people descendantsof the men who fought at Lexington and Concord. at theAlamo. and on the battlefields of Europe and the far east

can no longer be satisfied with mere words. We mustgive them something more.

"I have two propositions. The first is directed at thatmost dangerous and odious symbol of our society'sdecadence the motorcycle. Let us ban them from ourstreets. Can we allow the youth of our great country toidolize the Hell's Angels crowd? Can we accept the blackleather Jacket with its skull and crossbones in a societydedicated to the preservation of peace and security forall? How can we hope to curb the moral decay evident inour teenagers if we permit these corrupting influences toremain unchallenged?

'Second. I propose on 8:00 pm curfew for everyonebeneath the age of 21. Look at the benefits of such a plan.As everyone knows, crime flourishes under the cover ofdark. It is the purpose of the curfew to eliminate thiscover. force crime into the light of day where it mustnecessarily wither and die. The curfew would rob theadolescent criminals of their most important protection.And it would be a blow against more than crime. Thinkof its value for the city ancithe nation as a whole.Restricted to their homes, the young bandits will be con-stantly under the watchful eyes of their parents who willbe able to see that they attend :he proper business ofyouthstudies, helping around the house and the like.Denied the companionship of others like themselves theteenagers will have a chance to reform. They will learn todevote themselves to the ideals of the family, of Justiceand of the American way of life. This bill will be the firstreal step toward the Great Society."

7. After reading the speech and handing outcopies, proceed as suggested in either A or B.

A. Discuss the speech briefly, after which thestudents write an analysis of the speechexplaining in as clear and orderly fashionas possible, what is wrong or rightwith the reasoning.

55,1

B. Discuss the speech in detail, identifyingselected flaws. Provide the class with acurrent item that offers a similar opportu-nity for analysis of faulty logic, and assignan analysis on the basis of the new item asdescribed in A.

Evaluation

The students' interpretations of the speech maybe evaluated by how effectively the studentsidentify the speaker's assumptions and by howcarefully and accurately they identify and ex-plain the illogical elements.

Followup ActivitiesUsing an approach similar to the steps abovethe class might analyze an editorial, letter-to-the-editor, advertisement or an election year cam-paign spot.

Resources

Robert W. Allen and Lorne Greene. The Propa-ganda Game, New Haven: AIM Publishers,1969.

Layman E. Allen, et. al., Queries 'n Theories.New Haven: Wff 'n Proof Publishers, 1970.

Richard D. Altick, Preface to Critical Reading,New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1962.

S. I. Hayakawa. Language In Thought andAction, New York: Harcourt Brace and Java-novich, 1972.

Ronald Munson, The Way of Words, Boston:Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1976

Advice"Grades 11-12

Goal

The students will interpret an essay containingsubtle irony. They will infer the writer's meanirgwithin this material.

Objectives

The learner will

analyze the messages within sections of anironic essay.

speculate about the author's intent in eachsect ion.

relate sections of the essay.

draw inferences about the essay from therelationship of the various sections.

discuss the essay with the rest of the-class.

write a brief paper interpreting the essay.

MaterialMark Twain's "Advice to Youth" or anothersuitable ironic selection

Summary

In this activity students interpret prose written in

an ironic tope. Twain's essay is used as anexample. It is ostensibly a didactic, moralisticpiece, presented for the edification of youth.

In analyzing and discussing this material, thestudents will gradually perceive that Twain'strue meaning is to be inferred through the use ofironic language. The activity will culminate witha written analysis of the material read by eachstudent.

Procedures

1. Begin by asking the students for examples ofthe sort of moral precepts they might expectfrom adults or from anyone else who isoncerned with the ethical education of youth.This might be done as a total group or

brainstormed in small groups.)2 Compile the list or the board.3. Discuss the list.

I low valuable are these precepts or sayingsWI guides for your lives?

56

Do you find any that are especially helpful(or not helpful) or true or not true?

Do you think that most (some, none, all)people agree with and observe them?

Other questionsNote: (Polonius' advice to Laertes from Hamlet (I.iii)might be a time saving substitute for the steps above oran additional element to be used in conjunction with-steps 1-3.

4. In small groups have students discuss anddevelop a written response to the followinghypothetical question.

"If you were obligated to give a brief lecture to youngerchildren. presenting a few moral precepts by whichthey might run their lives, what would you include?What would you say to them?"

5. Introduce Twain's essay as though it wereserious. Read a few paragraphs aloud to theclass to get them started.

6. Allow students time to finish reading.7. After students complete their reading, elicit

reactions with a few general questions, con-tinue to accept students' observations untilthe talk lags.

8. Discuss the difference between Twain's ob-servations (statements) and his direct rec-ommendations.

9. Refer students to lower case paragraph two(recommendations) and lower case para-graph three (observations) in "Advice toYouth."

__10: Turn now to the last paragraph in the work.11. Ask "What is implied in the last paragraph?

Does that affect your reading of paragraphtwo? Is paragraph two still a recommen-dation?"

12. Note that the twists in Twain's writing intro-duce a slight problem in interpretation "Isthere a moral implicit in Twain's presenta-tion or is Twain sarcastically condemningwhat he sees as typical behavior? Forinstance, he seems to undermine the firstlesson obey parents when they arepresent by denouncing as superstition their

lief that they know better than you do.

Thus, he might be suggesting that readersrely on better judgment. Readers may come

from that paragraph confident in knowingwhat Twain is recommending humor yourparents, avoid angering them but rely onyour own judgment when you can. The essay'slast paragraph, however, introduces anothercomplication. Twain has not flattered thehuman race. When he says, "build your char-acter on these precepts and you will find thatyou are much like everyone else," he causesthe reader to doubt earlier conclusions. Thereader who had felt exhorted to rely on per-sonal judgment now hears that in doing soone is likely to turn out as bad as everyoneelse. How then, is the essay to be inter-preted?"

13. Keep in mind that Twain's essay is humor-ous and thus may not be as rigorouslylogical and consistent as a more seriouslyintended piece.NOTE: Do not allow the humor to be obscured by theanalysis.

14. After discussion, point out that the essay isnot as simple as it first appeared and sug-gest a short composition interpreting it.

"What does the essay mean.' Is there any seriousadvice in it? Does it simply express an attitude if so.what? Is it simply funny? Be sure to base generaliza-tions upol the specifics of the essay."

Evaluation

The lesson is intended to foster creative interpre-tation. The students may become confused andthis confusion in the mind of the students is to beresolved in the essay writing. Several positisare foreseeable.

There are serious recommendations to the reader,but they are to be inferred.

There are no recommendations, but Twain doescomment satirically on certain foibles.

There are inconsistencies that make the passageimpossible to interpret as a unified piece.

The sermon is simply humorous.

The essays should be evaluated on the basis ofthe strength of the arguments offered. Do thestudents take into account relevant textual data?Do they provide evidence for generalizations?Do they state their case with reasonable clarity?

Follow-up Activities

Work on other materials in which much of themeaning is carried by the tone could follow.Personal essays or editorials by such writers asArt Buchwald and Erma Bombeck will providepractice in dealing with irony and sarcasm inprose, as well as the more traditional works fromwriters such as Jonathan Swift.

SocialInteracting(Ritualizing)

Some communication acts fun,.:ion for purposesother than to convey information about theworld or to influence opinions. What is thepurpose of small talk about weather,' family orcrops? We often engage in such familiar interac-tion as, "Some game last night, huh?" "Yeah,some game." Why do youngsters and adultstease each other and participate in riddlingbouts? We place great importance on greetingeach other, even if just to acknowledge anotherperson's existence. Why? Are we concerned withexhibiting proper norms of politeness and, insome situations, proper norms of rudeness?

These are examples of social interactions ofcommunication rituals. They serve a vital func-tion by helping us build, redefine and maintainrelationships. Through communication ritualswe keen channels of communication operatingsmoothly. We manage the flow of conversationso that we can accomplish the business ofinforming. influencing and expressing to everyone's

satisfaction. Social interaction (ritualizing) is the

58

primary way in which we express perceived rolerelations like intimacy, status and affinity. Ithelps our partners know how to interpret ourmessages; e.g., as an order, a joke, an expres-sion of warmth.

In face-to-face interaction, rituals operate in

both verbal and nonverbal modes. Back slap-ping is an instance of ritualizing as is the spokenphrase,"Let's sit down for a minute and see if wecan work out this problem together." In writtencommunication ritualizing is related to tone andhelps establish a relationship between readerand writer. In a consumer complaint letter posi-tive results can often be obtained by including, "Ihave long enjoyed Crispy Shnozzies and lookforward to the satisfactory solution of this prob-lem so that I can once again purchase yourproduct with confidence." In reading works ofliterature, the author's depiction of communica-tion rituals offers us cues with which we can inferrelations between characters.

5?

Sample ActivitiesWhat Shall I Call You?

Grades 9.10

Goal/Purpose

Although educators often place emphasis onstudents' learning to speak a standard Englishdialect, it is more sound to think of studentsacquiring a range of speech registers, from inti-mate to formal. By language choices, whichconstitute registers. we signal our definitions orperceptions of relationships with audiences. Forexample. the politicians who work with sophisti-cated economic data weekdays in Washingtonmust return to their constituents on weekends.Politicians then must show that they are of thepeople by talking about "Them gall danged bigcity hucksters what ain't got sense nuff to set onefoot front of t'other."

Among the most concrete resources we have forsignifying a register are the terms of address weuse to name each other. Thus, you name yourcolleague "Mr. Thomashevski" when speakingformally before your students, but "Melvin Thomas-kerski" when introducing him to your aunt, "Mel"in the teachers' lounge and perhaps "M.T." at afootball game. Students can begin to recognizeregisters and the dimensions of appropriate lan-guage use (as opposed to so-called correct lan-guage use) by a study of terms of address.

Objectives

The learner will

become sensitive to varying terms of address.

recognize varying degrees of formality in useof terms of address.

explore role relationships which determinedegree of formality in language.

relate these abstract dimensions of relation-ships to students' everyday communicationpatterns.

Materials/Aids

chalkboard

1111Posterboard or large sheets of butcher papernewsprint

59

Summary

Students will list the terms they use to addresspeople who are representative of a variety of rolecategories. Through discussion and questioningstudents will attempt to isolate the social dimen-sions which govern the choice of terms of address.The class will produce a type of flow chartillustrating their analysis. Students will discusshow relationships are at first defined (tentatively)and then maintained or redefined, and they willdiscuss how the nature of these relationships isreflected and manipulated by means of terms ofaddress.

Procedures

1. Teacher explains the concept of role as acategory; i.e., a person's role often determinesthe types of behaviors we expect from himor her.

2. Individually. students spend a few minuteslisting roles with which they might interact ina day (e.g., parent. sibling, adult acquaintance,teacher, friend, peer acquaintance, legalofficial).

3. Teacher compiles a master list of roles onchalkboard.

4. Next to each role designation, students listwhat term they would use to address a personin that category (e.g., first name, Ms. Miss'Mr..Mrs. + last name, Coach 4- last name.nickname, professional title + last name only,kinship term, "Sir" and so forth). Expectdifferent responses here, especially from stu-dents with differing backgrounds.

5. The central task at this point is to try toabstract the underlying social dimensions whichdetermine choices of terms of address. Forexample, age is certainly one factor. and thisshould emerge in the discussir . If we meetsomeone our own age who :ies no apparentstatus or authority that sets him or her apart,we use first name. But an older person isusually address.nl as Mr., Mrs., Miss or Ms.(These terms of greater formality also showthat the factor of 4ex is another determinant.Incidentally. an interesting issue pertains to

how we decide if someone is older, younger ora same age peer. The lines are not clear cut inAmerican cultures.)

6. The discovery of underlying social dimen-sions can be helped along by the use ofhypothetical questions.

What do you call your employer (authority)?

What do you call your employer if he or shelistens to rock and roll music? Is a changeindicated if common interests or attitudes areshared?

What do you call your parent's friend aftercamping out for several days on a fishing orhunting trip? (Does age give way to intimacy?)

How do you feel when your teacher addresses

you as Mr. or Ms.? (Do you feel more adult?Does that feeling make you uneasy?)

7. After the class has listed a number of underly-ing social dimensions which govern choices(,f terms of address, the teacher and studentsshould try to construct a flow chart on thechalkboard. (If the students are more ableand mature, this might be done in small

groups.) When completed, use posterboard for

a permanent illustration of the process. An ex-ample might look like the chart on page

8. Since terms of address are means for ac-knowledging perceived relationships, use thechart to help explain the significance of theterms and how terms define relationships.For example, what does it mean when youremployer says, "You don't need to call me'Mr. Jones,' just call me 'Bob'?"

Evaluation

1. Teacher evaluation should focus on thestudents' volunteered contributions to large

group discussion and on solicited answers toquestions demanding application of the com-munication principles being discussed.

60

2. If the chart is produced as a group product,evaluation in terms of completeness, present-ability, graphic consideration and so on couldbe included.

Follow-up Activities

Assign students to research terms for persons ofspecial status (e.g., ambassadors, airline pilots,

supreme court justices, retired military personnel).Resources include etiquette and secretarialhandbooks, special dictionary sections, encyclo-pedic materials and so on.

Investigate the way speaking practices differfrom titles used in letter writing.

An interesting research project involves crosscultural comparisons of terms of address. Orien-tal cultures, for example, place much more em-phasis on the age factor with finer gradationsthan in America. Native American Indian cul-tures use kinship terms like Aunt and Uncle,with less regard for actual blood lines. In Ger-many someone might be addressed in a manner,if translated, like "Mr. Professor Doctor Smith."

Southern literature is an especially good sourcefor material demonstrating use of terms of ad-

dress to define relationships. Often racial barri-ers are erected in this fashion as in To Kill AMocking Bird; an atmosphere of propriety maybe projected without any basis in objectivereality as in Glass Menagerie.

ResourcesSusan Ervin-Tripp. "On Sociolinglistic Rules:

Alternation and Co-occurrence," in JohnGimperz and Dell Hymes (Eds.), Directionsin Sociolinglistics. New York: Holt Rinehartand Winston, 1972.

Roger Brown and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns ofPower and Solidarity," in T. Sebeck, (Ed.),Style in Language. Cambridge: M.1.T. Press,1960.

4

kinship term(Mom, Dad,Grandma)

direct line

kinship term +First name

(Uncle George,Cousin Sue)

indirect line

subordinatestatus

status

nonkinspecial request

or formality

$power or

/ femalestart here

authority...4...%.ith,

nonprofessional,...6..

%-.,..46,

older

first name

intimate

special status(police. president)

nickname

professional

\411/4title last name

special term( "officer," "your

Honor,""Mr. President")

ortitle alone

(specify age)

/1younger

unfamiliar

first name

peer

subordinate

equal status

nonintimate

first name

intimate

nickname

familiar

intimate

male

Mr. lastname

nonintimate

nickname first nameor

diminutive("Sammy"

or"baby")

married

Mrs. or Ms.unmarried last name

Miss or Ms.last name

if or .t more extensive example. see the article by Susan 1.ryinTripp cited in the Resource section.)

61

Gavel to GavelGrades 11-12

Goal/Purpose

It is easy (or at least quick) to make decisions asindividuals, but the quality of those decisionssuffers from lack of multiple perspectives. Deci-sion making becomes more difficult as the size of

a group increases. However, we can have moreconfidence in the quality of large group discus-sions assuming that the division of labor is usedto promote a thorough investigation of problemsand solutions and that the group process encour-ages vigorous debate and protects the rights ofminorities. Parliamentary procedure represents

a set of rituals governing large group decisionmaking in a manner which contains conflict andchannels it constructively. Since many organiza-tions abide by some form of parliamentary pro-cedure, basic knowledge of its rules is a useful

life role skill. This activity uses parlimentary pro-cedure to conduct a long term project with theultimate goal of producing a class position paperconcerning a current issue of importance to class

members.

Objectives

The learner willsharpen knowledge of a selected critical issue.

construct an ongoing parlimentary system.

conduct a series of meetings using the follow-ing tools.

order of businessagendamain motionssubsidiary motionsprivileged motionsincidental motionsdebateorder of precedence of motionscommittee system

conduct a variety of research activities includ-ing library research, taking testimony fromguest speakers. interviewing and archival re-search. as appropriate to the question selected.

engage in large group decision making con-cerning a.. issue of critical importance.

. asmitne formal roles of chair, secretary, par-limentarian.

62

assume emergent roles of expert, skeptic, ten-sion reliever, social leader, communicationfacilitator.

compose a position paper including minorityreports and recommendations.

conduct a public relations campaign, includ-ing publication of the position paper, designed

to help bring about the final recommendations.

Materials/Aids

paper and duplication facilities

librariescommunity resource people as guest speakers

a gavel (optional)

Summary

In organizing a large portion of class time aroundthe exploration and solution of a particular issue,the teacher is actually employing an alternativecurriculum model class as community. Whenthis model is successfully applied, results areimpressive, for students are using communica-tion skills in solving real tasks rather than sim-ply learning about or artificially practicing them.S..ccess in organizing the class as a task-orientedcommunity hinges on finding an issue which cansustain student motivation and on integratingappropriate learning objectives and materialsfilms, works of literature, brief writing assign-ments and even grammar instruction with thetheme adopted by the class. In this projectstudents use parliamentary procedure to orga-nize themselves and conduct large group meet-ings leading ultimately to the production of aposition paper concerning some issue of vitalinterest.

Procedures

1. Be certain students understand that it is

essential for them to select an issue that isintrinsically interesting to them and willprovide strong motivation. This is done earlyin the term in informal large group discus-sion. For example, at one school, a pair of

tragic automobile accidents involving class-mates spurred a project concerning highschool driver education.

G'

2. The teacher should stipulate that the finalproduct will be a position paper distributedto school and community leaders includingthe PTA (or a similar group). It shouldimmediately become apparent that studentsneed some form of structure to guide theirwork.

3. The teac er should explain parliamentaryprocedur and the committee system. Theclass nee no. go into greater depth thanprovided most high school speech textssuch as Ad s and Pollock, Speak Up!

4. It should be reed that steering decisionswill be made b the committee of the whole.Chair, secretar , parliamentarian and per-haps vice chair should be elected for two-weekterms.

5. Among the first orders of business will bethe setting of a time frame. Standing com-mittees should be organized. These mayinclude a medical research committee, lawenforcement research committee, popularculture committee, peer survey committee,committee on ongoing information compila-tion, document production committee andpublicity committee. It should be empha-sized that these committees may assignwork to students who may not be committeemembers. Labor is shared equitably.

6. The initial phase concentrates on groupresearch and report writing. The committeeas a whole will need to be convened lessfrequently once initial procedures are set up.However, the large group should meet atleast twice a week for committee reportsand evaluation of the process. Also, theentire class will convene to hear guest speak-ers invited by the various committees.

7. After research is completed, a problem over-view and specific research review chapterscan be drafted. At the same time, eachcommittee should draft specific debatableresolutions for consideration by the commit-tee of the whole. Resolution.; are also ac-cepted from the floor. Provision should bemade for minority caucuses to composedissenting views.

8. A final draft of the position paper. includingminority reports. is produced. The entireclass participates in editing.

9. The report is disseminated to appropriateaudiences accompanied by oral presenta-tions where appropriate. For example, theentire class may wish to discuss orally thefindings and recommendations with principal.

10. Follow-up publicity should be produced. Theclass may decide to engage in a persuasivecampaign to reach other students by meansof posters, a multimedia assembly programand public address announcements.

Evaluation

1. Teacher evaluation and peer evaluationshould focus upon the items below

a. Proper use of parliamentary rituals

b. Contributions to large group debate

c. Contributions to committee efforts includ-ing quality research

d. Quality of written contributions

2. Depending upon the work assigned and com-pleted as a part of this activity, studentproducts, such as written reports concerningspecial interests and oral reports presentedto the large group, should be evaluated usingprocedures appropriate to the type and qual-ity of the work and the maturity of the group.

3. Follow-up activities provide opportunities forrelated sources of evaluation.

Follow-up Activities

In the class as community model. the teacherwill relate a variety of class activities to thecentral theme.

The theme and related work should providesubject matter for student journals. On severaloccasions students should produce expressiveand narrative writings on the subject.

Students can write or orally present reviews ofpopular culture dealing with their subject includ-ing films. magazine articles and songs.

Publicity activities described in the last step ofthis process will provide numerous opportunitiesfor follow-up projects.

63 k

Resource.

Haden Adams and Thomas Pollock. Speak Up!New York: Macmillan, 1964.

Henry M. Robert. Robert's Rules of Order NewlyRevised. Glenview, 111.: Scott Foresman, 1970.

0

64

John Gray and Richard Rea. Parliamentary Pro-cedure: A Programmed Introduction. Glenview,111.: Scott Foresman, 1973.

lJ

endingReading Comprehension

in the High SchoolAn Overview

For the high school student, the primary goal ofthe reading program should be to insure that thereading tasks as required in the various contentareas can successfully and independently beperformed. At this level, instruction in decodingskills, such as phonetic analysis, is not usuallybeneficial to the learner. By the time studentsreach high school, all but the most severelydeficient readers have been able to identify somealternative strategies to compensate for theirlack of proficiency in word recognition skills. Thekey to providing students at this level withsuccessful reading experiences lies in the in-depth instruction in comprehension skills, includ-ing meaningful vocabulary development andreading-related content area skills.

As illustrated in Table I (Smith, 1961), the

difference between good readers and poor read-ers is the ability to restructure the material.Varied reading rates, varied purposes for readingand reviewing are part of the capabilities of thegood reader. It would be well, then, in our highschool reading programs to create programsthat allow students to practice these skills in thereading classroom as well as the various contentareas. An authority has pointed out, "The efforta teacher expends in building the comprehen-sion program will be reflected directly in students'abilities to effectively derive, interpret, and applymeaning from oral and written communicationexperiences encountered throughout life" (Ruddell,1978, p. 38). This must be the ultimate goal ofthe reading comprehension program.

CI

650

Table IComparisons of Good and Poor Readers in

Grade 12

Factor Good readers Poor readers

Stating purpose

Reading for stated purpose

I.stablishing own purposes

stated It correctly

did

did

1.'2 stated correctly

did not

did not

Reasons for rereading to find definiteinformation

to place informationin mind

because did not under-stand something

Proportion reading every word

reading for details

reading for generalimpressions

1 2

1 3

all

all

Approach to organizationof material when readingfor details

restructured material

catalogued details

connected detail withsomething else

fixed information inmind

tried to rememberpoints in isolation

Review while reading

When reading forgeneral impressions

frequently

read for ideas

seldom

tried to rememberdetails in isolation

Ntlapied from Helen K Smith. "Research in Reading for Different Purposes." In Chotiginq Concepts of Reading Instruction. J. Allen

.d Newark. Del.: International Reading Association. 1%1.

66

Teaching Reading in the Content AreasStarting in the upper elementary grades, theinstructional program for many students shiftstoward an in-depth study of content taught. byteachers whose primary training is in areasother than reading. Teachers of social studies.science, mathematics and even English may ormay not have a background in the teaching ofreading. The expectations of these teachers andthe reading demands made on students, however.increase with every grade. If students are to be-Ible to succeed in these content area classes, theteachers of these students must be made fullyaware of the significance of reading to theirspecific content areas. Regardless of the contentarea. the following general teaching pr- -.icesmight improve reading competence.

List and discuss the objectives of the assignmentfor students.

Identify key words and phrases along with thespecific definitions appropriate to the lesson.

Employ flexible and fluid grouping patterns (largegroup. small group. independent study) ofinstruction.

Provide and use a variety of instructional materi-als (media and nonmedia) on a wide range ofinstructional levels.

Provide enrichment and independent readingmaterials and activities as an integral part of theinstructional program.

Recognize and provide for the individual differ-ences in learning styles and reading ability ofstudents.

When textbooks are selected, make sure theyare on the students' appropriate instructionallevel.

Provide study guides or questions which identifythe important areas of the lesson.

Allow adequate time for students to read anddiscuss the material prior to larger class dis-cussions.

On a regular basis, do your own ;assignments.and take your own tests.

Know the specific reading tasks that you expectstudents to perform in your content diva.

67

Different reading skills are required of studentsin different content areas. The following sectioncontains some of the specific reading skills neces-sary to be a successful reader in various selectedcontent areas. Students should be instructed inthe specific and representative skills identifiedwithin the designated content areas that follow.

Reading Skills in Science

Understand key vocabulary terms.

Understand and interpret symbols. graphs.diagrams. charts and formulas.

Follow directions.

Read to solve problems.

Read for details.

Locate and interpret scientific information.

Read inductively, deductively and reflectively.

Make classifications.

Predict outcomes.

Recognize similarities and differences.

Make judgments.

Synthesize data.

Recognize sequence.

Make appropriate generalizations.

Recognize cause-effect relationships.

Reading Skills in Mathematics

Understand key vocabulary terms.

Understand and interpret symbols. graphs.diagrams. charts and formulas.

Recognize : elationships.

Organize details and processes to find solutions.

Evolve procedures for problem solving.

Make comparisons to find similarities and differ-ences of objects.

Make classifications.

Collect and recognize the relevance of data.

Judge reasonableness of answers.

6 6

Use sequences.

Make and interpret generalized statements.

Analyze arguments critically.

Recognize common errors in reasoning.

Exhibit critical thinking.

Reading Skills in Social Studies

Understand key vocabulary terms.

Locate, analyze and interpret data.

Distinguish between fact and opinion.

Apply facts to the solution of problems.

Recognize cause-effect relationships.

Recognize and state a problem.

Draw conclusions from facts given.

Understand and interpret maps, tables, charts,graphs, symbols and other illustrative materials.

Make judgments.

Make comparisons.

Recognize the use of propaganda techniques.

Make appropriate generalizations.

Read critically.

Follow directions.

Make inferences.

Reading Skills in Literature

Read for details and main ideas.

Make inferences.

Draw conclusions.

Predict outcomes.

Make judgments.

(.7

68

Read critically.

Recognize cause-effect relationships.

Understand sequence of events.

Understand connotation, symbolism and allusions.

Understand literal and implied meanings.

Recognize the author's mood, intent, tone,purpose,style and rhythm.

Locate and interpret clues to plot, character andmotive.

Distinguish fiction from nonfiction.

Distinguish between fact and opinion.

Distinguish reality from fantasy.

These particular reading skills, listed by contentarea provide samples of skills that are mostrelevant to specific subjects. This list is notcomprehensive either in its inclusion of contentareas or skills. Teachers are referred to theEssential Skills for Georgia Schools (GeorgiaDepartment of Education, 1980), to speOfic sub-ject area curriculum guides and to professionalmaterials listed under Reading in the Resourcessection of this book for suggestions for expand-ing the listing in a particular area or for address-ing an area that has not been mentioned.

These samples should be useful for all teachers.Reading teachers &IR urged to reinforce theseskills whenever possible so that skill instructionwill be transferred to the content classrooContent teachers are urged to use this listing a:a base, adding or deleting skill items as apprp-priate. The essential point to be made is that allteachers need to be aware that their knowledgeof the important of these skills will have adirect impact fin their success in providing instruction for their students and in the subsequentachievement of the students.

5l

Building Bridges to Readingin the Content Areas

Increasingly, there is concern about helping thedeficient reader become successful in other sub-ject classes. While the various materials in thereading labor4ory should help the student de-velop the necessary work-study skills to learneffectively, there are some teaching practiceswhich the reading teacher and the content areateacher should consider to help the deficientreader in learning activities during the course ofthe day. The following list of practices will helpaccomplish this goal.

a

In the reading laboratory, the teachershould do the following.

Stock the room with materials that provide foruseful work-study skills' assignments on a vari-ety of levels.

Discuss with students the specific study skillsthat will help to improve the overall schoolperformance.

Plan to evaluate the problems that the studentsare having with homework and other contentarea reading assignments.

Notify other teachers of students enrolled in thereading laboratory.

Create opportunities for other content area teach-ers to help students and work with materials inthe reading laboratory.

Provide specific assignments to overcome prob-lems observed while the students complete home-work assignments.

Make a joint effort with content area teachers toassist the remedial reader.

Identify other programs available in the schoolHomework Helpers Program).

vOn a schoolwide basis, the content areateacher should do the following.

Know the reading ability of the student from

cumulative records,standardized tests,informal reading analysis.cloze procedure.

Know the readability level of the textbooks inuse.

Use text materials suited in difficulty to thereading levels of students.

Discuss the format of the textbook and how itmay be used effectively.

Ideritify and provide, if possible, teacher match-l-a's written on low-grade and above-grade read-ing levels.

Note special vocabulary and concepts intro-duced in various units.

Plan to teach essential vocabulary and concepts.

PrfArtae speCial assistance for poor reader,.

Plan to evaluate students' understanding of vo-cabulary and concepts and reteach them, ifnecessary.

Know the special study skills involved in thesubject area and teach them as necessary.

Make clear and concise assignments.

Provide differentiated reading assignments forthe different groups of the class either throughvaried texteor prepared materi'al.

Teach the use of appropriate reference materials.

Encourage students to read widely in relatedmaterials.

_Encourage the reading of recreational as well asinformational reading matter.

Adopted from: New York City Board off duration. Bureau of( oter alum Development. 14 it I .a.i I..oratimi furdry Schools. Project No. 2017. November 1974

e

69L.1

tier -

f

Assessing Print MaterialAlthough texts and other reading materials areassessed and selected to correspond to appropri-ate instructional levels, students may be ham-pered in handling the content of printed matter.Primary factors which create difficulties arevocabulary, sentence structure, relationships andlevels of abstraction. Teachers, therefore, shoulduse the following factors us guidelines in scan-ning content to determine or anticipate whetherreading problems might occur.

VocabularyMultiple meanings

Technical vocabulary (specialized)

Affixes

Technical names (groups of similar items)

Key words (signals)

Local variations (slang)

Symbols

Connotative meanings(definitions which go beyond the dictionarydefinitions)

Idioms

Figures of speech(metaphor. simile, hyperbole)

Pronouns

Sentence StructureSentence length

Sentence phrasing

Clauses

IMinitions provided within

Sentence patterns

Questions which serve a purpose (guide forstudy)

Parallel sentences

Lithe, or construction

VMS In a 54AT ips

Parenthetic al expressions

Appositive structures

omparisoos

(ii;nerahlations

Conclusions

Formulas

Sentences which require the reader to followdirections

Punctuation

RelationshipsBooks written to involve the reader

Clues to contrasting relationships

Time relationship clues (and rank order)

Order clues (position)

Order clues (formerllatter)

Clues to the order in which information ispresented

Conditional relation (expressed by small words)

Purposes

Reasons

Same word to express different relationships

Examples

Numbers to tie items together

Levels of AbstractionExamples

Technical references

Propaganda and fallacious reasoring

Assumptions

Implications

Symbolism

Convu, of words to formulas

Choice of words (specialized or connotative)

it difficulties are encountered in reading assign-ments, teachers may need to teach skills relatedto the identified areas of difficulty or adaptinformation to accommodate different levels ofreading competency. The level of sophisticationor difficulty of print material may be lowered bymaking changes or adjustments that would sim-plify vocabulary and shorten sentence length.Also. additional information provided in writingor presented orally to clarify the text will allevi-we difficulties.

Almost all adult reading Is done silently andindependently. Therefore. every effort should be

71 6

made to teach or reteach students those tech-niques that will help them more fully and effec-tively obtain information and read for meaningduring independent silent reading.

Reading techniques that should be acquired and

used include

reading for previously established purposes

surveying to learn the organization of the printmaterial (headings, graphics. paragraph andchapter make-up, length)

72

tl

skimming to gain an overview

scanning for troublesome words

adjusting rate and reading depth for meaningand fulfilling the purpose designated for thereading

thinking while reading by forming mental pictures.

gathering ideas and making judgments.

Adopted from: Ohio Department of Education The Sequence

of the Reading Lesson. Teaching Teen Heading Series.

Columbus. Ohio. 1979.

Levels of Reading ComprehensionTraditionally, reading comprehension has beenviewed as having at least three levels: literal,inferential and critical. Lam level has distinctivecharacteristics. The objective for the effectivesecondary reading program should be to developreaders who can operate with equal proficiencyat each of these levels. The skills, as the namesimply, move from simple recollection of facts tosophisticated analysis of an author's message.This section deals with each of these levels as itaffects reading comprehension.

The Literal LevelThe literal level of reading means getting onlythe obvious, direct, exact or dictionary meaningfrom the printed page.

To arrive at literal meanings, the learnermust acquire the following skills.Noting key words in a sentence

Noting explicitly stated facts

Noting central ideas, subordinate ideas, relevantand irrelevant ideas, supporting and nonsupportingideas

Perceiving the relative importance of ideas

Noting topic sentences

Recognizing the author's purposes, if specificallystated

Pe:,.eiving direct relationships

Following directions

Organizing ideas or events in sequence (order,series arrangement, importance, succession,,chronology, steps in a process, character devel-opment, plot development and argument)

The Inferential Levi,:The inferential level means that the reader musthe AI. to combine facts from the text with his orher experiences, thinking and imagination tounderstand fully what the author is wring to say.

To rrive at inferential meanings, the lear-ner must be skilled at the following.Recognizing the author's intent and mood

73

Noting implicit facts

Perceiving similarities in ideas and events

Perceiving differences in ideas and events

Selecting specific ideas from which to drawinferences

Selecting related ideas from which to drawinferences

Making comparisons of similar ideas

Noting contrasting ideas

Recognizing cause/effect or symptom -causerelationships

Anticipating nd predicting outcomes

Seeing inter. lationships among ideas

Drawing)ronclusions

Perceiving relationships in sequence, time, space,relevancy, cause and effect

Teaching the student to note facts and drawinferences in order to organize information andarrive at conclusions extend; to other types ofmaterials not recorded in narrative or exposi-tional form. The student must acquire the com-prehension skills needed to arrive at literal andinferential meanings from reading charts; dia-grams; pictures, drawings, cartoons; graphs(pictorial, line, circle, bar); grids, circles, meridians,parallels; time lines; dii ections and locations;maps of different types and projections and mapsdepicting physical, cultural, economic and politi-cal factors.

The Critical LevelThis level involves an interaction between theauthor and the reader. It is purposeful reading inwhich the higher level thinking processes suchas questioning. analyzing, comparing. reasoning.evaluating. perceiving relationships and detect-ing propaganda are used in making soundjudgments.

To react as a critical reader, the learnershould be skilled at the following.Identifying an inherent problem. question orissue

Distinguishing fact from fiction

Distinguishing the realistic from the fantastic

Identifying the author's purpose, mood and intent

Determining relevancy of ideas to a problem,question or issue at hand

Recognizing patterns of thinking as inductive ordeductive development, scientific reasoning and

logic

Recognizing abucqs of logic

Judging source and accuracy of material

Noting completeness of analysis

Judging competency of the author as a source of

information

Predicting outcomes

Making generalizations

74

Recognizing controversial materials or issues

Differentiating between objective and subjective

statements

Distinguishing between the informative, referen-

tial and emotive use of words

Understanding the denotation and connotationof words

Recognizing differences in levels of abstractions

Recognizing hazards to clear thinkingemotionladen words, irrelevant ideas, bias, unsound con-

clusions and invalid assumptions

Identifying specific propaganda techniques: name-

calling, ca-d stacking, using catch phrases, band-

wagon tactics and testimonials

ti#

Sample ActivitiesThe Literal Level

*This is a badc skill test item.

ObjectiveThe learner will organize to show sequence.*

Activities1. Give the students a set of scrambled senten-

ces describing a sequence of activities. Havetheo arrange the sentences in the appropri-ate chronological order.

2. Give the students a scrambled sequence ofmaterial and a heading. Have them arrangethe material in proper order under the heading.

Example: Learning to Swim list the stepsof learning to swim in a scrambled order.

ObjectiveThe learner will note detail: and recall facts.*

ActivityAssign the students a short passage to read.Next have them write two of the specific facts ordetails contained in the passage.

ObjectiveThe learner will recognize main ideas.*

Activities1. Give the students a sentence and have them

explain its meaning in their own words.

Example: The African bushbabg, weighing lessthan one pound, is being used in experimentsdealing with muscular c^6.

2. Have the students read a paragraph and statethe main idea.

3. Give the students a set of paragraphs ..uhichsummarize a main idea. Have thcm identifywhich one best represents the main idea.

Example: Cigarette r.oking May Be Hazard-ous To Your Health.

ObjectiveThe learner will locate specific information.

Activities1. Have the students read a story and list a speci-

fied number of facts about the story related toits content and characters.

Example: "The Fall of the House of Usher,"by Edgar Allan Poe.

2. Give the students a topic and reference onthat topic. Have them identify a specific num-ber of facts contained therein.

Example: Color Pigment.1. Red, blue and yellow are primaly colors.2. White is the absence of all colors, etc.

The Inferential Level

ObjectiveThe learner will draw conclusions.*

ActivityHave the students read two passages on the

same topic. Have one of the paragraphs containfaulty conclusions. Then have the students iden-

tify which paragraph contains faulty conclusionsand specify the inadequlte or :-nisinterpreted

facts.

Objective'Hie learner will see relationships.*

Activities1. Give the students a topic and several para-

graphs. Have them identify those paragraphswhich relate to the given topic.

2. Give the students a series of related statements.

Have them subdivide the statements into twogroups. each grouping based upon a commoncharacteristic. Then have them name thecharacteristic common to each group.

ObjectiveThe learner will interpret story facts.*

ActivityEive the students read a story silently. Then

have them orally explain its meaning. Have thestudents list the similarities and differences incontent with respect to geographical setting.characters or personalities and time period.

Objective11w learner will select correct definitions.

Activities1. Give the students a word and have them select

its nearest meaning from a series of words.

Example: equivocal(al

(c)

uncertainequalequivalent

2. Give the students a word and have them iden-tify its synonym from a series of words.

I xample: cram(a) emptyth) sluff

fill

76

3. Give the students a word and have them iden-tify its antonym from a series of words.

Example: obese(a) fat(b) thin(c) heavy

4. Give the students a set of unusual words andhave them use a dictionary to describe theirderivations.

Example:(a) bandanna(b) mutton chops(c) voodoo

ObjectiveThe learner will use word meanings.*

ActivityGive the students an abstract word and havethem describe the meaning by using the word in

a sentence.

ObjectiveThe learner will make inferences from facts.

ActivityHave the students read a passage and state the

ideas which may be inferred from it.

ObjectiveThe learner will interpret figurative language.*

Activities1. Give the students a group of colloquialisms

and have them rewrite the sentences in stan-dard English.

Examples: This class is really a drag.

2. These sentences could be written on the board

or duplicated prior to discussion. Ask studentswhy they made a particular choice and whythey didn't select the other choices.

Examples:I know you're in a predicament but keep yourchin-up. (a) lift your chin upward and outward(b) raise your chin until it crosses the horizon-tal bar (c) be brave and don't let things getyou down.

Today, I'm not feeling up to par. (a) I can'tbreak 36 on the back nine holes. (b) I'm notfeeling very good. (c) I've lost my touch.

7,1

The Critical Level

ObjectiveThe learner will distinguish fact from opinion.*Activities1. Have the students read a highly opinionated

passage and identify the author's viewpointon the subject.

2. Have students read the editorial pages of thenewspaper or read a magazine. Students couldlook for, the key words or phrases whichmake the articles opinionated . . . I ferventlyhope . . . they seem to be . .. it would appear

that . . . I've got to admit . . . think . . . believ-ed .. . felt.

ObjectiveThe learner will compare and contrast stories.*

ActivityProvide a fictional history such as Rifles forMale by Harold Keith and a text such as TheCivil War published by American Heritage.

77 76

Integrating Comprehension intothe Language Arts Curriculum

ObjectiveThe learner will improve comprehension throughoral written communication activities.

Activities1. Divide class into groups. Assign each group a

famous individual from history, e.4., anexplorer, scientist, statesman. Have the groupresearch the life of the individual. Then havethem conduct a simulated press conferencewith one individual taking the part of thefamous person, the others serving as reporiers.The other members of the class wi:1 be respon-sible for preparing either a newspaper articlereporting the press conference or a televisionor radio news item concerning the press con-ference.

2. Have students write a step-by-step outline ofa science experiment that the class has con-ducted or a historic event that they havestudied. Have a student read the outline tothe class. The class is to listen for any errors.

3. Have students read the feature sections of thenewspaper describing the new line of fashionsfor men and women. Have them identify anddiscuss the descriptive and persuasive language.t!ave students discuss language used thatmight persuade them to buy some particularapparel. Have them discuss the audienceaddressed in the ads.

ObjectiveThe learner will improve comprehension throughfunctional reading activities.

78

Activities1. Have the students read the description of a

piece of merchandise. Have them identify agiven number of facts within the description.(reading for detail)*

2. Have the students read a sales contract. Askthe students to list those things in the con-tract for which they are ni...ponsible and forwhich the contractor is responsible. (locateinformation)*

3. Take a label from a medicine or food container.Have the students read the directions, givethem the directions in a scrambled list andhave them sequence the directions. (sequence)*

4. Give the students a copy of the tint ads. Askthem to find a given object That fits a specificdescription. (note details and recall facts)*

5. Use a selection perhaps from a newspaperwhich gives information relative to register-

ing to vole, one's health. Have the itudentsread the selection and then select, from fivepossible titles, a title that would be appropri-ate for the selection. (main idea)*

6. Use a newspaper article about a ports event.Have the students read the article and based

on the facts in the article, interpret what theyhave read. (interpret facts)*

7. Give the students copies of two different salescontracts. Ask them to list those things whichare similar in the contracts and those thingswhich are different. (see relationships, com-pare end contrast)*

lb

Vocabulary DevelopmentConcerning vocabtilary development, the au-thors of A Synthesis of Research on Readingwith Recommendations for Instruction in Geor-gia Schools stated that "Vocabulary knowledgehas been shown to influence reading con-Pprehen-sion, but individual words have meaning only asthey relate to other words and to idr-A-. beingexpressed. Research generally has shown thatbeing exposed to new words incidentally or throughdirect instruction helps increase students' vocab-ularies but that vocabularies grow more rapidlywhen at least some planned vocabulary instruc-tion is provided and when students use wordsthey are learning in their spoken and writtendiscourse, and thus discover ways in whichthose words communicate meaning" (Hall, etal.. 1978, p. 13). Providing a variety of vocabu-lary development experiences for students thatemphasize us...ge (both oral and written) willinsure that words will become a meaningful partof the students' vocabulary.

Among the vocabulary development skills that

79

might be appropriate for students to examine arethe following.

Multiple word meanings

Technical vocabulary (specialized)

Affixes

Technical names (groups of similar items)

Key words (signals)

Local variations (slang)

Symbols

Connotative meanings

Idioms

Figures of speech (metaphor, simile and hyperbole)

Pronouns

Word origins

Source: Ohio Department of Education. The Assessment ofPrint Materials. Teaching Teen Reading Series. Columbus.Ohio, 1979.

Sample ActivitiesVocabulary Development

ObjectiveThe learner will use affixes to increase vocabu-lary development.

ActivityFrom list of scrambled words, have studentsclassify words according to family or affix. Writecategories (as listed below) on the board. Havestudents discuss meanings of words and wordparts. Write their answers next to the words.Students can use dictionaries to check theirresponses.

Prefixes1. exclude (shut out)2. exhale (breathe out)3. export (ship carry out)4. exclaim (shout out)5. expect (look out)

Suffixes1. beautify (to make beautiful)2. pacify (to make peaceful. calm)3. rectify (to make right)4. testity (to make(a), bear witness)5. gratify (to make pleasing)

Fr minesbfautify (to make beautiful)bk.auty (a thing or person having this quality)beautiful (having or full of beauty)

Have students find a synonym or make an ant-onym using words or roots from the above liststhat would fit the sentence.

ExamplesI will correct my mistake. (rectify)The baby is fretful. Calm her. (pacify)Take a deep breathe of this fresh air. (inhale)

ObjectiveThe learner will use multiple meanings of words.

ActivityOn the hoard have a list of horwmyms in onecolumn and sample sentences in another column.The words and their meanings can be discussedprior to the activity. Then have students read

80

sentences and determine the correct word to beused in the sentence.Examples(a) coarse (b) course (c) breaks (d) brakes1. The texture of my hair is (a).2. This race (b) is very curvy.3. The (d) on my car need relining.4. During the meeting we will have two refresh-

ment (c).

ObjectiveThe learner will use word origins to increasevocabulary.

ActivityThere are many kinds of different and interestingjobs and job names, sucn as car hop, disc-jockey, meter maid or bag boy. Have studentstrace the origins of these coined words. Havestudents outline their information or organizetheir findings chronologically. Have them giveoral reports using the outline form.

ObjectiveThe learner will acquire specialized vocabularies.

ActivityHome economics, science or English classesprovide opportunities for studying vocabularyand word names and origins in the contentareas.These categories suggest words that could be

studied.

Foodnames

Clothnames

Peoplenames

Sciencetechnology

names

frankfurter linen David Titan rockethamburger worsted Helen Atlas missilesandwich cashmere Deborah retro rocketpralinestangerine

denim Patrick gyroscopelunar module

While studying word origins. discuss types of

eterence materials and the location of theseresources.

ObjectiveThe learner will i ecognite local variations (dialects.

slang) in vocabulary awareness.

Activities1. Have students read some interesting literary

works. Spin-offs from reading could lead intointeresting oral and written language activities.For instance. after reading Sheridan's play,"The Rivals." the origin of the word mala-propism could be discussed. Activities couldfollow to demonstrate misuse of words.

Examples: Discuss emphasized words. What'swrong?

I am confidant that I can do the job.(confident)

The chairperson has much affluence uponhis subcommittee. (influence)

Do you apprehend what I'm trying to say?(comprehend)

The criminal was comprehended. (appre-hended)

2. Have students listen for misused workds (mala-propismis) or transpositions of sounds inwords (spoonerisms). The next day discussany malapropisms or spoonerisms detected.

Example of spoonerismour dear old queen becomes our queerold dean.

Functional Reading SkillsThe necessity of specific reading skills to func-tion adequately in the world outside of schoolcan serve as a motivator for reading instructionespecially at the high school level where rele-vance is a key issue. Educators must capitalizeon the fact that students of all ages come incontact with symbols and words in situationsother than in the classroom. We cannot assumethat the reading skills previously taught in basalreaders and other school books will automati-cally transfer to the varied reading contextsencountered beyond the school setting. To en-sure successful reading in these outside contexts,we must include instruction and practice withreading materials that are part of the real world.Georgia's high school graduation policy (GeorgiaBoard of Education Policy IHF) reflects andreinforces the position that the mastery of skillsneeds to be demonstrated in life role situations.

Functional reading includes knowing symbolsand words to respond effectively to the complexi-ties of daily living beyond the classroom envi-ronment. Functional reading skills are also calledsurvival skills, life role skills or competencies.functional literacy and real world learning.

It is essential that functional reading skills be

included within the total curriculum for all grades.In particular, grades 9 through 12 serve as aspringboard from the classroom to the adultworld. Many classroom activities should be

grounded in life role situations for this transitionto be smooth and successful for the student. Prob-lem solving and career choices through repairmanuals, job listings and employment applica-tions should be emphasized.

The following objectives are listed under func-tional reading in the language arts section of theEssential Skills for Georgia Schools. It is sug-gested that objectives 1 through 4 be introducedIti wades K through 4 and developed throughoutgrades 5 through 8. Many career educationobjectives are appropriate for K through 4: thoselisted under objective five. however. are moresuitable for introduction at grade levels 5 throughfi and reinforcement at grade levels 9 through12.

82

The learner will

1. interpret and use basic instructions and label-ing information such as

recipes,clothing care instructions,owners' manuals for appliances,warning labels (poison control, electricalhazards),product contents and nutritional information,labels.

2. interpret and use procedures, forms, applica-tions and agreements including those relatingto money management (at a nontechnicallevel) such as

discount coupons,credit cards,banking procedures,payments and loans,change of address forms,social security card applications.

3. interpret and use various forms of written com-munication such as

directories,correspondence (business and personal),mass media (newspapers, magazines, adver-tisements).

interpret and use functional transportationinformation such as

routes, schedules, and timetables,signs, n1arquees and billboards,driverli manual,travel brochures.

0.4.

5. interpret and use occupational and careerinformation such as

job listings,paycheck stubs,salary schedule and benefits.

Students may encounter various materials intheir daily experiences (such as contest gamerules, merchandise order forms, menus) whichrequire specific skill instructirn to ensure profi-ciency. The list above may include skills andmaterials which should be introduced at a moreappropriate grade level than that indicated; it

may be necessary to tailor this list to meet theneeds of particular students.

Effective reading of the materials suggested inthis list requires many of the word recognition,comprehension and study skills that are taughtas part of the developmental reading program.Many materials, however, present some uniquedemands to which students must be exposed in asystematic way.

Some of these unique demands include74%

Orientation Functional materials suc h as sched-ules and timetables often require other than thetraditional left-to-right, top-to-bottom Progression.

Specialized vocabulary Students must be-come familiar with the specialized words, abbre-viations and symbols that are used in specificreal world contexts.

Style Materials such as instructions, labels, bill-boards and brochures often do not follow theformal style of textbooks. Incomplete sentences.variations in the use of punctuation and capital-ization (and sometimes spelling) are frequentlypresent and may confuse the student.

Details Many functional reading materials suchas recipes, instructions for appliance operationand assembly instructions contain informationrequiring careful, deliberate, word-by-word reading.Students must learn to adjust their reading stylesand rates to ensure comprehension.

Context Many words stand alone or in veryshort phrases. Situational context rather thanthe traditional context clues will more likely beimportant, and the question, "What word makessense in this situation?" may prove helpful. Forexample. the level of understanding of wordssuch as "inbound" and "express." when readingtransportation schedules or phrases such as"machine wash," "tumble dry-low" when read-ing clothing care labels is enhanced by iniTroduc-ing them in a situational context.

Functional reading materials used should, em-phasize actual real life materials. such as thosestudents collect and bring to class. Kits, work-books and spirit master sets are also availablehilt should he screened carefully to be sure theyrepresent real life situations. Motivational value

.'depends heavily on the rea hing. Audioivisualmaterials such as transparen ies or charts illus-trating a sample form which udents are learn-ing to complete or a sample schedule whichstudents are learning to interpret are uAeful whenworking with large group. A copy of the actualform or schedule should also be proyided so thateach student can complete it or refer to it asinstruction takes place. A listing of p54sytablereading materials appears in Chambers andLowry's The Language Arty: A .PragmaticApproach.

Emphasizing the teaching of functional skillsensures that curriculum sp cialists, administra-tors and teachers will incl e instruction in theseskills in a student's regul educational program.Functional reading ski4 instructiorr must not beperceived or conducted as an- isolated segmentof the classroom educational program for numer-ous possibilities exist for integrating such instruc-tion into the already existing curriculum. Con-tent area materials provide appropriate opportu-nities for the teaching of fiflictional readingskills. The social studies class presenti opportitnities to focus on transportation schedules andtravel brochures. ealth and science cla..ses arebrochures.

pla es for examining product con-tents and nutritional information labels. Careerand vocational exploration classes provide op-portunities to examine the forms, applicationsand other reading demands related to specifictypes of employment.

Instruction may be adapted to coordinate withthe classroom teacher's preterred organizationalpatterns, using individual, small group or largegroup metbods depending on the learning stylesof the students. Direct teacher instruction shouldbe reinforced by various strategies such as guidedseat work,. self-directed learning, peer teachingand discussions. Reinforcement through learn-ing centers should also prove, effective. Empha-sis should be placed both on comprehension ofthe information contained in the functional mate-rial and on applying this information to life-like LI.situations. These procedures will encourage thestudent to see the relationship between what is'earned and real world needs. i

k;'*.

41,

1

Samp ;Activities..Functional Reading Skills

C"

Objective `Y

The learner will identify new words through theuse of icontext clues.

ActivityPaste a label, assembly instructions ?r othermaterials with ample context on one side of 0folder. Eliminate certain words from the label.On the other side of the folder likt the missingwords. Dependin on the level of die students, afew additional w ds can be added to the list asfoils to increases the difficulty of the task. Havethe student choose the correct word for eachblank by using the context. Discuss the functionit serves in tkeAenience (i.e., noun, noun marker,verb, adjective). and the context in which itappears.

ObjectiveThe learner will identify the correct meaning ofmultimeaning words used in context.

ActivityUnderline multimeaning words Rontainednewspapers and brochures. Prikride students withseveral meanings for each word and have them.choose the correct meaning according to the

context in which they appek.

IObjectiveThe learner will place item's into correct categories.

vt.ActivityProvide the students with several pages rgm theyellow pages of the telephone directory. ,Provide

them with a worksheet containing categories

such as edible goods, nonedible goods, servicesusually performed indoors, services usually per-tained outdoors. Have the student classify thebusinesses according to the categories. In somecases a business may fit in more then onecategory. As long as the students can logicallydefend their choices. their answers should be

accepted.

ObjectiveThe learner will identify descriptive words and

persuasive techniques.* -

84

ActivityHave the students select several advertisementsfrom different magazines. The students shouldunderline the descriptive words used. Small groupsof students should then discuss how certainwords appeal to certain audiences and how thisappeal is used to persuade consumers to buy aproduct.

ObjectiveThe learner will identify specific facts and details.*.

ActivityFor this activity each student needs a copy of thesame TV listing section. The teacher or a studentprovides number clues Arally and the listenersmust scan to find the program which matchesthe clues. The clue is given only once Thefollowing code should be used when giving theclues.

first number day of the week (1.7)second number a.m. or p.m. (1.2)third number time of dayfourth number channel

For example. A-2-8-5 is "The White Shadow"broadcast on Tuesday, 8:00 p.m. on Channel 5.The activity can be made into a bingo-typegame. After the caller gives the clue, each playerchecks the listing and covers the name of theprogram if it appears on the card.

ObjectiveThe learrar will identify facts and opinions.*

ActivityChoose newspener or magazine ads and pasteeach one on a piece of tagboardlarger than thead. Select several words, phrases or sentencesfrom the ad and write these on the tagboard.

Have the student select one or two ads. divide asheet of paper into two columns, one labeledfacts, the other labeled opinions. Then havestudent place the words, phrases or setiteimrsthe proper column. Use words by phrases suchas "our most exciting," "rnakos- yap feel rich.""13 inch wheels,- -front-wheetoutive," "a plea-sure to drive.- "comes in five «Anis:.

sue

which serve as meaningful guided practice. Forexample, a social studies teacher may assign aresearch project while the class, is working on aunit related to the Revolutionary War. The stu-dents should, with the teacher's help, make a listof the various reference aids. such as the cardcatalog, bibliography, encyclopedia and theReader's Guide to Periodical Literature, that areavailable to help them complete their assignment.While observing the students as they work, theteacher can make suggestions concerning theproper use of these reference aids.

When grouping ' udent's for such projects, onefactor to be considered is the grouping of stu-dents who have developed proficiency with studyskills with students 'ave not yet reached anacceptable level of pet,,,tmance. The former canserve as a rer;ource and .nodel for the latter.

The beginning of a new chapter in a content textis the perfect place to remind students of thevalue of previewing and applying a study methodsuch as SQ3R. If the teacher emphasizes iyhelpful SQ3R will be in reading and retaininti theinformation contained in the homework assignment. students shou1.1 be anxious to master thetechni,,.e.

An efficient method of providing study skillsinstruction to students of various reading abili-

89

ties is to group students on the basis of specificneeds. The initial oral explanation of the reasonsfor learning the skill and how to use it should bespoken in language the average student in thegroup can understand; but the written examplesused to demonstrate application of the skillshould be selected with the poorest readers ofthe group in mind. In the guided seatwork activi-ties that follow, materials are matched to eachstudent's reading level. For example, if studentsare being instructed in how to use guide words ina dictionary. the words used as examples wouldbe familiar to the poorest readers in the group.This would not adversely affect the accomplish-ments of the better readers because the principlebeing taught is the same no mattes which wordsare used as examples. When the students aregiven follow-up practice activities t. ng the dic-tionary or duplicated pages adapted from thedictionary, the levels of the dictionaries may bematched to the reading levels of the students.

If learning centers are used for independent skillsinstruction or for skill reinforcement, they shouldfollow this same principle. A learning center ondictionary skills should use dictionaries withcorresponding worksheets appropriate to vari-ous reading levels. A color-coding system mightbe used so that each student could locate thecorrect materials for his or her level.

Study SkillsGoal

Learning to read is of limited value if the learneris unable to apply this reading ability io theacquisition of new knowledge. Study skills acqui-sition will enable students to become moreeffective, independent readers and learners. Theimmediate goal is to provide the student with theskills necessary for satisseactorily coping with theitudy demands of formal schooling years. How-ever, the ultimate goal of such instruction is notlimited to school requirements but is concernedwith information gathering. It is to produce anindividual who is able to locate and organizeinformation to satisfy his or her ow.. curiosityabout the world; i.e., an individual who haslearned how to learn.

Study skills proficiency, however, does not occurautomatically as students master word recogni-tion and comprehension skills. The types ofexpository materials to which a student appliesstudy skills have different demands than thenarrative offerings that domiated the beginningyears of the student's reading program. Therefore,provision must be made in the reading curricu-lum for direct and systematic instruction in theuse of study skills as well as for structured reviewand maintenance activities.

Objectives

Instruction in the study skills begins as a part ofthe reading program in the primary grades andcontinues throughout the developmental read-ing program sequence. grades K .6 or eight de-pending on the reading series being used. Ingrades 4-12 the study skills should continue tobe taught. extended, r, dot-Led and refined notonly m reading classes but also in content areaclasses.

The representative list of study skills delineatedbelow are taken from ,ite language arts ,ectionof The Essential Skills for Georgia Schools(Georgia Department of him400n, 1980).

I be learner will

demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic sequence.

. alphabetize words up to the third letter.

lo«tte information using r variety of sourcestitle h as

86

table of contents, page numbersdictionaries guide, entry wordsglossariesindexes key words, main and subtopicsencyclopedialibrary card files (card catalogue, periodicalfiles)catalogsnewspapers, magazinesthesauriReader's Guide to Periodical Literaturebibliographies.

. demonstrate the ability to locate materials ina media center

. use dictionaries for a variety of purposes suchas

identifying word meanings,finding synonyms,identifying and interpreting ?honetic respell-ings to aid pronunciation,selecting appropriate meanings of words incontext

. use titles, headings, subheadings and picturesto locate and preview information

. adjust reading techniques and rate accordingto the difficulty of material and purposes forreading, rereading, skimming, scanning

. use a variety of study techniques. e.g. survey,question, read, recite, review (SQ3R)

Materials

Most basal reading programs contain a refer-ence and study skills strand as part of their scopeand sequence of skills. This strand is a goodbeginning. A systematic approach to study s=killsinstruction is aiso necessary in grades 9-12. Sincethe goal of this instruction is to produce the self-directed learner who is able to locate and orga-nize information independently for personal use,the treatment of study skills especially in grades9-12 must be expanded to include practice and re-inforcement with actual content area texts andreference materials. In such a context the studyskills will actually serve a useful purpose as con-trasted to the somewhat artifical world of thehasal workbook page or duplicated worksheet. Ifnot provit:ed with many opportunites to practiceand maintain a study skill after it has been intro-

Si

duced, the student will probably never realize theextent of its usefulness, and, consequently, it willnot become part ^f his or her repertoire of inde-pendent study techniques.

Audiovisual materials (films, filmstrips andtransparencies) which demonstrate visually howto use certain reference materials such asdictionaries, encyclopedias and the card catalogare available. These are useful for group instruc-tion since a visual aid can focus on a specificcharacteristic or component of material that isbeing discussed. However, the student shouldquickly be exposed to the actual material so thatthe necessary transfer of learning will take place.

Since catch student who has been diagnosed asdeficient in one or more of the study skills needsinstruction in those skills regardless of his or herreading level, it is important that there be avail-able in each classroom and media center suffi-cient reference materials written at a variety ofri.-7!dability levels. Material used for instructionshould be at a level comfortable for students to:candle. If 00 student has difficulty with thev«-abulary or sentence structure because it istoo advanced, more energy will be expended intrying to overcome these difficulties than toattending to the ihrmediate learning tasks.

Procedures

The development and implementation of thestudy skills component of the curriculum shouldbe accomplished through cooperative efforts ofreading teachers. content area teachers andmedia specialists. Joint planning is important forseveral reasons. Reading teachers should hefamiliar with which content texts are being usedso that tfiey can develop exercises based onthese texts; but it is just as important thatcontent area teachers be aware of the scope andsequence of study skills and Ow time they areintroduced)(lured in the reading program. Neither teachershould he solely responsible for teaching studyskills. Both teachers should share this responsi-bility. The reading teat her may introduce anddevelop the study skills whereas the content art a..radier may provide the opportunity for theirpractice. application and reinforcement.

( ()operative planning should eliminate consider-able confusion which can result from a '.adept'sbeing taught one method for previewing a text orfor using an encyclopedia by the reading teacherand another method by a content area teacher.

87

Of course. there is more than one appropriatemethod for teaching two skills, but being ex-posed to more than one method when learning anew skill can cause unnecessary difficulties forthe learner.

The media specialist also plays a key role in thestu' y skills program since the library mediacenter is a practical setting for applying many ofthe skills. Depending on the school's organiza-tional structure. the media specialist may pro-vide the initial instruction in certain information-locating skills which can then he reinforced bothin the reading and content area classrooms.

Whichever pattern the school chooses for studyskills instruction. there must be a definite, struc-tured program with shared responsibilities agreedupon by the reading teachers, content area teach-ers and media specialists.

It is important to diagnose stiment proficiencywith study skills to determine instructional needs.There are several ways this diagnostic informa-tion can be obtained. Teacher 1,.ervation whenstudents are using *extbooks. dictionaries, cardcatalogs and other materials requiring special-ized skills is one of the most valuable ways togain information concerning the students' strengthsand weaknesses in applying study skills.

At the elementary and middle school levels.many of the reading series contain informalpretests designed to assess which students re-quire instruction in a particular skill. At the highschool level. commercial kits and spirit mastersets contain exercises which can be used oradapted for preassessment purposes.

Another assessment method is for teachers toprepare t. ;w.r own informal tests using iti;ailablecontent texts. For example, to assess a student'sability to use an index. the teacher can select atext which contains all index and prepare a set ofappropriate questions such as. hider whichkey word(s) did you look to find the pagescontaining information concerning the schoolsin Brimil?" "(hi which pilets) would you expectto find information about what produc:s areexported by Bolivia?" "Where else should youlook for information about camera:, besides un-der the key word comerns? If sufficient copik ofthe text are not available for the entire groupbeing tested. an acceptable though not preferredalternative is to place a page of this index on a spiritmaster and provide each student with a copy.

St

Whichever materials are used for diagnosis, it is

important that their readability level be appropri-

ate for the reading level of the students. If thereadability level of the material used is toodifficult, it will be hard to ascertain whether astudent's poor performance on the test was the

result of a deficiency in that particular skill orwas caused by his or her inability to read the

questions or the material on which the questions

were based.

The Georgia Criterion-referenced Tests containobjectives which assess study skills mastery.Those objectives and test results could provideuseful information for teachers.

Some standardized tests include a section called

work-study or reference skills. If your schoolsystem administers such a test. and if the results

are zeported in such a way that they can beanalyzed relative to an individual student's per-

formance on a speciiic skill. it may providevaluable data which can be used for diagnostic

purposes.

Once the initial study skill needs of studentshave been evaluated through a combination ofthe above described means, the teacher maywant to record them on a chart indicating whichstudents have mastered which, skills. This chartcan serve as the basis for forming skills groupsfor instruction.

Diagnosis should not stop with this initial studyskills assessment. Teacher observations of stu-dent performance during instruction as well asstudent responses on worksheets should serve asde' a sources for diagnosis.

Instruction in the study skills can easily becoordinated with the classroom teacher's pre-ferred organizational patterns. It can be accom-plished through individual, small group or large

wimp methods. Pepending on the learning stylesand abilities of the 'students. direct teacher in-struction followed by guided seat work or self-directed learning at learning centers will prove

effective.

Whichever instructional strategies are used. the

following suggestions should b.> considered in

tel to maximizing the conditions for learn-ing to occur.

The instructional process should include a dis-cussion of the practical reasons for learning theskill. an explanation of how to use it and ademonstraiion of its use. Once this initial instruc-

A 8f).

tion has taken place, it is essential that opportu-nities be provided for practice of the skill usinqactual textbooks and reference materials so that

transfer of the learning occurs. One method ofaccomplishing this is to ask the students to bring

a content text to reading class and have thempractice using the book. This procedure willeliminate problems similar to that of the studentwho is able to work out correct solutions in aworkbook consisting of sample lines from anindex but who does not know how to use a realindex. The use of these real materials will allowthe student to get one step further than with theworkbook or worksheet. The stuaent can actu-

ally verify whether the page(s) identified throughuse of the index as containing the informationasked about, do, in reality, provide this information.Such activities should help motivate the student

to want to become proficient in the use of theskill because the,: emphasize to the student theskill's usefulness in relation to a real learning

context.

However. even this practice is not sufficient todevelop within the student the habit of applyingthese skills when independently searching forinformation. Continued use of these skills incontent areas such as science, social studies orliterature is necessary if the student is to reachthe goal of independent application. -Contentarea teachers are not expected to provide thesame type of structured, indepth instruction thatthe student receives in reading class, b...4t these

teachers should take advantage of opportunitiesto illustrate the proper use of their textbooks.For ex, ople. during the study of energy inscience class, a question may be asked whichrequires a comparison of various sources and

uses of energy which were studied previously.Some stuuents are having difficulty recallingenough information concerning energy to an-swer the colestion. Rather than allowing thestudents :p through their tex, until theylocate the section energy, this is anideal time fo: the teacher to remind the studentsthat using the index is the most efficient way todetermine where in the text the information isfound. The students can also be reminded thatwhen they turn to the correct page, it is unneces-

sary to read every word, but that it is moreappropriate to scan to find the desired information.

"Flw content area teacher should also makeproject assignments which help to underscorethe functional uses of certain reference skills and

which serve as meaningful guided practice. Forexample, a social studies teacher may assign aresearch project while the class, is working on aunit related to the Revolutsunary War. The stu-dents should, with the teacher's help. make a listof the various reference aids. such as the cardcatalog, bibliography, encyclopedia and theReader's Guide to Periodical Literature, that areavailable to help them complete their assignment.While observing the students as they work, theteacher can make suggestions concerning theproper use of these reference aids.

When grouping uderis for such projects. onefactor to be considered is the grouping of stu-dents who have developed proficiency with studyskills with students wF 'aye not yet reached anacceptable level of pes,imance. The former canserve as a re source and .nodel for the latter.

The beginning of a new chapter in a content textis the perfect place to remind students of thevalue of previewing and applying a study methodsuch as SQ3R. If the teacher emphasizes At/

helpful SQ3R will be in reading and retaining theinformation contained in the homework assign-ment. students should be anxious to master the

An efficient method of providing study skillsinstruction to students of various reading abili-

89

ties is to group students on the basis of specificneeds. The initial oral explanation of the reasonsfor learning the skill and how to use it should hespoken in language the average student in thegroup can understand: but the written examplesused to demonstrate application of the skillshould be selected with the poorest readers ofthe group in mind. In the guided seatwork activi-ties that follow, materials are matched to eachstudent's reading level. For example, if studentsare being instructed in how to use guide words ina dictionary, the words used as examples wouldbe familiar to the poorest readers in the group.This would not adversely affect the accomplish-ments of the better readers because the principlebeing taught is the same no mattes which wordsare used as examples. When the students aregiven follow-up practice activities u ng the dic-tionary or duplicated pages adapted from thedictionary, the levels of the dictionaries may bematched to the reading levels of the students.

If learning centers are used for independent skillsinstruction or for skill reinforcement, they shouldfollow this same principle. A learning center ondictionary skills should use dictionaries withcorresponding worksheets appropriate to vari-ous reading levels. A color-coding system mightbe used so that each :student could locate thecorrect materials for his or her level.

P." P

Sample ActivitiesStudy Skills

Objectives

The learner will

use a dictionary to determine abbreviations.

use a dictionary to determine correct spellings.

Activities1. Present students with abbreviations which

are commonly used in the dictionary (n..irreg., pl., vt., syn.. obs., fr., sing). Providestudents with sample dictionary pages. Have

the students locate entries that contain theseabbreviations and uncle, line the abbreviations.Have the student. find the key to the dictio-nary abbreviations and identify each abbre-viation.

2. Provide students with sentences containingmultimcaning words which are underlined.Have the students use the dictionary and iden-

tify the meaning by entry number (if word is ahomograph), part of speech and meaningnumber, e.g. bank', vt. 4.

Objective

The learner will use research techniques in thepreparation of an oral report.

Activities1. Have the students prepare and present an oral

report based on topics of their choice. Thestudents should lice reference materials indeveloping the repon. To encourage listening,have several students in the audience tell one

new thing they learned about the topic fromlistening to the report.

2. Decide on a research topic with a group ofstudents. Give each student a specified amountof time to locate sources of information forthe report. Have each student explain to theothers why the specific sources were selected.

Have the 3roup decide which of the sourcesare best

3. Have a student explain orally the steps in pre-

paring a research report. Other students willlisten to detect whether arr/ steps were omitted,

90

Adaptation The same type acivity could be

used in describing the Survey, Question, Read,

Recite. Review (SQ3R) method.

4. Provide students with exercises of the follow-ing type. I had a pain in myn ek sh o l' der el' b o. The studentsmust choose the correct word for the sen-tence using the dictionary respellings. Thestudent must then spell the word using stan-dard orthography.

Objectives

The learner will

determine main headings and subheadings in

an article.

use a table of contents.*

use SQ3R method to formulate questions.

Activities1. Present students with an encyclopedia article.

Provide the students a skeleton outlineof the article conta.,, 1g blanks for mainheadings and subhead igs. The students should

fill in the blanks.Adaptations Depending on the level of thestudents, the main headings can be provided

so that only subheadings must be filled in.Provide students with a mixed list of mainand subheadings taken from an outline of anencyclopedia article. Have the students ar-range these in appropriate outline form.

2. Provide students with the tables of contendpastes from several books. This can be ac-tual tables of contents cut from old books orduplicated copies of tables of contents. Have

the students classify the books as fiction ornonfiction. Under fiction the books might beclassified into subcategories of fantasy and

reality. Have students give reasons for classi-

fying the books.

3. Using the SQ3R method, have students for-mulate questions from the subheadings in achapter section. Have them read to see if thematerial contains the answers to their ques-

a.

Lions. If it (oes, have them explain whichreferences could be used to mid the answer tothe questi)ns.

ObjectivesThe learner will

Use a table of contents in functional materials.*

. determine organization of functional materials.

Activities

1 Have students use the table of contents of theGeorgia Driver's Manual, the newspaper orany other functional reading material whichcontains a table of contents and answer ques-tions such as the following. "On what pagedoes the chapter begin that would probablytell what the solid yellow center lines mean?""What is the title of the chapter that wouldprobably contain information concerning whattypes of questions y.)u can expect on thetest?"

2. Use functional reading materials with head-ings and subheadings. Have students predictwhat each section is about from the headingor subheading. Then have them read thesection to test the validity of their predictior

Objectives

The learner will

use reference material to prepare a writtenrep .)rt.

determine multiple meanings of words.

Activities

I I hive tit talents prepare a written report whichrequires using refeience materials. Table of

91 s

contents, headings, subheadings, index andbibliography must be included.

2. Provide studer.°s with five or more multi-meaning words. The students should thenwrite a story using at least two of the mean-ings for each word. Encourage the use of thedictionary to look for uncommon meanings ofthe words.

3. Provide st:. nts with the index from a book.Either use the book itself with the title cov-ered or use a copy of the index. Have thestudents write down the subject of the bookand think of a title for the book. The studentsshould then look at the titles and table ofcontents for accuracy.

Evaluation.aluation of progress toward study skills mas-

tery can take several forms. One of the mosteffective is teacher observation as a studentapplies a skill in a realistic setting suk.h as usingthe card catalogue in the library when doingresearch for a project. If documentation of skillmastery is desired, informal tests similar to thepretests described earlier can be used for thispurpose. The work-study or reference sections ofstandardized tests can also be used for the samepurpose if the results are reported in a way thatyou can ar alyze them relative to performance onspecific ...kills. The only disadvantage to these'lasttwo described data sources is that the adminis-tration of these tests is limited to a specific timeof year so they cannot provide immediate feed-back on progress.

Appendix AEvaluating Speaking and Listening

Skills in the Classkom

Communication does not thrive in a climate ofevaluation. Presentation of self through speechis always extremely ego-involving and normalspeech anxieties are heightened by testing. Oralstyle, which is so dependent on situation, audi-ence and honest purpose, becomes artificial.Self-disclosure is inhibited. Meanings are distorted.Still, speaking and listening must be evaluated insome manner so that teachers can diagnosestrengths and weaknesses, so that students canbe aware of their successes and the routes tofurther growth, and so that oral communicatoncan be legitimized for those who believe thateducators are accountable for tangible outcomes.But in evaluating speech communication skills itis especially important to maintain a supportiveclimate, one in which students are encouragedto try out new communication behaviors withoutthreatening their self-esteem. It is equally crucialthat students feel they are communicating forgenuine purposes. that the evaluation function isincidental to. and not the primary motivation for.interaction. Finally, feedback to students shouldbe useful in guiding their further development. Itshould be concrete, primarily descriptive andinclude positive as well as negative remarks. Theevaluator is a party to classroom communica-tion and is therefore subject to limitations of hisor her own communication skills. Evaluationmight best be prefaced by. "This is what I

observed your group doing," or "This is how Iresponded to your presentation."

Ily we think or .-.peech evaluation in termsof teachers grading formal speaking assignmentson some rating scale including criteria ofpronounciation, standard usage. audibility, into-nation and perhaps quality o written outline.This is too narrow a view in a number of respectssince this typical speech assessment loses sightof the primarily communicative nature of theperformance. We should try to define ratingcriteria in functional terms like appropriatenessto audience intelligibility and expressiveness.Also. criteria should go beyond elocution. shouldreflect that oral skills include ability in discovering.selecting and organizing supporting materials.

Evaluation of oral skills need not be limited toformal public speaking. Especially in the elemen-tary grades, students are not ready for this typeof assessment. Although it may be easier toevaluate the extended noninterrupted discourseof public speaking, other classroom situationscalling for evaluation include participation insmall and large group discussions, role-playinginterpersonal interactions (and other forms ofdramatic improvisation), listening for variouspurposes and performance of social rituals. Notall evaluation need be teacher-centered. Peerevaluation reinforces the notion that the teacherdoes not solely comprise the audience. All audi-ence members experience valid reactions. Self-evaluation encourages students to introspect andto apply communication principles in personallymeaningful ways.

Finally, not all oral activities need be evaluatedin, a formal manner. Some assignments. evenformal public speaking assignments at the sec-ondary level, can be left upgraded. Often ateacher may discuss the class' performance ingeneral terms rather than directing evaluation toindividuals, and may discuss the class' perfor-mance in purely descriptive terms with no evalua-tive tone.

The sugg,stions and examples on the followingpages illustrate these various approaches toevaluating speaking and listening. In using theseillustrations. teachers will need to adapt them tograde and ability level.

A.1.

ListeningStandardized Tests. A number of com-mercially published tests of listeningability are available. Among these arethe Brown-Carlson and the STEP Listen-ing tests. Often a unit which sensitizesstudents to the need to listen actively willresult in gains on such evaluatiin instru-ments.

2. Listening for Comprehension. Teacher-n,ode tests of listening comprehension areeasy to constr act. At the upper grades thet.'

9341

can lie administered in conjuction with lec-ture materials. Frequently film and film stripteacher guides include comprehension ques-tions. If students are presenting informativetalks. it is a good idea to ask them toconstruct their own comprehension quizzes.Their fellow students' accuracy will serve asuseful feedback concerning the speaker'seffectiveness. It is helpful to offer instructionin notetaking along with pratice in listeningfor comprehension.

3. Listening to Distinguish Facts fromOpinions. A typical newspaper editorial willcontain both facts and opinions. Read aneditorial aloud and ask students to identifyeach sentence as fact or value judgement.Sports reporting often blurs the distinction.Here. vivid adjectives and verbs may evalua-tively color accounts of events. One way inwhich factual accounts are distorted is by theinclusion of unwarranted inferences. Criticalink rence tests such as that in Example A canassess students' skills at distinguishing factfrom inference in narratives.

4. Listening for Speakers' Attitudes. Stu-dents should be able to identify a'speaker'spoint of view in public. discourse. Locate atape of Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms" speech.a videotape of the 1960 Nixon-Kennedy de-hates or a recording of Martin LutherKing.Ir.'s "The Nonviolent Method." Ask students

to ideiiiify the speakers' points of view on thevarii*Ci issues they are discussing. Ask stu-dents to extrapolate how these speakers would

react to various current events. When stu-dents are delivering persuasive presentations.ask audience members to identify their th..-Sf.S WI specifically as they can. Student .peak-ers may lw surprised to learn how often theirpeers have misinterpreted their claims. Ininterpersonal interaction. when we listen forspeakers' attitudes we are trying to listenemphatically. Student s should be .-ble topractice such techniques of emphatic listen-

ing as reflecting feelings and paraphrase(-What I heat you saving is . . "). The empa-illy test illustrated in Example K is suitablefor lagh 54 114101 students. but has been simpli-

fied ;o: .ise by students as young as fourthgrade_ The students engage in a conversationabout favorite movies or ihe like for about iliminutes before marking the scales.

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5. Listening to Evaluate Ideas. As students

engage in discussion, listen to prepared pre-sentations or receive broadcast messages,hey should be able to judge the validity of

the many persuasive appeals they encounter.This type of listening is important for at least

two reasons. First, students need to learn todefend themselves intellectually from inflatedclaims and propaganda. In addition o engag-ing in such defensive listening, students need

to be able to listen to evaluate ideas so they

can participate constructively in group dis-cussion. One typical failure of classroomdiscussions is that individuals are eager tooffer their own contributions without acknowl-edging or following up the ideas of theirclassmates. In some methods of conflictresolution, participants must state theiropponent's point of view to the satisfaction of

their opponent and identify points of agree-ment before offering a new argument orproposal. This is a workable system for manytypes of classroom discussions, as well. Sincethe mass media are major sources of persua-sive messages in our society, students shoulddemonstrate skill in analyzing and evaluatingbroadcast advertisements. Bring in video-

tapes of television advertisements or securefilms of CLEO Award winning advertisements.In the primary grades, students should be

able to distinguish advertising from programcontent and recognize the persuasive intentof commercials. In middle school, students

should be able to name several basic advertis-ing strategies (bandwagon, testimonial, glit-tering generali''.

6. Listening for Aesthetic Appreciation.Much literature is written to be read andheard. This is true of a good deal of poetryand drama. Younger students enjoy listeningto stories told or orally interpreted from text':So do older students. A teacher who readswell may find that students are eager tocomplete assigned work if they know thatodd minutes before the hell rings will be spentin listening to literature. Tape recordings ofradio /heart() ("The Lone Ranger" or "Win ofthe Worlds-). recordings of authors readingfrom their works or recordings of actorsinterpreting prose are available. Evaluatingstudents responses to aural literature centers(Ill their degree of engaement. ympathy forcharacters and ability 14) relate tlwmes totheir owl) lives.

V

r

Example A

Observations, Assumptions and Inferences Worksheet

Teacher reads the following passage aloudHarry got out of the sports car. The police officer approached him with a pad in one hand and pencil inthe other. After talking with Harry for a few minutes, the officer wrote down the necessary information.Harry returned to the car, slammed the door and continued to school.

Students number Weir pages 1-10.Based on the story above, are the following statements True (T), False (F) or Unknown (?).

I I' .) The police officer stopped Harry.

I F ? The police officer approached Harry before he had a chance to get out of the car.

T F ? The officer had a pad and a pen with him.

I F ,) Harry was driving his car.

1 F ? The man who talked with Harry was a police officer.

T F ? Harry received a traffic ticket.

T F ? Harry slammed the door of his car.

T F ? Harry was angry.

IIIIT I .) Harry went to work after talking with the police officer.

T F ? Harry was traveling in a station wagon. ..

c.

.0

Example BEmpathy Test

.71

Circle the answer that best describes how you feel.

A. This is how I perceived myself. C. This is how I perceived my partner.

Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad

Secure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insecure Secure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insecure

Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Excited Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Excited

Tough - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle

Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guarded Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guarded

B. This is how my partner perceived me. D. This is how my partner perceived him-self or herself.

1. Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sad

Secure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insecure Secure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insecure

Calm 1 2 34 5 6 7 Excited Calm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Excited

Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle Tough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gentle

Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guarded Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Guarded

Insfruetions for obtaining score

1) Compare your D predit tams with your partner's A.rind the numerical differences for rntimis on em h of the ftlines. Lind the sum of these differences.

2) Compare your B predictions with your partner's C.Total the differences as before.

3I Add the sums from steps (I) god (21 A somi/ aumern alcalm, tends to 171d1( We a high degree of croprffilV.

I)sv ass With your prattler possible reasons why cat h of voltin civet' the scores you did.

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0

7. Listening to Identify Sounds. In kinder-garten and first grade it is wise to devotesome attention to sound discrimination. Teach-ers can create their own tapes of commonsounds or buy commercially available sets,For example, students can practice countingby listening to the sound of footsteps on dryleaves. Or students can demonstrate theirknowledge of "safety sounds" by identifying apolice officer's whistle, a fire engine siren, anauto horn, etc. Practice in discriminatingspeech sounds, especially common articula-tion errors such as r , s and th is alsohelpful. Noticethat evaluating speech sounddiscrimination is not equivalent to assessingreading phonics skills. In teaching speechsounds, no graphemic representations areprovided. Instead, students may learn to associ-ate a picture of Sammy the Snake with thesnake hissing sound or Rudy the Race Carwith the motor sound.

B. Self as Communicator1. Communication Apprehension. Anxiety

about oral communication is a personalitytrait with far reaching consequences. Aboutone in five adults experiences communicationapprehension to such a degree that it nega-tively affects their academic success, choiceof career and sometimes influences their choiceof mate. Communication apprehension is alearned trait, and evidence points that it islearned somehow between kindergarten andthird grade. Experts speculate that studentsleArn to withdraw from the risk of communi-cation when they are punished for speakingup and rewarded for silence. It is importantthat students learn from an early age that it isnormal to b. fearful of some communicationsituations. but that they need not avoidinteractions. This requires open discussion of(anniunication fears. It is al that teachers

identify apprehensive student,),ka the classroom.(Note: Reticence is a broadc*(t concept andmay he due to hostility, uncertainty or otherfactors. The quiet child is not necessarilyapprehensive.) Apprehensive students needespecially tender (Me and should never befoe 4'.1 !( I speak. Some valid assessment in-struments are available and may be used fordiagnosis or simply as stimuli for classroomdiscussion. The -Measure of Elementary Com-munication Apprehension." shown in Exam-ple mav be read aloud with students

1

marking smiling, frowning or neutral faces toshow their agreement with each statement.The "Personal Report of CommunicationFear," presented in Example D, is intendedfor grades 7-12.

2. Daily Interaction. Students should be awareof their daily interaction patterns and assesstheir own effectiveness as communicators.Students at all grade levels can keep a"conversation diary." In the primary gradesthis may take the form of a picture book withstudents drawing and peThaps labelling theirvarious daily conversations. For older students,logging and reflecting on conversations shouldbe encouraged as a regular part of journalwriting. From time to time, remind studentsnot to harp or the more negative interactions,as we all are wont to do. Students in earlyadolescence are beginning to form self-conceptsand this is an especially important time tostress the role of communication in daily life.For it is primarily by seeing how others reactto us that we get a feel for who we are. Thefamily is a fundamental interaction unit andstudents at all ages can begin to understandhow their families work by analyzing conver-sations among fe...mily members.

3. Communication in Careers. In exploringand choosing career options. students needto be especially aware of the role of communi-cation in work. Some jobs, such as attorneyor teacher, are transparently and exclusivelycareers in communications. Some jobs. suchas physician or auto mechanic. require com-munication skills for effective functioning.Still other careers, such as in rior decoratoror police officer. are essentially communica-tions oriented, but are rarely thought of assuch. Students can chc se and prepare forcareers more wisely if they are aware of theroles of communication in the world of work.

fi

4. Consumer of Mass Communications.For 'many Americans. the role of mass com-munication receiver is significant both interms of our lifestyles and our personaldevelopment. Ye-t for students who may spendup to 40 hour: a week" viewing televisionalone. the M1111(4-.0(41 hi mess vonitimilica-.tkm is taken for granted and the significanceof this role is rarely appreciate0. Studentsneed ni evaluate their exposure to massmedia and the effects this type of communica-

)

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9

Example CMeasure of Elementary Communication APprehension

Items Refer to Subsequent Tables

very happy happy no feeling unhappyI like it a lot. I like it. I don't care. I don't like it.

1. How do you feel when you talk to teachers or your principal?

*2, How do you feel about talking to someone you don't know very well?

*3. How do you feel when you hold something and talk about it?

4. How do you feel about talking to people who aren't close friends?

5. How do you feel about talking when you have a new teacher?

*6. How do you feet about talking a lot when you are on a bus?

7. How do you feel when you are piLKed to be a leader of a group?

*8. How do you feel about talking a lot in class?

9. How do you feel when you talk in front of an audience?

10. How do you feel about talking to other people?

11. How do you feel about trying to meet someone new?

*12. flow do you feel after you get up to talk in front of the class?

13. How do you feel when you know you have to give a speech?

14. Flow would you feet about giving a speech on televisi

15. How do you feel about talking when you are in a small group?

*16 Flow do you feel when you have to talk in a group?

'17. How do you feel when the teacher calls on you?

*18. 1 low do you fuel about talking to all of the deople who sit close to you?

I 9. I low do you feel when the teacher wants you to talk in class?

"20 low do you feel whvo you talk in front of t) large group of people?

Itt'111% 1A Ith .1S11INks tXtfs Iot v.ith the' fat vs

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very unhappyI really don't

like it.

a

Example DPersonal Report of Communication Fear

110

Verbal Activity Scale

Sri

4.

YES yes ? no NO 1. Talking with someone new scares me.

YES yeS ? no NO 2. 1 look forward to talking in class.

YkS yes ? no NO 3. 1 don't like it when It is my turn to talk.

YES yes ? no NO - 4. 1 like standing tkp and talking to a group of people.

YES , es ? no NO 5. I like to talk when the whole class listens.

YES yes ? no NO 6. Standing .up to talk in front of other people scares me)

YES yes ? no NO 7. I like talking to teachers.

YES yes ? no NO 8. I an scared to talk to people.

YES yes ? no NO 9. I like it when it is my turn to talk in class.

YES yes ? no NO 10. I like to talk to new people.

YES yes ? no NO 12.. I enjoy talking:

YES yes ? no NO 11. Most of the time 1 would rather be quiet than talk.

YES yes ? no NO 13. Other people think I am very quiet.

YES yes ? n 0 NO 14. 1 talk mote than most people.

YES ties ? no NO 15. Talking to other people is one of the tinfoils I like the be sc.

YES yes ? no NO 16. Most of the time I would rather :alk than be cone:.

Vf:S yes ? no NO 17 1 don't talk much.

YES yes ? no NO 18. Other people think I talk a lot.

YES yes .) no NO 19. Most people talk more tlutn I do

YES ') nono NO 20. 1 talk a lot.

ttitcrq

.t

tion has on them. To become aware of theirmedia use, students may participate in a"media withdrawal" exercise. Students spenda day or a weekend free of print and elec-tronic media. Beware of violent reactionsfrom students whose fundamental lifestylesare threatened by this activity. Afterwards,discussion centers on heightened sensitivityto their own and others' use of mass media,on how students felt during withdrawal, onthe difficulties in this society of isolatingone's self from seemingly omnipresent masscommunication messages and on how stu-deats otherwise occupied their time and minds.Other ways of sensitizing students to theiruse of mass media include media lcgs(recording time. location, content of diaryfashion), and media inventories, one of whichis reproduced in Example E. Once studentsare attuned to their media habits, they canbegin to explore how their lives and attitudesare affected by this exposure. Sometimes acomparative approach may help lend per-spective. Introduce students to examples ofpopular culture current two decades ago andask if students a generation back might differfrom today.'s youngsters because of their dif-ferent mass media exposure. Discussion ofmass communication effects can pertain tothree areas use of time (time spent withmass media as opposed to interacting withfamily and friends, developing hobbies,studying: time spend viewing and listening asopposed to reading); interests and values(mass media models for ideal career, male-female relationships, consumer goods, physi-cal appearance. sex roles, interaction styles:have mass media extended student interestsby giving entry to a "global village"?): andintellectual functioning (attention span.perseverance or easy frustration in acquiringknowledge, analytical skills, range of knowl-edge).

5. Classroom Comniunication. Achievementin school. and pleasure in school. is a func-tion of verbal interaction. The class is acommunity what does the student contrib-ute and what does he or she reap from thiscommunity? Students should be encouragedto evaluate their participation in large-groupdiscussion focusing on questions of attitude.topics and occasions that sPem to bring outcomments, listening habits. relationship to

100

mood and out-of-school concerns, relation-ship to homework and preparation. In addi-tion to judging their own participation in thelarger group, students should be given everyopportunity to assess their own performancesin communication exercises and in smallgroup activities. If students criticize their ownpublic spe.,,king performances, they will prob-ably acquire more insight than could beimparted by reams of teacher rating forms.They may also be more honest about theirown shortcomings than most teachers canbear to be.

C. Oral Language

1. Speech Disorders. Classroom teacherscannot be expected to serve as professionaldiagnosticians or therapists. On the otherhand, teachers are in the best position toscreen dysfunctional speech and refer stu-dents for propertreatment. This is of particu-lar importance in the early primary years.Certainly every student should receive rou-tine hearing checks. But if students showrepeated hearing difficulties due to infection,abuse or disease, the school nurse should bealerted. Expressive disorders are defined bythree criteria. They render the student diffi-cult to comprehend. They call attention tothemselves rather than to the student'smessage. They make the student uncomfort-able. Speech disorders most commonly en-countered are dysfunctions of voice, of arti-culation, of fluency and delayed languagedevelopment. Voice disorders of pitch (as inrunning up and down a musical scale whenspeaking) and quality (hoarseness) are oftentransitory. Also. young children may havesome difficulty controlling voice volume. Stu-dents should have the opportunity to heartape recordings of their voices and shouldlearn not to abuse vocal apparatus. Consis-tent misarticulation. (e.g., substituting 1w/ forr or . "slushy" or whistled Is!) are com-mon and usually outgrown by time the stu-dent reaches third grade. Persistent prob-lems should be referred. Informal enunciationis an element of style, not an articulationdisorder. (See following section.) Fluency dis-orders (stuttering and stammering) are seri-ous because many can be prevented by avoid-ing over-correction in the elementary grades.Apparently some people are actually taught

9?

Example EMedia Inventory

Medium TitlesType

Times Used Place Used Concurrent Activities CommentsE I P

Books

Newspapers

Comic Books......

Magazines

Pamphlets4-

Broadside /Bills. .

Radio

Records/Tapes

P.It. Announcements

Muzak

TV

Movies

Others.,

4

101 9 8

A

to stutter because parents and/or teacherscall attention to natural hesitations anddysfluencies in speech. Children then be-come overly conscious of their speech andhave difficulty getting words out. For somereason, incidence of stuttering reaches a peakamong fifth-grade boys. Don't tell students tochoose their words before the speak. Don'ttell students to speak more rapidly. Don'tforce a self conscious person to speak. Lan-guage delay (infantile vocabulary and syntax)may be due to lack of interaction or toemotional problems. In the first case, stu-dents will start to show great progress inkindergarten or first grade simply throughexposure and interaction so long as talk isencouraged in the classroom. In the case ofspeech delay due to emotional difficulties,professional help is required.

2. Standard Dialect. Children come to schoolspeaking the language variety of their regional,social and ethnic communities. It is well-established that no variety is any more logi-cal or communicatively efficient than anyother. There is no convincing evidence thatlanguage variety affects learning to read orwrite, so long as teachers not confusespoken and written itmguage (as in correctingoral reading pronunciation). I .stead, our cul-ture teaches us to associate status and posi-tive values with the kind of speech typified by

'e"Broadcast English." This presents a seriousproblem for teachers since we often expectnonstandard dialect speakers to perform poorly,and those expectations may become self-fulfilling. But we all speak one dialect oranother. Dialect, itself, is not cause for reme-diation or negative evaluation. Analyzingstudents' native dialects and comparisonswith language variation around the nationmay even be a fruitful avenue for instructionin language. The Linguistic Atlas of the South-east is a valuable and useful source for teachersto use in this analysis and in discriminatinggenuine language problems from legitimatedialect variations.

3. Language Appropriateness. We some-times want to teach our students to speak cor-rectly. But what is correct speech? In someareas, in some situations, a person who speakslike a radio news announcer would be ridi-culed and ostracized. No one speaks grammar-book English all the time. Even in teaching

102

we don't always speak incomplete sentences.Surely it is unfair to evaluate student speechby criteria of correctness, criteria which arebased on written language and not oral. Butat the upper grades it is reasonable to evalu-ate student speech by criteria of appropriate-ness. Each of us controls a range of styles(also called "registers") which we select fromin any particular communication situation.For example, we speak with different enuncia-tion, vocabulary and synfax in front of class,in the teachers' lounge and yet differently athome with our families. Some of the factorsaffecting the appropriateness of our choice ofstyle include topic of conversation (e.g.,

baseball versus symphonic music); setting(cocktail party versus library); purpose (e.g.,entertaining narrative versus academic ex-position); and perhaps most importantly

listener (child versus peer, small groupversus assembly, friend versus stranger, bossversus colleague, celebrity versus neighbor)."Hey, Slick, ya wanna chow down?" may bean appropriate luncheon invitation for a closefriend, but it would be highly inappropriate toaddress the School Board Chairperson inthis manner. Recognize, however, that itwould be equally inappropriate to invite yourfriend (unless done with humor) by uttering."Pardon my interruption, Sir, might you bedesirous of coordinating your midday repastwith that of my own?" Grammatically cor-rect but communicatively inappropriate. Inteaching oral language we wish to expandour students' stylistic options and to incul-cate criteria for shifting styles to adapt appro-priately to communication situations. In as-sessing oral language, teachers need todetermine what level of language usage isappropriate for the particular assignment,and evaluate on that basis. Thus, a studentwho says ain't may be adapting appropri-ately if he or she is informally addressing anaudience of peers. On the other hand, if theactivity specifies a role-playing situation inwhich the student is interviewing for employ-ment as a salesperson at a high-fashionboutique, ain't would rightfully incur nega-tive evaluation.

D. Nonverbal CommunicationIt sometimes escapes both teachers and stu-dents that speech is more than language. Non-

93

,M1

verbal communication accompanies languageand is an integral part of speech communication.Probably the most important point of evaluationin this area is that nonverbal signals ought to beconsistent with language. Mixed messages areconfusing and often have deleterious interper-sonal consequences. Nonverbal signals often carrythe relationship (as opposed to content) aspectof messages. They help us know how to interpretmessages. They can also emphasize, illustrate,substitute (as in familiar signs for quiet, shop.etc.), and regulate the flow of conversation.There are six basic categories of nonverbal signals.Kinesic gestures include body posture, move-ment and facial expression. Eye contact is sosignificant in establishing relationships that itdeserves singular attention. Through eye contactwe acknowledge shared humanity, establish trust,express intimacy. Proxemic signals communi-cate by the use of space. We can distinguishbetween, intimate, cordial and formal relation-ships by how we distance o selves in conversation.Seating and furniture ar ngement indicate rela-tionships and can have profound effects on qual-ity of communication. Touch is another impor-tant means for communicating relationships.Learning cultural meanings of touch is a majortask for primary grade children. Paralinguisticsignals include all oral sounds which arenonlinguistic. Among these are yawning. crying.sighing, intonation, volume, rate of speech.hesitations, hems and haws. Artifacts that wekeep about us. our clothing, jewelry. cars, booksand home decorations, are also means of nonver-bal communication. In teaching end evaluatingnonverbal communication, it is important tobear in mind that gestures such as laughter haveuniversal meaning, but others, conversationaldistance for example, may be interpreted differ-ently in different cultures.

E. Role Playing and Dramatic Improvisation

Role playing and creative dramatics can bed.powerful instructional strategies as well as tool&for personal growth, especially if used consis-tently from the early grades on. In a sense, allclassroom exercises which are other than natu-ral interaction require a suspension of reality andentail a degree of simulation. It is indeed difficultto know how to evaluate an imaginative per-formance. Certainly, it is defeating to allowevaluative purposes to overshadow students' joyin creative expression. Consider the following sixevaluative criteria.

Does the student display the communi-cation skills specified in the lesson'sobjectives? If the purpose of the role-play isto practice introductions of various degrees offormality, does the student demonstrate thesebehaviors?

Is the student actively involved in theperformance? Does he or she get into theactivity by participating with energy, by solv-ing the communicate )n problem creatively?

Is the student able to maintain concen-tration? In pantomiming a ball game, doesthe student jerk his or her hand back whencatching the line drive? Does he or she see thescene so that one character does not set her orhis elbows where another character has justplaced the bowl of steaming porridge?

Does the student cooperate and inter-act with other players in planning andperforming the scene? Does he or she feedlines to others (e.g., "So tell me about yourday. John."). help others create their parts,(e.g., "You don't have to prove you're sotough. Let me help you carry that treasure.")?

When proper, does the student play tothe audience? Without stepping out ofcharacter, does the student project loudly,allow the audience to view actions, avoidblocking other actors?

Can the student analyze the performan-ces? Can she or he abstract and express thecommunication principles which were demon-strated in the improvisation? Are alternativescripts apparent? Can he or she explain whatthe characters were thinking, what guided theirbehavior at various points? Can students relatethe improvised situation to events they mayhave experienced?

F. Small Group Discussion.

Small group discussion skills are useful in theirown right and can be useful instructional strategies.Peer group evaluation of compositions has beenfound to be helpful. But many teachers havefound that for students to work well in groups.they must receive deliberate instruction in groupdynamics. Whenever groups are used in aclassroom. it is worthwhile evaluating the qual-ity of the group process. Example F lists somebasic questions about group process that mayguide such evaluation. Understanding small group

Example F

Questions for Group Communication Analysis

Important NoteThe purpose of this analysis is to describe your group's dynamics, not necessarily to evaluate.

I. How did the group go about biting into the task? Any initial procrastinating? Attempts at organizing

members?

2. How did the group arrive at a problem solving strategy? Were alternative approaches (e.g.. process of

elimination, stating operating assumptions) discussed first? Any false starts? Any objections to the

procedure finally adopted?,

3. To what extent did the group engage in non-task oriented talk? At what point? Did this non-taskoriented talk serve any function with respect to how the group was able to function in the task domain?

4. fiat kind of communication network operated? Were comments addressed ti, t-.e group as a whole

always, or occasionally to smaller factions? Did all members contribute comments equally?

5. What seating arrangement did your group assume? Any particular reason? Did the seating arrange-

ment affect the flow of communication?

6. To what extent was disagreement voiced in the group? Did each member feel free to dissent? At what

points in the discussion did you feeIthat further disagreement would be unwelcome or unwise? How did

the group cope with conflict? Did the conflict help or hinder the final group outcome?

01:*7. Did the group show signs of cohesiveness? How was this cohesiveness (or lack of it) established? How

was it reinkirced during the course of the meeting? Did you find a relationship between cohesiveness

and conflict? Between cohesiveness and the final group outcome?

8. What role did each member play? Examples are experts, idea testers, switchboard operators, tension

relievers, affect checkers, clarifiers, etc.

9. Was there any member perceived by others as the group's leader? Did this person perceive him/herself

as leader? Were more than one leale evident? How were leadership tasks apportioned? In what sense

did the leader lead? What were her/his contributions? Any relationship to expertise? Any relationship

to seating arrangement?

10. Were both men and women present in the group? Did gender tend to atiect the different roles assumed?

Any relationship to the flow of communication or the degree of participation?

11. What was the group outcome? Did the group succeed at the task? Did the group succeed on the social

dimension?

12. Was this a good task for your particular group to work on collectively? What were the costs ofperforming this task as a group as opposed to working as individuals? What were sources of members'

satisfaction and dissatisfaction? Overall. what was the ration of costs to benefits in this communication

event?

104

communication entails synthesizing informationconcerning roles (more fine-grained than justone leader and several followers), norms forbehavior (humor, expressing Warmth), decision-making process (authoritarian leader, majorityrule, consensus), interaction patterns (who speaksto whom) and outcomes (personal satisfaction,task success, group status, social success). Ex-ample G illustrates a self - evaluation form forgroup discussion. One system frequently used torepresent group process is the Bales InteractionProcess Analysis, consisting of six task-orientedcategories and three positive and three negativegroup maintenance categories. As shown in Ex-ample I-1, participants or observers can rate eachgroup member according to each type of behavior.Another method of recording group process isthe communication network. Here, a line with anarrow is drawn from each name to each othermember. When a participant directs a commentto one (or several) other members, an observerplaces a slash mark on the correspondingarrow(s). The flow of communication within thegroup thus becomes graphically apparent. Whengroups are assigned a joint project (paneldiscussion, group paper), the issue generallyarises as to whether a single grade should beassigned to all group members. Under this system,

those who work hard carry the slouchers, andthose who are less competent pull down those ofhigh ability. One option is to assign both anindividual and a group grade. However assigninga single group grade has the advantage of forc-ing the group to attend to its dynamics, ratherthan acting as a largely unrelated congregationof individuals. Groups should devote the last fiveminutes of each meeting to evaluating theircommunication. Structured methods of evalua-tion (e.g. process recording forms) should beused as often as possible. In any event, groupmembers should be encouraged to write journalentries about each meeting. Outside peer observ-ers should be used frequently, and the teachershould also conduct periodic unobtrusive obser-vations.

G. Formal Public Speaking

1. General Procedures. For many of ourstudents an assignment to give a speech engen-ders more fear and loathing than a week ofdetentions. This reaction is due to a basic misap-prehension about the nature of public speaking.Many of our students. who otherwise may he

competent talkers, fail miserably in presentingspeeches. Often this is due to their attempting toconform to some distorted stereotype of oration.Formal public speaking is simply an area on thesame dimension as interpersonal communication,albeit closer to the pole of formality. In fact, aspeech is sometimes characterized as extendedconversation. Formal speeches are planned, butthey do involve improyisation. They are structured,but so are interviews. They. allow limited audi-ence interaction. Discourse' is sustained, butaudiences do provide meaningful feedback throughnonverbal channels. Thus, public speaking buildsupon interpersonal skills and, above all, it is anact of authentic communication, person to persons.

especially in the lower grades public-speakingneed not require students to stand before dieaudience nor to conform to rigid organizationalpatterns. Helpful evaluation of formal speechesshares some characteristics with writing eval-uation. It should accentuate the positive, gobeyond mere ratings or letter grades to includedetailed comments justifying reactions, includemore description than evaluation, and be re-turned to students soon after the speech formaximum reinforcement. Evaluating speechesrequires great concentration and is among themore exhausting pastimes known to education.Peer evaluation is critical to help legitimize thelarger audience for the speaker and also toemphasize the responsibility of listeners. Manyteachers will stop after every few speeches tosolicit audience comments. StudenLyist learnthat they are not a wolf pack intent on tearingapart their peers, that they are a team workingtogether to improve speaking skills. Speakersshould also receive written feedback, from bothteacher and peers. to which they may refer inpreparing their next presentation. On peer feed-back forms, you should identify the topic asspecifically as you can, such as one area thatmost impressed me, one area to think about nexttime and how the presentation affected me.Teachers must develop feedback forms that areworkable for them personally. The more specificand concrete the feedback, the more helpful it is,Example I presents a teacher feedback formwhich combines rating scales with open-endedcomments. When possible, written feedback shouldbe discussed in conferences. (Conferences arealso important in the planning stages.)

2. Public Speaking Evaluation Criteria.Public speaking encompasses the entire realm of

105

132

a

4

Example GSelfevaluation for Group Discussion

This is how the group operated.StronglyAgree

Agree Disagree StronglyDisagree

1. We felt comfortable In the group. y.

2. We were interested in accomplishing thetask.

3. We encouraged everyone to participate..

4. We welcomed all ideas.

5. We all participated equally.

6. We listened carefully and made sure weunderstood each persons ideas.

7. We had an acknowledged group leader.b

8. We were satisfied with the way in- which weaccomplished the task.

9. We were satisfied with the feeling of friendli-ness between members.

.

10. We accomplished this task more success-fully as a group than we could have asindividuals.

This is how I operated within the group.

1. I felt comfortable in the group.

2. 1 was interested in accomplishing the task.

3. 1 participated as much as the others.

4. 1 was the acknowledged leader.

5. 1 was satisfied with the group's leader.

6. 1 was better off working with a group un thistask than I would have been had i workedalone.

1 ,r) 3

106

Example H.

Adaptation of Bales-Interaction Process Analysis

Rate each member as follows.1never. 2sometimes. 3usually

Behaviors

shows solidarity

Members

shows tension release

agrees

shows antagonism

shows tension

disagrees

gives .suggestiona

gives opinion

gives orientation

asks for opinion

asks for suggestion

10710 4

rhetoric. Aristotle's five Canons are still service-able. Invention includes discovering, researchingand selecting ideas. An important part of speechinstruction is educating students in methods ofelaborating and supporting their 'fleas. Arrange-ment refers to organization skilis. Often publicspeaking is the place where students learn howto prepare outlines, but it is most important tostress the function of outlines rather than theirform. Style is a tool for effectiveness and also ameans for establishing a personal relationshipwith an audiencp. Delivery focuses on the spe-cific linguistic and nonverbal d2vices used toexpress the message. Delivery should be naturaland consistent with the student's personality, theoccasion and the purpose of the speech. Nonver-

bal signs hand gestures, facial expression,voice intonation, loudness, rate, posture and eye

contact should not be histrionic but should rein-force and emphasize the message. "Memoria,"the fifth Canon, does not translate easily butgenerally refers to the speaker's control over theentire presentation. In situations other than ora-torical contests students should be discouragedfrom memorizing their speeches (or composinga written text). Still, the speaker must be familiarwith the sequence of ideas, with the types of sup-

port he or she can draw upon. The student shouldhave more information available than he or she

plans to use, information which can be spontane-ously inserted in response to the audience's non-verbal feedback. Some more specific criteria arelisted in Example J. Students may even have ahand in developing the points of evaluation theyconsider important. "Appropriateness to audi-ence" relates to the speaker's attempts to inter-

est and involve listeners and to use informationand appeals meaningful to the audience. A pre-

.08

sentation is "appropriate to purpose" if it con-forms to the assignment (persuasive, demonstra-tion, visual aids), stays within reasonable timelimits, and maintains proper focus (topic andpoint of view are well defined). "Progression ofideas" should be logical and is most effective iforganizational cues like-transition statements andinternal summaries are used. In persuasivespeeches, students should include a section inwhich they anticipate and refute reservations totheir arguments. (This is a worthwhile goal forthe elementary grades.) "Support" is an areawhich troubles many students. After making anassertion, they have difficulty knowing what elseto say; it is not obvious to many that their audi-ences need elaboration, illustration, explanation.

14,

As discussed 'n the previous' section on "Lan-guage Appropriateness", standards for judging"language effectiveness" in speech are differentfrom those in writing. In fact, students may be

penalized for using written texts. While notes areessential, manuscript reading is an advanced art.Manuscripts hinder spontaneity, relation to au-dience, and generally reducAsincerity conveyedby spoken delivery. This is icthally true of memo-rized texts. True, students feel nIre secure withwritten or memorized texts. In fact, though, thereis no substitute for thorough preparation andfamiliarity with material, for if a speaker loses

his or her place in a memorized irpeech, it is verydifficult to recover. The final criterion in Example1, "projection of personality," emphasizes to stu-dents that they must establish a personal bond

or tone with the audience, reinforces the notionthat public speaking is not some artificial formbut a genuine act of communication.

4

'Example I

Speech Feedback

Rate the speech on a scale of 1 to 5. (1 = you forgot this and 5 ---- you did this superbly)

Appropriateness to audience

Appropriateness to purpose

Introduction

Conclusion

Progression of ideas

'Support'

Language effectiveness

Voice rate

Voice volume

Voice intonation

Eye contact

Gestures and movement

Projection of personality

e

One aspect to think about especially for the next presentation

One aspect that especially impressed me during this presentation

Grade

109

106

V

Nk,

Apjend1x 13Learning Environment Checklist

Rank yourself on a 1.5 continuum, 5 being the highest ranking.

..11n my classroom

.1 2 3

.4 5

1. Many types of hooks are available for brows-ing and readingfiction and nonfiction.

2. Interest centers are available.

3. A library corner is provided..).,,

4. Students have access :o tapes and recordsthat accompany books.

5. Reading material other than books is pro-vided.

6. Films and film *fps are available.

7. Creative materials are available for per-per-sonal interpretation.

8. Research opportunities are provided.

9. Space is allocated for oral activities (readers'theatre, choral speaking, play acting) so asnot to interfere with silent reading or listen-ing activities.

10. Tapes are 'provided so that students maylisten to their own stories or their oralreading experiences.

11. A quiet corner is established where studentsmay write, read, thipk.

12. Bulletin boards enhance the learning envi-ronment.

13. Charts are used both as a meanf improv-ing the classroom living and also as a vehi-cle to improve reading skills.

14. Space is available for creative shaking ofbooks.

15. Learning centers provide reinforcement oflearned activities through independent work.

,

,

.

.

...,.

..

..

t ., .

.

x

.

.

,-

..

\

te`\

t)

.

..

t."

Source Curry. J. "Flow Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Dianr. Lapp. editor. Making ReadingPossible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.

111107

N.

.

Appendix CSelfevaluation Checklist for Classrooul Teachers.

Mite your present skill or knowledge for each of the following aspects of teaelhing reading.

I

Yee

Somewhat,but I nead No

v more Inter*motion

1. I understand tht processes involved in reading compre-hension.

2.2. I know a variety of methods or reading instruction thestrengths and needs of each method.

3. I know my role as teacher in the learning process.

4. 1 understand the sensory and perceptual factors thataffect the reading ability of the student.

5. I understand the cognitive factors that affect the readingability of the student.

6. I understand the language factors that affect the readingability of the student.

7. I understand the socioeconomic factors that affect thereading ability of the student.

8. I understand the concept of readiness at all levels.

9. I understand the importance of motivation in helping41,

students learn to read.

10. I know books that should be read to students.

11. I know how to read aloud well.

12. I have enough knowledge about children's literature tohe able to buy appropriate books for my classroom.

13. I know boil/ to establish e reading center or corner.

14. I read aloud to my students every day.

15. I know how to assess my students attitudes towatdreading.

16. I know many ways that students can share books withone another.

17. I know how to involve students in dramatic play.

IS. I know the processes involved in developing listeningskills.

vs

'1 I understand Ole interrelatedness of the language arts.

20. I know the processes involved in developing speakingskills

21 I understand the use of syntactic cues which allowstudents to understand word arrangements.

?2. fl understand the use of semantic cues which enablev students to understand the meaning of texts.

113 105

19

4

10

Yee

O

Somewhat.but I needmore Infor

mation

No

0

23. I know sight word strategies for analyzing unknown

words.

24. I understand the rote of structural analysis strategies inword recognition.

25, I understand the role of contextual analysis strategies inword recognition.

26. I understand the role of questioning in the developmentof reading comprehension.

27. I know the study skills.

28 I can help students learn to use study skills effectively.

29. I know the skills common to reading in any content area.

a I undtettand the interrelatedness of reading and mathe-cs, reading and social studies. reading Vicl scieuce,

g and music and art. a

31; now the historical overview of reading instruction inthe United Si .es.

32. I understand the special needs of bilingual and English.as.asecondlangi ge students.

33. I understand the linguistic influences in second language

teaching.

34. I know the most appropriate methods of diagnosing the

reading ability of bilingual and second language speaker.

35. I know methods to teach reading in the native languageas well as reading in English.

36. I know how to detertine the readability of printedmaterial.

3 I know how to informally assess a student's achievement.

38. I know how to compute the reading expectancy levels of

my students.

39. I understand the concept of thematic teaching.

40. I understand the techniques of grouping.

41. I understand the value of classroom management.

42. I can use a process of continuous evaluation.

43. I understand the value of sequencing instruction.

44. I know what the International Reading Association is

and have read the publications of the organization.

-10

Source Adapted from Curry. J. "How Amt Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp, editor.

Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.

114 1 Oj

Appendix DA Quick Checklist for Learning Centers

Do the Learning Centers Yes No

1. Provide activities to develop and enhance reading skills?

2. Provide opportunities for the students to reinforce apreviously presented skill?

3. Provide opportunities to listen to material being read aloud?

4. Provide the students with activities that will allow them topractice their writing skills?

5. Provide the students with activities that will allow themto, respond creatively?

6. Provide opportunities for students to share their work withtheir peers?

7. Provide activities which the students can' do alone, inpairs, in small groups?

8. Provide games which will reinforce formerly presented ..

reading skills?

9. Provide complete directions and materials so that confusionand noise are kept to a minimum?

ti

Source Adapted from Curry. J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp, editor.

Mc.king Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark, Delaware: IRA. 1980.

115 110

Appendix ELearning Style Indicator

Read each pair of statements and mark the box next to the statementthat most closely describes you.

1.

2.

I understand things better froma picture.

1 look at charts and diagramsbefore I read the written part.

I understand things better from some-one telling me or reading about them.

I read the written part before I lookat the charts and diagrams.

3. 1 memorize things by writingthem out.

I memorize things by repeating themaloud.

4. I like examples first, rules later. I like rules first, examples later.

5. I usually get more done when Iwork along.

ILI I usually get more done when I workwith others.

6. 1 enjoy doing a number of thingsat the same time.

I prefer doing things one at a time.

7. 1 usually ask "why" questions. I usually ask about facts.

8. I prefer working quickly. I prefer to work slowly.

9. I answer questions quickly. I answer questions carefully and slowly.

10. 1 take chances at making mistakes 0 I try to avoid making mistakes.

Source Adapted from Diane Lapp.and James Flood. Teaching Reading to Every Child. New York: Macmillan. 1978. p. 146.

Appendix FSilent Reading Checklist

Students name Date

Material read

Grade level of material read

When reading silently, the student Never Sometimes Always

[7 1. Is distracted.

2. Persists in endeavors.

17 3. Moves lips.

4. Reads at a rate commensurate with the purpose of reading.

5. Exhibits smooth left-toright eye movements.

6. Exhibits effective eye hand coordination.

Cl 7. Uses hand as a marker.

8. Assumes a proper reading posture.

9. Comprehends recall type questions.

10. Displays adequate vocabulary skills.

Fl 11. Can find main idea.

12. Can skim to locate details.

13. Can scan for particular items of information.

I -1 14. Can follow the sequence of the story.

15. Can follow directions.

16. Exhibits competence in critical and creative thinking.

Source Adapted from Curry. J. -How Am 1 Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp. editor.Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.

119 1 1 2

Appendix GSurvey of Vocabulary Skills

Name of Student Date

The student Usually Rarely

1. Can define a word by example.

2. Can define a word by description.

3. Can define a word through comparison and contrast.

4. Can define a word by using a synonym or antonym.

5. Can define a word by apposition.

6. Can develop meanings for new words through experiences.

7. Can develop new meanings for known words through experiences.

8. Understands the connotation of words.

9. Understands idiomatic expressions.

10. Can use figurative language (similies, analogies, metaphors).

11. Makes use of context clues.

12. Understands compound words.

13. Can discriminate between/among homonymnsA,

14. Understands and can use prefixes.

15. Understands and can use suffixes.

16. Understands the root meaning of words.

17. Is aware of multiple meanings of words.

18. Understands concept of acronyms.

19. Can use the dictionary competently.

20. Can use a thesaurus.

Never

Source Adapted from Curry J. "How Am I Doing? Assessing the Components of a Managed Curriculum." Diane Lapp, eaktor.Making Reading Possible Through Effective Classroom Management. Newark. Delaware: IRA. 1980.

121 1.13

Appendix HReadability Graph

Directions for using the Readability Graph1. Select three one-hundred word passages from near the

beginning. middle and end of the book. Skip all propernouns.

2. Count the total number of sentences in each one- hundredword passage, (estimating to nearest tenth of a sentence).Average these three numbers.

3. Count the total number of syllables in each one-hundred-word sample. There is a syllable for each vowel sound.For example, cat (1) blackbird (2) continental (4). Don'tbe fooled by word,size. For example, polio (3) or through(1). Endings such as -y, -ed, -el or -le usually make asyllable. For example, ready (2), bottle (2). It is convenientto count every syllable over one in each word and add100. Average the total number of syllables for the threesamples.

4. Plot on the graph the average number of sentences perhundred words and the average number of syllables perhundred words. Most plot points fall near the heavycurved line. Diagonal lines mark off approximate gradelevel areas.

tre

Sho,loolds

108 11225.020.016.714.3

17' 12501113o 10.00 92

8.31.57.16.76.35.85.55.35.04.84.54.34.24.0383.73.6

EartsopleSentence. per

MirandaSyllables per

100 word*

100 - word sample Page 5 9.1 122.100- word sample Page 89 8.5 140100- word sample Page 160 7.0 129

3) 24.6 31 3918.2 130

Plotting these averages on the graph we find they fall in the5th grade area; hence. the book is about 5th grade difficultylevel. If great variability is encountered either in sentencelength or in the syllable count for the three selections, thenrandomly select several more passages and average them inbefore plotting.

The Readability Graph is aimed at the United States educa-tional scene. The grade level designations are for America;the simplicity is a need that Fry felt was universal.

Avirage number of syllables per 100 words LOng words

116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 160 164 168 172

1111206111IIIIMMIIIII 1111111 III

1111111111101111111111111INIMMKRAMMOMMMENNIIMM IIMMUMNIMM

ftEMENEWIMMEMMEMMMOW AMMIWAMOMMEMEMMINIMMRAMMOU:=R EMMEMMMEMM101317137.1111/MINIVAINIUNI ! OVAMININIMIMRIMMINIMEMMAINIMINMENKMMEMMEMMMIMININIMMEMMI WAIIMMIIMMOMMMOMMEMMEMMINIMMUOIRIMMVAMMEnhala1111 11111111 IININIF

Source - Adapted from Fry, Edward A. "A ReadabilityFormula That Saves Time." The Journal of Reading, Interna-tional Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Road, P.O. Box8139, Newark, Delaware, 19711. Vol. Xl. 1968.

GO L E

The Readability Graph is not copyrighted. Anyone mayreproduce it in any quantity as long as the source is cited.

123 11.4

Appendix ICloze Procedure

The doze is an assessment procecturg wherebyevery fifth (or eight, or tenth) word is deletedfrom a section of text. with the student beingrequired to complete each blank with the wordthat makes the most sense. given that context.The results give the teacher some idea of thegeneral level of a student's comprehension ofthat text material. rather than information re-garding the student's use of specific skills. Hereis a detailed set of directions for constructing.administering and interpreting a doze test. fol-lowed 1,V an actual doze test constructed for usein assessing mathematical reading.

Directions

1. Select approximately 260 running words fromrequired text material.

2. Print the first sentence irk its entirety, un-mutilated.

3. Select. at random. one of the next five words(i.e., one of the first five words in the secondsentence). Delete this word and replace itwith a blank of standard length. Continue todelete every fifth word until you have 50blanks. End that sentence. Follow with acomplete. unmutilated sentence.

4. Since most students will find the doze a newexperience. it is important to explain thepurpose of the test. and to precede its adminis-tration by one or two similar very brief andeasy exercises. completed with teacher guid-ance and or peer collaboration. Administra-tion rarely takes more than 30 minutes.

5. Since the test is not to be graded or returnedto the students, the easiest means of scoringis to avoid the search for synonyms. Rather.mark as correct only those words or symbolswhich are exact replacements according tothe original text material. Multiply each cor-rect replacement by two to arrive at percentcorrect.

6. Research has shown the doze to be a validand reliable measure of reading comprehension.

As with any test, however, your interpretationof the scores is most important. The researchsuggests that doze scores of less than 30 to35 percent are likely to indicate inadequatecomprehension. while scores of greater than55 to 60 percent AN likely to indicate veryhigh comprehension Otthe text in question.

7. Perhaps the best way to interpret your dozescores, however, is to organize them in asimple frequency distribution, i.e., arrangethe scores in order to show that so many kidsgot 10 percent, so many got 12 percent. somany got 14 percent, and so on. This kind oforganization will give a more graphic pictureof how well individuals and groups in a partic-ular class comprehended the test.

Note: In constructing the close test, some teachers useblanks of two standard lengths: for example. fifteen spacesfor word symbols and five spaces for numerals and othermathematical symbols. Although this practice tends to givethe reader additonal clues, its use is defended on the groundsthat it preserves the appearance and integrity of mathemati-Cal writing, which normally includes numerals and othersymbols throughout most printed passages. Also. in order toavoid confusion in identifying blanks (as opposed to linesseparating fractions, for example). some teachers print alllines indicating a deletion in red or some other color.

It is important to note that high scores on thedoze test, while indicating probable high gen-eral comprehension of the passage in question.do not indicate the ability to perform at highlevels in the model (e.g.. problem solution). Nordo low scores necessarily indicate that a studentcan function only at low levels (e.y., perceivingsymbols). According to the definition of readingused throughout this volume, since symbol per-ception is requisite to all comprehension. it ispossible that a low score on the doze test mayindicate the inability to perceive symbols ac-curately. Therefore. some teachers follow thedoze test with a simple test of pronounciation foronly those students whose scores on the dozeare very low (I.e., below 30 to 35 percent).

Source Richard A. Earle. Teaching Reading and Mathematics. Newark. Delaware: International Reading Association. 1976.

115125

A Typical Mathematics Cloze. Test

Our numeral system uses ten as its base. We are so familiar (with) the base-ten system that ;the)

idea of using a (numeral) other than ten as (a) base migk seem strange. (Yet), the

Celts, who lived (in) Europe more than 2,000 (years) ago, probably used twenty (as) a base.

Some Eskimo (tribes) , even now, group and (count) by fives. Let us (suppose) that we

take a (trip) into space and land (on) the mythical planet Septus, (where) the inhabitants

use seven (as) the base for their (numeral) system. If we study (the) numeral system

used on (the) planet Septus, it will (help) to give us a (deeper) and more thorough

understanding (of) our own base-ten system.

(On) the planet Septus the (natives) use square coins.

Look (at) the coins shown and (note) how

they are grouped (by) sevens. Here we see

(one) group of seven and (three) more. The

numeral that (indicates) this is 13 (seven).

The (numeral) (seven)13 means "one group (of) seven, and three ones." (Here) we see

three groups (of) seven squares each, and (two) extra squares. The numeral that indicates

this is written 32 seven) means " (three) groups of seven, and (two) ones."

In our modern (decimal) system we do not (need) to write the base (because) everybody

understands that the (base) is ten. For example, (in) the decimal system the (numeral)

"27" means two groups (of) ten, and seven ones, (or) 27 = (2 x 10) 4- (7). However,

. when we use (bases) other than ten, we (must) indicate the base that (we) are using.

Note: Answers in parentheses.In our decimal system we use the 10 symbols 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6, 7. 8. and 9.

Source Mathematics: ArModern Approach by M. Peters and W. Schaff. p. 41. Copyright 1971 by Litton Educational

Publishing, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Van Nostra 1 Reinhold Company.

11(3126

Appendix JEighth Grade Criterion Referenced Test Objectives in Reading

Literal Comprehension

The literal comprehension skill area tests thestudent's understanding of information explicitlystated in text. This skill area includes the follow-ing objectives.

Objective 1The student distinguishes between fact and opin-ion in the context of academic, everyday, oremployment materials. (Related BST indicator,Rdg 1)

Objective 2The student recognizes explicitly stated mainideas, details, sequence of events and cause andeffect relationships in the context of academic,everyday or employment materials. tRelated BSTindicator, Rdg 2)

Objective 3The student interprets instructions in the contextof academic, everyday or employment materials.(Related BST indicator, Rdg 3)

Inferential Comprehension

The inferential comprehension skill area tests thestudent's understanding of material that is notexpressed literally in text. This skill area includesthe following objectives.

Objective 4The student recognizes implicitly stated mainideas, details, sequences of events and cause andeffect relationships in the context of academic,everyday or employment materials. (Related BSTindicator, Rdg 4)

Objective 5The student interprets semantic and syntacticrelationships in the context of academic, every-day or employment materials. (Related BST in-dicator, Rdg 5)

127

Objective 6The student interprets figurative language in thecontext of academic, everyday or employmentmaterials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 6)

Objective 7The student recognizes propaganda techniquesin the context of academic, everyday or employ-ment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 7)

Problem Solving

The problem solving skill area tests the student'sskill at locating, Interpreting and evaluatinginformation.

Objective 8The student uses reference sources in the con-text of academic, everyday or employment mate-rials. (Related BST indicato.a, Rdg 8 and 12)

Objective 9The student makes generalizations and drawsconclusions in the context of academic, everydayor employment materials. (Related BST indicator,Rdg 9)

Objective 10The student makes predictions and comparisonsin the context of academic, everyday or employ-ment materials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 10)

Objective 11The student recognizes relevance of data in thecontext of academic, everyday or employmentmaterials. (Related BST indicator, Rdg 11)

117

Appendix .K

Basic Skills Test Reading Indicators

Literal ComprehensionThe literal comprehension skill area tests thestudent's understanding of information explicitlystated in text.

This category requires the student to identify,interpret, and recognize explicit information andto follow directions in the context of academic,everyday, and employment situations or materials.

Indicator Cluster 1The student distinguishes between fact and opin-ion in the context of academic, everyday oremployment materials.

Indicator Cluster 2The student recognizes explicitly stated mainideas, details, sequences of events and cause andeffect relationships in the context of academic,everyday or employment materials.

Indicator Cluster 3The student interprets instructions in the contextof academic, everyday or employment materials.

Inferential Comprehension

The inferential comprehension skill area teststhe student's understanding of inky, :nation whichis not expressed literally in text.

This category requires the student to drawconclusions, make predictions, and recognizeand interpret implicitly stated information in thecontext of academic, everyday, or employmentmaterials.

Indicator Cluster 4The student recognizes implicitly stated mainideas, details, sequences of events and cause andeffect relationships in the context of academic,everyday or employment materials.

Indicator Cluster 5The student interprets semantic relationships inthe context of academic, everyday or employ-ment materials.

Indicator Cluster 6The student interprets figurative language in thecontext of academic, everyday or employmentmaterials.

Indicator Cluster 7The student recognizes propaganda techniquesin the context of academic, everyday or employ-ment materials.

Problem Solving

The problem solving skill area tests the student'sskill at locating, recognizing, interpreting, andevaluating information in its various forms andsources.

Indicator Cluster 8The student locates information in referencematerials in the context of academic, everydayor employment materials.

Indicator ClusterThe student makes generalizations and drawsconclusions in the context of academic, everyday

.

or employment materials.

/ndicator.Cluater 10The student makes predictions and comparisonsin the context of academic, everyday or employ-ment materials.

Indicator Cluste.' 11The student recognizes relevance of data in thecontext of academic, everyday or employmentmaterials.

Indicator Cluster 12The student recognizes appropriate referencesources in the context of academic, everyday oremplcyment materials.

116129

fi

Topic

Appendix LEssential Skills for Georgia Schools

Concept/Skill

KEYI = IntroduceD = Develop

= Reinforce

K-4 5-8 9-12

A. Language Study The learner will .

1. make choices which indicate an apprecia-tion of the aesthetic qualities of oral andwritten language.

t,I D R

2. u.e a variety of oral and written languagestructures.a. learn ways of expanding basic inguagestructures.

(1) use (not label) whatever languagestructures best express ideas and learnalternating ways of phrasing ideas. I D D D R(2) use modifying phrases, compoundstructures, single word embeddings andsingle clauses. I D D R.(3) use phrases, clause embeddings andcomplex clauses.

b. experiment with and learn how word orderI D R

reveals meaning. I D D Rc. recognize and use options for word order. I D D R3. use app. ipriate usage patterns in oral andwritten language.a. distinguish between informal .options ofword choice and formal counterparts.b. use a variety of usage patterns in differentcontexts.

... ...

I D .. D

.

R

4. demonstrate an understanding of howdialects differ. ,:, I D - D R

5. demonstrate an acceptance and under-standing of other dialects. I D R R

6. use generally accepted otai and writtenlanguage forms. I 1 D D R

7. demonstrate the knowledge that lariguagefunctions in a ,sariety of ways, e.g., for personalexpression, to regulate, to receive information,to create and imagine. I D D R8 demonstrate an understanding thatlanguage can be described in a variety of ways,e.g., grammars, parts of speech. I D D R

9 demonstrate an understanding of wordetymologies. I D D R

3 Listening Skills The learner will1 expand the number of words understoodwhen heard in context.a learn multiple and specific meanings ofwords, their denotations and connotationsb understand figurative language, idiomatic

I D D D R

expressions, colloquial terms and allusions I D D R

c. learn specialized vocabularies I D D R

131119

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

2. adjust listening strategies according to

a. the purpose (distingUish message fromnoise, concentrate, suspend judgment, avoiddistraction, wait for turn to talk, avoid inter-rupting, display interest and involvement).b. the nature of the material (topic, density

I D D D R

and concept difficulty).c. the organizational cues of the speaketr

I D D R

(statement of points, organizational phrases,repetition). I D D R

3. listen and respond for a variety of purposes.

a. pleasure and enjoyment I D D R

b. to follow directions I D D R

c. to make intelligent consumer judgments

d. to function as an informed citizen, e.g.,news broadcasts, editorials, speeches,political appeals

I

I

.D R

D R

R

R

e. to obtain informationf. to apply information heard to newsituations

I D D R

D

R

D R`

4. recognize and discriminate amongcommon sounds and sound signals in his orher environment.5. demonstrate understanding of a basic

I D R ,'''' R

vocabulary related to his or her environment. I D D D R

6. recognize and recall the following whenspecifically stated by the speaker.

a. main idea(s)

b. detailsc. sequenced. cause-effect

I D D D R

7. infer the following when not specificallystated by the speaker.

a. main idea(s)

b. detailsc. sequence

I D D D R

8. receive and comprehend varied materialsat difference levels of thinking, e.g., literal,inferential, evaluative and appreciative. 10 D. D R

9. receive and evaluate material critically bymaking judgments about validity, bias,speaker qualifications, fact and opinion,fantasy or realism. I D 0 R

10. recognize and identify the qualities of aspeaker's style, imagery, word choice andtechnique. I D I D R

11 accept and understand other dialects as Ivalid communication. I D '0R 1 DR

132 1 0

;*#

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

C. Reading Readiness The learner will1. show an interest in hearing materials read. I D2. discriminate auditory similarities and dif-ferences in commonly used words in and outof cnntext. I 1)

3. discriminate visual similarities and dif-ferences in commonly'used words in and outof context.

,

I D4. identify individual letters of the alphabet,high-interest words and phrases that appearfrequently in his or her environment. I D5. analyze and interpret pictures, people andevents using elaborated language. I D6. demonstrate understanding of terms usedin reading instruction, e.g., top of page, left-to-right progression, beginning-ending ofwords. _ I D7. attempt self-expression in writing usingindividualized spellings. I D R .

D. Word Recognition The learner will1. recognize and'use sight vocabulary incontext from various sources.a. his or her own vocabularyb. high-frequency word listsc. basal readersd. words specific to content areas

I D R D R

2. demonstrate an understanding of and usevarious aids to develop and expandvocabulary.a. context cluesb. synonyms, antonyms and homonymsc. acronymsd. multiple meanings of wordse. classification (categories, general tospecific)

I D R D R R

3. demonstrate an understanding of and usephorietic analysis clues and principles toidentify new words.a. consonant sounds and clustersb. silent consonantsc. multiple sounds of consonantsd. short and long vowelse. variant vowel sounds (dipthongs, controlledvowels)

I D R D R

4. demonstrate an understanding of and usestructural analysis clues and the relatedprinciples ofa. syllabication, e possessive forms,b. accent, f. compound words,c contractions, g plural forms,d. abbreviations, h. word parts.

I D R D R R

133

121

Topic

E. Comprehension

fi

1.

Concept/Skill , K-4 5-8 9.12

5. demonstrate the understanding thatsymbols stand for referent'.

. ., %.

The learner will1. recognize, recall and retella. the mai-. idea(s).b. details,

.

c. sec:uence,d. cause-effect relationships. ,

2. re id and follow printed directions.3. draw conclusions from facts given.

-4. infer that which is not explicitly stated °-,

in a selection .

a. main idea(z) --7

b. details that supaort main idea.C. sequence,d. cause-effagt.5. recognize information and ideas th'roLigha. classifying.b. outlining, .

.

C. summ3rizing,a. syntheizing.6. make judgments.7. predict outcomes.S.' infer literal meaning from author's use offigurative language.9. infer figurative meaning from author's useof literal language.10. distinguish between fact and opinion.11. distinguish fiction from nonfiction.12. "distinguish reality from fantasy.

13. make comparisons using statedinformation.14. make comparisons using impliedinformation.15. recognize use of prOpaganda techniques.

16. interpret symbols (including specialsubject area notations) and symboliclanguage.

,

17. recognize relevance of data.18. recognize relationships of time and place.

19. make appropriate generalizations.20. interpret and use information presentedgraphically, such asa. mapsb. graphsc. Chartsd. tablese schedulesf. diagrams.

I D R

I D

I Di D

I D

.

I D,.

I DI D

I D

a D

I DI D

I D.

I D

I D

I

I D

I DI D

I D

D R

D R

0 Rb 43'

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D

D

,

D R.I D

( D Rkr-

D R

D R

R

R

R

R

R

D. R.

.

,.

D R

R.

R

R.

p R

D R

D R,

R

0 RD R

.

.

R

0 R13

D R

R

1,9,134

2

.

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

F. Study Skills The learner will1. demonstrate knowledge of alphabetic !"

sequence. I D R R R

2. alphabetize words up to the third letter. I D R R

3. locate information using a variety ofsources. ,

a. table of contents, page numbers I D R R R

b. dictionaries guide, entry words I D R R

c.. glossaries I D R R

d. indexes key words, main and subtopics I D R R

e. encyclopedia I D R R

f. thesauri .g. library card files (card catalogs, periodical

I D D R

files) I D R R

h. catalogs I D R1

R

i. newspapers , I D R R

4. locate materials in a media center. I D R R

5. use dictionaries for a variety of purposes. I D D R R

. a. i ifying word meaningsb inding synonyms

.

. identifying and interpreting phoneticrespellings to aid pronunciationd. selecting appropriate meanings of words incontext6. use titles, headings, subheadings andpictures to locate and preview information. I D R

7. use a variety of study techniques, e.g.,survey, question, read, recite, review,(SQ3R). I D R

8. adjust reading technique and rate accord-ing to the difficulty of material and purposes

..,,,y5 for reading.'4t,....

a. rereadingb. skimming

I D R R

c. scanning I D D R R

G Functional ReadingSkills

The learner willv.

..1., interpret and use basic instructions andlabeling information.a. recipesb. clothing care instructionsc. appliance instructionsd. warning labels (poison control, electricalhazards, etc.)e. medicine labelsf. product contents and nutritional informationlabels

I D D R

123135

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

2. interpret and use forms, applications andagreements including those relating to moneymanagement (at a nontechnical level).a. discount couponsb. credit cardsc. banking procedures

-d. payments and loanse. change of address formf. social security card application

I D

,

D R

3. interpret and use various forms of writtencommunication.a. directoriesb. correspondence (personal and business)c. mass media (newspapers, magazines,advertisements)

I

- .D D R

4. interpret and use functional transportationinformation.a. routes, schedules and timetablesb. signs, marquees and billboardsc. driver's manuald. travel brochures

I D D R

5. interpret and use occupational and careerinformation. .

a. job listingsb. paycheck stubsc. salary schedule and benefits

I D D R

A

H. Oral/Written The learner willCommunication

1. demonstrate an understanding that speechand writing are tools of communication. I D R R

2. speak clearly and write legibly.

a

a. use language understandable to others.

b. demonstrate understanding of left-to-rightpattern of writing.c. manuscript and write standard letter forms,lower and upper case.

I D

I D R

I D R

D

R

D R

3. increase, enrich and refine oral and writtenexpression.

a. use functional vocabulary related toexperiences.b. eliminate unnecessary words such as and,well, urn, uh, ya know.c. use standard language patterns.

I D D D R

4. use oral language for a variety of purposes.a. personal and creative expressionb. relating and obtainiog informationc. oescribing experiencesd. communicating feelings

I D D D R

1136

2 4

Topic Concept /Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

I. Literature

5. use oral language in a variety of ways.a. dialogue and discussionsb. retelling and paraphrasingc. summarizingd. interviews6. write and compose.for a variety ofpurposes.a. personal and business communicationb. clarifying thoughts and ideasc. self-expression and personal satisfactiond. recording information, e.g., message andnote takinge. entertainment7. write and compose in a variety of ways.a. organize paragraphs using various modes(argumentation, exposition, narration,description) .

b. combine paragraphs to create longer works(letters, stories, essays, reports)

8. demonstrate the ability to adjust mannerand style of speaking and writing to suitaudience and situation, e.g., formal andinformal.

The learner will1. recognize and demonstrate an understand-ing that literature has a variety of purposes.a. artistic expressionb. recording events, ideas and values ofdiverse societies and cultures (past throughthe present)

c. entertainment and diversiond. extension of individual knowledge andexperience

e. comparing values, beliefs and behaviors2. recognize and demonstrate an understand-ing that individual reactions to and per-ceptions of literature are affected by manyfactors, e.g., attitudes, experiences, maturity,knowledge.

3. recognize that literary representations ofindividuals, events and society are influencedby the perceptions of the writer and the per-ceptions of the reader.4. demonstrate an understanding that litera-ture has a variety of external structures,e.g., poetry, prose, fiction, nonfiction, drama.5 recognize the complexity of the individualsand situations as depicted in literature.6. recognize that critical reading requiresreader involvement and interaction with thematerial being read.

137 1 2 5

I D

I D

I D

D

D

I D

I D

D

I D

D

D

D

D

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

D R

R

R

R

R

D R

D R

D R

D R

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9 -12

7. recognize the importance of makinginferences and drawing conclusions in

___.

reading literature..

I I D R

8. demonstrate the understanding thatliterature can be read and compared fromseveral perspectives, e.g., genre, theme,chrOnology, nationality, author. .

,

I I D R

9. recognize that literary works can tal:e anumber of forms, e.g., fables, myths, fantasy,short story, novel, essay. I 0 R

10. recognize and understand the variousrecurring features of each literary type, e.g.,romance, irony, tragedy and comedy. I I . D R

11. make individual, personal determinationof worth, desirability and acceptability ofvarious pieces of literature. I . D R

J. Mass The learner will.

Communication1. differentiate among several classes ofcommunications intrapersonal, interper-sonal and mass communications. I D D R

2. distinguish four essentials of the com-munication process source, message,medium, audience. I D D R

3. analyze relationships among source,message, medium and audience. I I D D R

4. idontify primary communication vehiclescomprising American mass media. I I D D R

5. analyze complexities distinguishing masscommunications from interpersonal and intra-personal communications. I D R

6. evaluate degree of saturation of massmedia in contemporary society.

,

I D R

7. describe the primary fynctions of massmedia. I D R

8. analyze the fulfillment of information.persuasion and entertainment functions by allmajor mass media. I D D R

9. show how mass media depiction ofstandards of living affect contemporary livingstandards. I D D R

10. assess the probable reliability of mediamessage sources. I I D R

11. demonstrate an understanding of theinfluences advertising has on personal buyinghabits. I D D R

120

138

Topic Concept/Skill K-4 5-8 9-12

12. define and identify propaganda devices ofmass media; messages as glitteringgenerality, cord stacking, name calling,testimonial, plain facts, bandwagon, transferand elitism. I I D D R

13. understand and use basiocomponents ofvisual liter:. N. .1 I D D R

a. identify visual persuasion techniques,including logical processes and affectiveappeals such as use of color, placement,sequence and repe.,tion.

b. differentiate between visual fact(representation) and visual fiction. (creation/ .

fabrication).

c. differentiate between visual fact(representation) and visual metaphor(imagery, allegory, fantasy).

. d. differentiate between visual fact(representation) and visual commentary(selection/slanting).e. recognize visual appeals (color, shape, -familiarity).f. recognize visual stereotypes in film andtelevision, including hero/heroine, villain,man, woman, child, family, professional,ethnic group.

g. differentiate between logic and visual*visualfallacy.

14. explain the influence of advertising oneditorial role, tone and stance. I D D R

15. analyze nonverbal symbols of communi-cation used in television programming andvisual advertising. I D D R

Source Essential Skills for Georgia Schools. Language Arts Section. pp. 1-9. Atlanta. Georgia: Georgia Department of Education1980.

139 1 2 r?

Appendix MStandards for Basic Skills Writing Programs

The following standards were developed by aspecially selected committee of teachers, super-visors, and writing specialists, for use by statesand school districts establishing comprehensiveliteracy plans. The National Council of Teachersof English urges study of these standards as ameans of determining that plans attend not onlyto effective practice within the classroom butalso to the environment of suppc.rt for writinginstruction throughout the school and thecommunity. If effective instruction in writing is tobe achieved, all the standards need to be studiedand provided for in shaping comprehensive liter-acy plans.

At a time of growing concern for the quality ofwriting in the society, it is important to take themost effective approaches to quality in schoolwriting programs. These standards will helpstates and school districts assure that efforts tobe undertaken will indeed lead to improvement.

Planners must begin with an adequate concep-tion of what writing is. To serve this purpose, weoffer the following:

Operational Definition of Writing

Writing is the process of selecting, combining,arranging and developing ideas in effectivesentences, paragraphs, and, often, longer unitsof discourse. The process requires the writer tocope with a number of variables: method of devel-opment (narrating, explaining, describing, report-ing and persuading); tone (from very personal toquite formal); form (from a limerick to a formalletter to a long research report); purpose (fromdiscovering and expressing personal feelings andvalues to conducting the impersonal "business"of everyday life); possible audiences (oneself,classmates, a teacher, "the world"). Learning towrite and to write increasingly well involves devel-oping increasing skill and sensitivity in selectingfrom and combining these variables to shape par-ticular messages. It also involves learning to con-form to conventions of the printed language,appropriate to the age of the writer and to theform, purpose and tone of the message.

Beyond the pragmatic purpose of shaping mes-sages to others, writing can be a means of self-discovery, of finding out what we believe, know,and cannot find words or circumstances to say toothers. Writing can be a deeply personal act ofshaping our perception of the world and our rela-tionships to people and things in that world. Thus,writing serves both public and personal needs ofstudents, and it warrants the full, generous andcontinuing effort of all teachers.

Characteristics of an Effective Bask. SkillsProgram in Writing

Teaching and Learning1. There is evidence that knowledge of current

theory and research in writing has beensought and applied in developing the writingprogram.

2. Writing instruction is a substantial and clearlyidentified part of an integrated English lan-guage arts curriculum.

3. Writing is called for in other subject mattersacross the curriculum.

4. The subject matter of writing has its richestsource in the students' personal, social andacademic interests and experiences.

5. Students write in many forms (e.g., essays,notes, summaries, poems, letters, stories,reports, scripts, journals.).

6. Students write for a variety of audiences(e.g., self, classmates, the community, theteacher) to learn that approaches vary asaudiences vary.

7. Students write for a wide range of purpose(e.g., tq inform, to persuade, to express theself, to explore, to clarify thinking).

8. Class time is devoted to all aspects of thewriting process generating ideas, drafting,revising and editing.

9. All students receive instruction in both(a) developing and expressing ideas and(b) using the conventions of edited Ameri-can English.

128141

10. Control of the conventions of edited Ameri-can English (supporting skills such as spelling,handwriting, punctuation and lrammaticalusage) is developed primarily during the writ-ing process and secondarily through relatedexercises.

11. Students receive constructive responsesfrom the teacher and from others at vari-ous stages in the writing process.

12. Evaluation of individual writing growthis based on complete prices of writing;

reflects informed judgments, first, about clar-ity and content and then about conventionsof spelling, mechanics and usage;

includes regular responses to individual piecesof student writing as well as periodic assess-ment measuring growth over a period of time.

Support13. Teachers with major responsibility for writ-

ing instruction receive continuing educationreflecting current knowledge about the teach-ing of writing.

14. Teachers of other subjects receive informa-tion and training in ways to make use of andrespond to writing in their classes.

15. Parent and community groups are informedabout the writing program and about waysin which they can support it.

16. School and class schedules provide suffi-cient time to assure that the writing processis thoroughly pursued.

17. Teachers and students have access to andmake regular use of a wide range of resources(e.g., library services, media, teachingmaterials, duplicating facilities, supplies) forsupport of the writing program.

Progam Evaluation

18. Evaluation of the writing program focuseson pre- and post-program sampling of com-plete pieces of writing, utilizing a recognized

. procedure (e.g.. ets holistic rating, theDiederich scale, primary trait scoring) toarrive at reliable judgments about the qual-ity of the program.

19. Evaluation of the program might also in-clude assessment of a sample of studentattitudes; gathering of pertinent quantativedata (e.g., frequency of student writing, timedevoted to writing activities); and observa-tional data (evidence of prewriting activities,class anthologies, writing-folders and stu-dent writing displays).

Committee on Writing Standards

Gury Tate, ChairDepartment of EnglishTexas Christian University

Martha L. KingDepartment of Elementary EducationOhio State University

Barbara Leib-BrilhartSpeech Communication Association

Richard GebhardtEnglish DepartmentFindlay College

Betty MurrayLanguage Arts Program ManagerLexington Schools, Massachusetts

Lee OdellDepartment of EnglishState University of New York, Albany

Marjorie FarmerDirector, English and ReadingThe School District of Philadelphia

Eileen TwayDepartment of Elementary EducationMiami University

Charles SuhorDeputy Executive DirectorNational Council of Teachers of English(formerly Supervisor of English, New OrleansSchools)

Reprinted with permission National Council of Teachers of English. 1111 Kenyon Road. Urbana. Illinois61801. March. 1979.

142 129

Appendix NStandards for Effective Oral Communication Programs

Adequate oral communication frequently deter-mines an individual's educational, social andvocational success. Yet, American educationhas typically neglected formal instruction in thebasic skills of speaking and listening. It is impor-tant that state and local education agenciesimplement the most effective oral communica-tion programs possible.

The following standards for oral communicationwere developed by representatives of the SpeechCommunication Association and the AmericanSpeech-Language-Hearing Association.

If effective oral communication programs aregoing to be developed, all components of therecommended standards must be considered.Implementation of these standards will facilitatedevelopment of adequate and appropriate oralcommunication necessary for educational, so-cial and vocational success.

DefinitionOral Communication: the process of interactingthrough heard and spoken messages in a varietyof situations.

Effective oral communication is a learned behavior,involving the following processes.

1. Speaking in a variety of educational andsocial situations. Speaking involves, but isnot limited to, arranging and producing mes-sages through the use of voice, articulation,vocabulary, snytax and nonverbal cues (e.g.,gesture, facial expression, vocal cues) appro-priate to the speaker and listeners.

2. Listening in a variety of educational andsocial situations. Listening involves, but is notlimited to, hearing, perceiving, discriminating,interpreting, synthesizing, evaluating, organ-izing and remembering information from ver-bal and nonverbal messages.

Basic Assumptions

1. Oral communication behaviors of studentscan be improved through direct instruction.

143

2. Oral communication instruction emphasizesthe interactive nature of speaking and listening.

3. Oral communication instruction addressesthe everyday communication needs of stu-dents and includes emphasis on the class-room as a practical communication environ-ment.

4. There is a wide range of communicationcompetence among speakers of the samelanguage.

5. Communication competence is not depen-dent upon use of a particular form of language.

6. A primary goal of oral communication in-struction is to increase the students' reper-toire and use of effective speaking and listen-ing behaviors.

7. Oral communication programs provide in-struction based on a coordinated develop men-

c.-tal continuum of skills, pre-school through

Tadult.

8. Oral communication skills can be enhancedby using parents, supportive personnel andappropriate instructional technology.

Characteristics of an Effective Communi-cation Program

Teaching /Learning

1. The oral communication program is based oncurrent theory and research in speech andlanguage development, psycholinguistics, rhe-torical and communication theory, communi-cation disorders, speech science and relatedfields of study.

2. Oral communication instruction is a clearlyidentifiable part of the curriculum.

3. Oral communication instruction is systemati-cally related to reading and writing instruc-tion and to instruction in the various contentareas.

4. The relevant academic, personal and socialexperiences of students provide core subjectmatter for the oral communication program.

13 0

5. Oral communication instruction provides awide range of speaking and listening experience,in order to develop effective appropriate com-munication skills.

a. a range of situations; e.g., informal toformal, interpersonal to mass communica-tion.

b. a range of purposes; e.g., informing, learning,persuading, evaluating messages, facilitat-ing social interaction, sharing feelings,imaginative and creative expression.

c. a range of audiences, e.g., classmates,teachers, peers, employers, family, com-munity.

d. a range of communication forms; e.g.;conversation, group discussion, interview,drama, debate, public speaking, oralinterpretation.

e. a range of speaking styles; impromptu,extemporaneous and reading from manu-script.

6. The oral communication program providesclass time for systematic instruction in oralcommunication skills; e.g., critical listening,selecting, arranging and presenting messages,giving and receiving constructive feedback,non-verbal communication, etc.

7. The oral communication program includesdevelopment of adequate and appropriatelanguage, articulation, voice, fluency and lis-tening skills necessary for success in educa-tional, career and social situations throughregular classroom instruction, cocurricularactivities and speech-language pathology and

audiology services.

8. Oral communication program instruction en-courages and provides appropriate opportuni-ties for the reticent student (e.g., one who isexcessively fearful in speaking situations); toparticipate more effectively in oral com-munication.

Support

I. Oral communication instruction is providedby individuals adequately trained in oral com-munication and/or communication disorders,as evidenced by appropriate certification.

2. Individuals responsible for oral communica-tion instruction receive continuing education

on theories, research and instruction relevantto communication.

3. Individuals responsible for oral communica-tion instruction participate actively in conven-tions, meetings, publications and other activi-ties of communication professionals.

4. The oral communication program includes asystem :or training classroom teachers toidentify and refer students, who do not haveadequate listening and speaking skills or arereticent, -to -those qualified individuals whocan best meat the needs of the student throughfurther assessment and/or instruction.

5. Teachers in all curriculum areas receive infor-mation on appropriate methods for a) usingoral communication to facilitate instructionand b) using the subject matter to improvestudents' oral communication skills.

6. Parent and community groups are informedabout and provided with appropriate materi-als for effective involvement in the oral com-munication program.

7. The oral communication program is facili-tated by availability and use of appropriateinstructional materials, equipment and facilities.

Assessment and Evaluation

1. The oral communication program is based on

a schoolwide assessment of the speaking andlistening needs of students.

2. Speaking and listening needs of students willbe determined by qualified personnel utilizingappropriate evaluation tools for the skills tobe assessed and educational levels of stu-dents being assessed.

3. Evaluation of student progress in oral commu-nication is based upon a variety of dataincluding observations, self-evaluations, lis-teners' responses to messages and formaltests.

4. Evaluation of students' oral communicationencourages, rather than discourages, students'desires to communicate by emphasizing thosebehaviors which students can improve, thusenhancing their ability to do so.

5. Evaluation of the total oral communicationprogram is based on achievement of accept-able levels of oral communication skill deter-

144 131

mined by continuous monitoring of studentprogress in speaking and listening, use ofstandardized and criterion referenced tests.

":"

audience-based rating scales and other appro-priate instruments.

Reprinted with perodaeloa American Speech anguageHearing Association and Speech Communication Association.

,44 3 2

p

Appendix 0

Guidelines for Minimal Speaking and Listening Competencies for High SchoOl Graduates

Learner Producer Citizen Individual

A. Identify mainideas in mes-sages.

Identify the taskto be perfotinedwhen given in-structionsorally.

Recognize per-formance stan-dards for workassigned orally.

Recognize com-mitments, pro -mises, threatsand commands.

Select main ideaswhen listening topolitical speeches.

Ident:fu key pointsin broadcast inter.views with politi-cal candidates.

Identify criticalissues in trialtestimony.

Obtain main ideas 'kin messages con-cerning healthrelated news.

Identify mainideas in broad-cast messagesabout tax returnpreparation.

Consumer

Determinemain ideasof informa-tion involv-ing credit, fi-nancing andthe like.

B. Distinguishfacts fromopinions.

Obtain factualinformation aboutjob opportunities.

Distinguish betweenfacts and opinionsin cu omer com-plainti

Distinguish betweenfacts and opinionsin labor-managementdisputes.

Distinguish betweenfacts and opinionsin politicalspeeches.

Distinguish betweenevidence and opin-ion in testimony.

Distinguish betweenfact and opinionin newscasts.

Distinguish factsfrom opinionswith respect toeffective ill-ness treatment.

Distinguish factsfrom opinions re-garding nutri-tion.

Identify mainideas in acontractagreement.

Distinguishfacts fromopinions inadvertise-ments.

C. Distinguishbetween in-formativeand persua-sive messages.

Distinguish betweeninformative and per-suasive messages ina job interview.

Distinguish betweeninformative and per-suasive messages froma union organizer.

Distinguish betweeninformative and per-suasive messages ofmanagement.

Identify when beingsubjected to propa-ganda.

Distinguish betweeninformative and per-suasive messages ofpoliticians.

Distinguish betweeninformative and per-suasive messages oftrial attorneys.

147133

Distinguish betweeninformative andpersuasive mes-sages about nonpre-scription drugs.

Identify whenbeing sub- .

jected to asales presen-tation.

d

Distinguishbetween in-formati' toand per ma-sive rr.z.s-sages aboutpurchasingon credit.

Learner Producer Citizen Individual Consumer

D. Recognize whenanother doesnot understandyour message.

Recognize lack ofundeistanding in

. other employees._ .

Recognize whena job interviewerdoesn't understandyour explanation ofyour work experience.

Recognize when acustomer doesn'tunderstand yourdirections forproduct use

Recognize whenanother persondoesn't understandyour position on apublic issue.

Recognized whena public officialdoesn't understandyour request.

Recognize whena judge doesnot understandyour testimony.

Recognize whenanother familymember doesn't .

understand your in-structions. 1

. ... \.

Recognize when- -1a doctor doesn'tunderstand yourdescription of your ill-ness.

.

Reconizewhen a salesperson doesnot under-stand yourrequest.

E. Express ideasclearly andconcisely.

Make a report toyour job super-visor.

Explain job re-quirements toa new employee.

State clearlyrelevant infor-mation aboutyour work exper-ience when ap-plying for a job.

Describe a de-sired course ofpolitical ac-tion.

-a

Describe an ac-cident or crimeto a police officer.

Explain citizens'rightsto another.

Explain an un-familiar taskto a child orother familymember.

Explain yourvalues toyour child ora friend.

Explain anappliancemalfunctionto a repairperson.

F. Express anddefend withevidence yourpoint of view.

Express and de-fend your viewin a union meet-ing.

Express and de-fend your sug-gestions forchanges in jobconditions.

Express and de-fend your rea-sons for jobabsence to yoursupervisor.

Express and de-fend your viewin a politicaldiscussion.

Express and de-fend your inno-cence In court.

Express and de-fend your posi-tion in a citycouncil meeting.

Express anddefend yourfaith or re-ligion.

Express anddefend yourfeelings ina family dis-cussion.

Express anddefend yourrefusal toaccept pro-ducts or ser-vices youdid notorder.

13.1

148

(i

.410

1.3erner Producer Citizen individual Consumer

G. Organize (order)messages sothat others canunderstandthem.

Use a chronologicalorder to explain acomplex businessprocedure to aco-worker.

Use a topicalorder when ex-plaining produc-tion problemsto a supervisor.

Use a problem- ,cause-solutionorder when makinga suggestion toa supervisor.

Use a topical or-der to explainyour political ,

views.

Use a cause-ef-fed order whengiving an ac-cident report.

Use a chronolo-gical order toexplain yourcomplaint toan elected of-ficial.

Explain to yourchild, how to pre-vent accidentsusing a cause-effect order.

a

Use a prob-lem-cause-solutionorder toexplain yourfinancialposition whenapplying fora loan.

Use a chron-ologicalorder to ex-plain to amechanicthe develop-ment of anautomobilemalfunction.

H. Ask questionsto obtain in-formation.

Obtain informa-tion about cor-red job per-formance proce-dures.

Obtain informa-tion about jobbenefits.. .

Obtain sugges-tions abouthow to improveyour job per-formance.

Obtain informa-tion from pub-lic officialsabout laws andregulations.

Obtain infor-mation aboutanother's evi-dence on a po-litical issue.

Obtain informa-tion about apolitical can-didate's views.

Obtain in-formationabout in-terest ratesfor purchasesbought oncredit.

Obtain in-formationabout yourcreditrating.

Obtain in-formationabout pro-duct safety.

I. Answer ques-tions effective-ly.

Answer a poten-tial employer'squestions aboutyour qualifica-tions.

Answer customerquestions.

Answer a super-visor's questionsabout your jobperformance.

Answer questionsabout your post-tion on publicissues. 4

Answer questionsof a census taker.

Answer questionsas a witness.

Answer a doctor'squestions aboutan illness youhave.

Answer a taxauditor'squestions.

Answer a child'squestions sothat the childunderstands.

35149

Learner Producer

J. Give conciseand accuratedirections.

Direct co-workersor subordinatesin performing un-familiar jobs.

Instruct custo-mers about pro-duct use.

Instruct an em-ployee aboutimproving jobperformance.

K. Summarizemessages.

Citizen

Give directions .

to another aboutthe proceduresnecessary to vote.

Give directionsto another aboutthe proceduresnecessary tofile a tax re-turn.

Give directions toanother about theprocedures neces-sary to appear be-fore the city coun-cil.

Individual

Teach your childhow to play agame.

Teach yourchild what todo in case offire.

Consumer

Instruct Main-tenancepeople onhow youwant some re-pair made.

Summarize oralinstructionsgiven by yourjob supervisor.

Give a summaryof customer sug-gestions to yourjob supervisor.

Summarize yourqualificationsin a job inter-view.

Summarize the po-sition of a po-litical candidateon a campaignissue.

Summarize thearguments forand against acontroversialissue.

Summarize foranother the .laws/regula-tions pertain-ing to someaction.

1361

150

Summarize forfamily membersa telephone con-versation.

Summarize forfamily membersthe familyfinancial position.

0

Summarize apublic servicemessage onauto safety.

'

'L

LearnerI

f

Producer Citizen Individual Consumer

L Describeanother'sviewpoint.

Describe theviewpoint of asupervisor whodisagrees withyour evaluationof your jobperformance.

Describe theviewpoint of aco-worker whodisagrees withyour recommend-ations.

Describe the viewpointof union officials in acontract dispute.

Describe the view-point of a friendwith whom you dis-agree about pitfb-lic issues.

Describe the view-point of a legis-lator who proposesa law you oppose.

Describe the view-point of a jurymember with whomyou disagree.

M. Describeferences inopinion. .

Describe differencesin opinidn with co-workers about workrelated Issues.

Describe differen-ces in' opinionwith your super-visor about thesteps necessary toaccomplish a goal.

Describe differen-ces in opinionwith customersabout productperformance.

Describe the view-point of your spousewhen you disagreeon a major de-cision.

Describe the view-point of your neigh-bor who complainsabout your children'sbehavior.

Describe theviewpoint ofa retail storemanager towhom youreturn mer-chandise.

Describe diffet-ences in opinionwith a legisla-tor about,pro-posed legisla-tion.

Describe differ-ences in opinionwith other jurors.

Describe differ-ences in opin-ion in a zoninghearing.

137151

Des& differen-ces in anionwith spouse aboutchild rearingpractices.

Describe differ-ences in opinionwith your doctorregarding healthcare.

Describe differ-ences in opinionwith spouse aboutthe responsibilityfor householdchores.

Learner Producer Citizen individual Consumer

N. Expressfeelings toothers.

Express personalreactions tochanges in jobconditions toyour supervisor,

Express satisfac-tion to a co-worker about hisor her work.

Express feelingsof dissatisfac-tion with co-workers regard-ing the qualityof work ioer-actions.

Express feelingsof anger to yourcity councilper-son.

Express yourpositive reac-tions to anelected offs-cial's work.

Express feelingsof disapprovalregarding a le-gislator'sposition.

Express feelingsof approval toyour child forhis/her schoolachievement.

Express feelingsof sympathyto a friendwhose parenthas died.

Express dis-satisfactionto a storeclerk.

0. Perform so-cial rituals.

Introduce yourselfat the beginningof a job inter-view.

Greet customers.

Conclude a con-versation withyour employer.

Introduce a mo-tion at a publicmeeting.

Request an appoint-ment with an elect-ed official.

.

lndroduce a speak-er at a politicalrally.

Make a smalltalk in cas-ual socialsettings.

Introducestrangers toone another.

Introduceyourself.

.

P. Listen effective-ly to spokenEnglish.

4,:,..4%.

Performs according todirections given byjob supervisor.

Recognizei complaintsand needs of custo-mers.

Responds to sugges-tions and questionsof fellow workers.

Understand direc-tions on TV orradio on proce-dunes necessaryto vote.

Understand di-rections to ajury from a judge.

Understand di-rections givenby police officers.

Understand wea-then bulletinsbroadcast onradio or TV.

Understand aplumber'ssuggestions.for preven-tive house-hold maintenance.

Understand adoctor's orpharmacist'sdirections fortaking pre-scribed medi-cation.

Understand ahouseholdmaintenanceworker's sug-gestions forpreventivemaintenance.

13

152

Learner Producer Citizen Individual Consumer

Q. Use words, pro-nunciation andgrammar appro-priate forsituation.

Use appropriatelanguage duringemployment inter-views..

Use words, pro-nunciation, andgrammer which donot alienate co-workers.

Use words under-stood by co-workers.

Use language un-derstood by mem-bers of diversegroups at civicmeetings.

Use inoffensivewords when ex-pressing poli-tical views.

Use languageunderstood bypublic offi-cials.

Use language un-derstood by apolice officerswhen making acomplaint.

Describe anailment sothat a doc-tor can un-derstand thesymptoms.

Use languageunderstoodby businesspersonnelwhen trans-

,

acting per-sonal busi-ness (e.g.,bar king shop-ping, payingbills).

R. Use nonverbalsigns appro-priate forsituation.

Use appropriategestures and eyecontact duringemployment in-terviews.

Use appropriatefacial expressionsand tone of voicewhen conversingwith a supervisor.

Use gestures whichaid a co-workerin learning toperform a pro-duction task.

Use appropriatefacial expres-sions and pos-ture when ex-pressing yourpoint of viewat civic meet-ings.

Use appropriatenonverbal signswhen campaigningfor a politicalcandidate.

Use appropriatenonverbal signswhen engagingin informal dis-cussions of po-litical viewswith friends.

139153

Use gestureswhich enhancea child's un-derstandingof how to per-

-form a house-hold task.

Use gestures whichenhance a friend'sunderstanding ofhow to play agame.

Use nonverbalsigns to indi-cate sympathyto a friend.

Use gestureswhich helpbusiness per-sonnel to un-derstand_your_ _point of viewas a con-sumer.

Learner Producer Citizen Individual Consumer

S. Use voice e_ ffec- Use sufficient Speak clearly and Speak with appro- Speak suffi-

tively. volume whenmaking a pre-

loudly enough tobe heard in pub-

priate rate,volume and cla-

dent volumeand clarity

sentation to alarge group inan on-the-job

lic debate or'discussion.

rity in social , ,

conversations.when makingconsumer re-ports, com-

setting. Speak with ap- Speak with ap- plaints or

Use appropriatepropriate rate,volume and cla-

propriate rate,volume and cla-

responses.

volume when con- rity when ex- rity when re-versing with a pressing your porting a firecustomer viatelephone.

Speak with ap-

views to anelected offi-cial.

or accident.

Speak with appro-priate rate, vo-

propriate rate Speak clearly lume and clarity -

volume and and loudly when solicitingclarity when enough to be funds for a cha-conversing withyour supervi-sor. ,

heard and under-stood when giv-ing testimonyin court.

rity.

k

Reprinted horn Oral Language and Listening Task Force Report. Basic Skills Advisory Board, Georgia

Department of Education, November, 1982.

1154

0

Appendix .PInstructional Resources

Educational media programs in Georgia publicschools focus not only on the provision ofinstructional resources in all formats to supportthe curriculum, but also on the use of thoseresources in supporting teaching strategies andlearning activities to effectively meet studentneeds. A combination of resources includingprint and nonprint materials and equipment es-sential for their use or production along withprograms, services and additional resources avail-able through state, community and other educa-tional agencies are necessary for effective sup-port of instructional programs.

Innovative teachers, media specialists, admini-strators, curriculum specialists, students, boardmembers and representatives of the communityare cooperatively evolving a media concept thatsupports the instructional program, facilitatesaccess to information in all formats and providesservices for production of locally designed, cur-riculum-related learning materials. Media spe-

serve on curriculum rnmmitteesand integrate their professional skills in a coopera-tive effort to develop effective instructionalprograms. In addition, efficient use of appropri-ate materials which foster student growth inlistening, viewing, reading and inquiry skills isbeing increased by these populations. GeorgiaBoard of Education Instructional Media andEquipment Policy requires that local media com-mittees composed of the groups mentioned abovebe involved in selecting materials and establishingprocedures for using these materials effectively.Language arts teachers should express theirinterest in being involved in or providing input tothis planning process to their principal and me-dia specialist.

Timely access of teachers and students to infor-mation and the prevention of unnecessary dupli-cation of resources can be accomplished whenthe information about and the location of re-sources that support the language arts programin a secondary school is available through theschool's media center. Through involvement insuch activities as policy and procedure develop-ment. curriculum design and materials evalua-tion and selection. language arts teachers havean opportunity and a responsibility to develop

improved media services supporting the instruc-tional program.

A community resources file, developed coopera-tively by media and instructional staff, providesvaluable information about local people, places,activities and unique resources, enhancing thelanguage arts program. In some school systeme,a resource service designed to augment theuuilding media program is also provided at thesystem level for all schools.

Numerous sources of information about resourcesexist;"some are commercially prepared, othersare provided by the Georgia Department ofEducation while still others exist in the localschool. Media personnel in each building mediacenter can assist teachers in using the followingsuggested sources.

Sources of Commercially Produced Re-sources

Many professionally prepared, commercially pub-lished reviewing sources which are available inschool media centers, system media collections,and public and academic libraries are listed in:Aids to Media Selection for Students and Teach-ers available from the National Association ofState Educational Media Professionals, Divisionof Publications, 605 South Street, Indianola,Iowa 50125.

Resources from the Georgia Departmentof Education

The department of education provides resourcesand services which are available through schoolmedia centers and/or system media contactpersons.

Materials Distributed by the InstructionalMedia Services Division

Georgia Tapes for Teaching: Catalog ofClassroom Teaching Tapes for GeorgiaSchools (and supplements). Arranged by sub-jects, this catalog lists the titles of audio tapeswhich will be duplicated on request. Recom-mended listening audiences are indicated. Aschool registration is required. The requesting

155141l

media center must provide the blank reel-to-reelor cassette tape on which the recording is made.Return postage is provided by the Georgia De-partment of Education.

Catalog of Classroom Teaching Films forGeorgia Schools (and supplements). The an-notated list of 16mm films Is arranged by titlesbut indexed by subjects. Recommended viewingaudiences are indicated. Registration (annualbeginning in September or semiannual beginningin January) requires a minimal fee. Each registra-tion provides a specified weekly film quotes, butmultiple registrations are accepted. Many filmsare broadcast over the Georgia Educational Tele-vision Network and some may be duplicated onvideotapes for later use. Information about this.service and the broadcast schedule are providedannually to media specialists through the sys-tem media contact person.

Instructional Television Schedule. Copiesof the Schedule with series descriptions andbroadcast times are available on request throughthe media specialist from the system mediacontact person, who also coordinates orders forneeded teacher manuals. Descriptions of tele-course series and programs in related fieldsshould be examined for potential programs tosupport the language arts curriculum, Althoughrecommended viewing audiences are indicated,the Schedule and,or teacher manuals shouldalso be examined for potential use of a programor series to introduce, develop or reinforce lan-guage arts concepts. Upcoming broadcast spe-cials are announced in MEDIA MEMO which isprovided monthly to media specialists during theschool year by the department of education.

Additional Sources of Information Pro-vided by the Georgia Department ofEduca-tionEducational information Center (EIC),Georgia Department of Education, 1866 TwinTowers East, Atlanta, Georgia 30334. A re-search service of computer and manual search-es of the Educational Resources InformationCenter (ERIC) data base, which includes over450,000 references to education documents, isprovided to Georgia public school superinten-dents and their central office staff.

Readers Service, Public Library ServicesDivision, Georgia Department of Education,156 Trinity Avenue SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30303."Selected List of Books for Teachers" (andsupplements) and "Periodical List" (and supple-ments) identifying titles in the Georgia PublicLibrary Information Network (GLIN), anotherreference and bibliographic service, provides ac-cess to publications in the collections of partici-pating public, special and academic libraries.Requests for these services and resources shouldbe made through the local public libraries by the

school media staff.

Other Sources of Information/Ideas

Reviews and bibliographies of recommendedresources and innovative program descriptionsfor language arts are published regularly injournals and periodicals. The following tools forselection are recommended.

English Journal, National Council of Teachers ofEnglish, Kenyon Road, Urbana Illinois 61801,monthly September-April.

Georgia Journal of Reading, Georgia CouncilInternational Reading Association, Box 218,Georgia State University, University Plaza,Atlanta, Georgia 30303, semiannually.

Journal of Reading, International Reading As-sociation, 800 Barksdale Road, P.O. Box 8139,Newark, Delaware, 19711, monthly October-May.

142

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Schubert, Dejwyn andTheodore Torgerson. Improving the Reading Program. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. BrownCompany Publishers, 1972.

Shane, Harold and James Welden, eds. Classroom-Relevant Research in Language Arts. Washington, D.C.:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1979.

Strickland, Dorothy. "A Program for Linguistically Different Black Children," in Research in the Teachingof English. 7 (Spring, 1973), 79-86.

Thomas. Ellen Lamar and H. Alan Robinson. Improving Reading in Every Class. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,1977.

Weaver, Phyllis and Fredi Shonkoff. Research Within Reach. Washington, D.C.: National Institute ofEducation, 1978.

Witty, Paul, ed. Reading for the Gifted and the Creative Student. Newark, Delaware: International ReadingAssociation, 1971.

Comprehension Skil*Barrett, Thomas C. "Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension" in Reading 360 Monograph. Lexington,

Massachusetts: Ginn and Co.. 1972.

Berger. Allen and James D. Peebles, eds. Rates of Comprehension. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association. 1976.

Eller. William and Judith Wolf. eds. Critical Reading: A Broader View. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association. 1969.

Gerhard. Christian. Making Sense: Reading Comprehension Improved Through Categorization. Newark,Delaware: International Reading Association, 1975.

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G. ankoff. Roberta M. "A Comparison of Reading Comprehension Process in Good and Po_oriniprehenskiti" inReading Research Quarterly. 11 (1975.76), 623-659. ---

Green, Richard T., ed. Comprehension-in Recrdirig. Newark, Delaware: International Readin Association,1971.---

Griese, Arnold. Do You Read Me ,Practical Approaches to TeachingReading Comprehension. Santa Monica,

California: Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc.. 1977.

Critical Reading: Do You Believe? Comprehension (7-12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of Public

Instruction, 1979.

Jongsma. Eugene. The Cloze Procedure as a Teaching Technique. Newark, Delaware: International Reading

Association, 1971.

"Lundsteen, Sara. Listening: Its Impact on Reading and the Other Language Arts. Urbana, Illinois: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English. 1979.

Morgan, Clifford G., and James Deese. How to Study. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964.

Pennock, Clifford, ed. Reading Comprehension at Four Linguistic Levels. Newark, Delaware: International

, Reading Association, 1979.

Ruddell, Robert B. "Developing Comprehension Abilities: Implications from Research for an InstructionalFramework" in What Research Has to Say About Reading instruction. ed. S. Joy Samuels, Newark,Delaware: International Reading Association, 1978.

Schulwitz. Bonnie S. Teachers, Tangibles, Techniques: Comprehension of Content in Reading. Newark,Delaware: International Reading Association, 1975.

F\ rtSmith, Frank. Comprehension and Learning. New York: Holt, eha and Winston, 1975.

Smith, Frank. Understanding Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart nd Winston, 1971.

Tierney, Robert, John Readence, and Ernest Dishner. Reading Strategies and Practices. Boston: Allyn and

Bacon, 1980.

Voix, Ruth G. Evaluating Reading and Study Skills in the Secondary Classroom. Newark, Delaware:International Reading Association, 1968.

Functional Reading

Adams, Anne, Anne Flowers, and Elsa Woods. Reading for Survival in Today's Society. 2 vols. SantaMonica California: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1978.

Blair. Susan. "An Implementation of a Functional Reading Program." ERIC Document Reproduction Service,

161.017, March 1979.

Cassidy, Jack. "Survival Reading" in Motivating Children and Young Malts to Read. eds. James L. Thomas

and Ruth M. Long. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1979.

Cassidy, Jack and Carol Vukelich. "Survival Reading for Parents and Kids: A Parent Education Program" inThe Reading Teacher. 31 (March 1978), 638-641.

Cassidy, Jack and Timothy Shauchar. "F ,.rvival Skills: Some Considerations" in Journal of Reading,23 (November 1979), 136-140.

Chambers. Dewey. Woods and Heath Ward Lowery. The ITanguage-Ar: A Pragmatic Approach. New York:William C. Brown Publishers, 1975.

Fuctional Reading Prescriptions. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education, 1979.

Reis, Ron. "A Curriculum for Real Life Reading Skills" in Journal of Reading. 21 (December 1977), 208-211.

Schrank. Jeffrey. Deception Detection. Boston: Beacon Press. 1975.0

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Sticht, Thomas. "Needed: A Functional Litqacy Skills Curriculum for the Secondar School." ERICDocument Reproduction Service. 088 039, Spring 1974.

Wilson, Robert and Marcia Barnes. Survival Learning Materials. York, Pennsylvaina: College ReadingAssociation, 1974.

Content Area Reading

Collins, Ellouise and Linda Craig. "Module 13" in Reading in the Content Area. Atlanta: MetropolitanCooperative Educational Service Agency, 1977.

Earle, Richard. Teaching Reading and Mathematics. Newark, Delaware: International ReadingAssociation,

1976.

Estes, Thomas H. and Joseph L. Vaughan, Jr. Reading and Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allynand Bacon, Inc., 1978.

Fay. Leo and Lee Ann Jared. Reading in the Content Fields, an Annotated Bibliography. Newark, Delaware:International Reading Association, 1975.

Herber. Harold L. Teaching Reading in Content Areas. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978.

Vocabulary Development in the Content Areas. (7 -12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of PublicInstruction 1979.

Placing Study Skills in Context (6-12). Indianapolis: Indiana Department of Public Instruction, 1979.

Laffey, James L., ed. Reading in the Content Areas. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association.

1972.

Lunstrum. John P. and Bob Taylor. Teaching Reading in the Social Studies.. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association, 1978.

Piercey. Dorothy. Reading Activities in Content Areas. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1976.

Reading Mathematics. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education, Atlanta:.1979.

Reading and Science. Atlanta: Georgia Department of Education, Atlanta: 1976.

Reading and Social Studies, A lanta: Georgia Department of Education, 1975.

Reading and Physical Educatio A nta: Georgia Department of Education, 1979.

Learning Partners: Reading and So 'al Studies. Austin, Texas: Texas Education Agency, 1977.

Thelen, Judith. Improving Reading in Science. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1976.

West. Gail B. Teaching Reading Skills in Content Areas. Orlando, Flordia: Sandpiper Press, 1974.

Management/OrganizationCleary. Donna McKee. Thinking Thursday: Language Arts in the Reading Lab. Newark, Delaware:

International Reading Assoaqtion, 1978.

Courtney. Brother Leonard. Reading Interaction: the Teacher, the Pupil, the Materials. Newark, Delaware:International Reading Association, 1976.

Educational Leadership in Reading Instruction for Secondary School Principals. Montgomery: AlabamaState Department of Education, 1977.

Fay. Leo. Organization and Administration of School Reading Programs. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association, 1971.

Ford. David H. and Mildred Fitzgerald. eds. Contingency Management and Reading.. Newark, Delaware:International Reading Association. 1973. .

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Moffett, James and Betty Jane Wagner. Student-Centered Language Arts and Reading, K-13. Boston,Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.

Nichols, Nancy J. "Interclass Grouping for Reading Instruction: Who Makes the Decisions and Why?"in Educational Leadership, 26 (March 1969), 588-92.

Petreshene, Susan. Complete Guide to Learning Centers. Palo Alto, California: Pendragon House, 1978.

Stauffer, Russell. Directing the Reading-Thinking Process. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

Assessment/EvaluationAaron, Ira. "Reading Achievement in Georgia Today" in Proceedings:.. President's Seminary on Basic

Skills in Georgia Schools. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia, 1976, 5-13.

Aaron, lid. "Reading and Reading Evaluation in Georgia Today" in GeorgiaJournal of Reading, 3 (Fall,1977), 18-21.

Alexander, J. Estell and Ronald C_ . Filler, Attitudes and Reading. Newark, Delaware: International ReadingAssociation, 1976.

Chase, Larry. The Other Side of the Report Card: A How to Do It Program for Affective Education.Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1975.

Johns, J. L., et al., eds. Assessing Reading Behavior: Informal Reading Inventories. Newark, Delaware:International Reading Association, 1977.

Potter, Thomas C. and Gwenneth Rae. Informal Reading Progress, A Practical Guide for the ClassroomTeacher. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.

Punfrey, Peter D. Reading: Tests and Assessment Techniques. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1976.

Rude, Robert T. "Readiness Tests: Implications for Early Childhood Education" in The Reading Teacher.26 (March, 1973), 572-580.

Sawyer, Diane J., ed. Disabled Readers: Insight, Assessment, Instruction. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association, 1980.

Shcreimer, Robert, ed. Reading Tests and Teachers: A Practical Guide. Newark, Delaware: InternationalReading Association, 1979.

Venzky, Richard L. Testing in Reading. Urbana, Illinois: Nation0 Councirof Teachers of English, 1974.

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