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EVALUATION 8F PEER-BASED CAREER COUNSELLING TRAINING

AMONG HIGH-SCHOOL YOUTH

Charise Karjala

B.B.A, Simon Fraser University, 1990

D i p l . M. M., B.C. Institute of Technc?logy, 1986

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

in the department of

Business Administration

8 Charise Karjala 1991

SIMON FRASER UNIVERISTY July, 1991

A l l rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced i n whole or i n part, by photocopy

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autorisation.

ISBN 0-315-78183-1

APPROVAL

HAME : Charise Karjala

DEGREE : Master of Business Administration

TITLE OF THC-313: Evaluation of Peer-based Peer Counselling Training Among High School Youth

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

St even McShane Senior Supervisor

Gary Mauser -

Larry ma u field

Date Approved: CJ

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f o r m u l t i p l e copying o f t h i s work f o r scholar ly purposes may be granted

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o r pub l i ca t i on o f t h i s work f o r f i n a n c i a l gain sha l l not be al lowed

wi thout my w r i t t e n permission.

T i t l e o f Thesis/Project/Extended Essay

Author:

date) d

ABSTRACT

T h i s q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y examines t h e effect o f p e e r c a r e e r

c o u n s e l l i n g t r a i n i n g upon t h i r t y - f i v e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n

t h e F r a s e r V a l l e y of B r i t i s h Columbia. The s t u d y f i n d s t h a t

s t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d i n a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l changes

over t h e c o u r s e of s t u d y as compared t o c o n t r o l s3~bjects. T h e i r

a t t i t u d e s toward c a r e e r development improved and hey i n c r e a s e d

c,reer e x p l o r a t i o n a c t i v i t y among s p e c i f i e d s o u r c e s of

i n f o r m a t i o n . Some e x p l o r a t i o n act ivies i n c r e a s e d m o r e f o r

c o n t r o i s u b j e c t s t h a n f o r s t u d e n t s , a n d confound ing f a c t o r s a r e

e x p l o r e d .

iii

A number of pecale h a v e b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c r e a t i n g t h i s p r o j e c t . I would l i k e t o t h a n k D r . R i c h a r d Bradshaw a n d D r . Roy K a r j a l a fcr e n c o u r a ~ i n g m e i n s t a r t i n g t h i s project, Tamdsa MacPherson a n d Harry Braun f o r t h e i r suppor" t h r o u g h o u t , and Ds S t e v e n McShane fcr h i s feecback a n d c o n f i d e n c e . I would a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k L a r r y ? i n f i e l d and Gary Mauser.

Abstrac t

Acknowledgements

List of Tables

List of Figures

Introduction

Attitudes Which Mediate Career Development

Career Facilitators & Barriers Self-Esteem Locus of Control Self-Efficacy

Interventions Which Affect Career Development Hypotheses

Search Eehaviors Hypotheses

Evaluating Training Interventions Hypotheses

Summary

M e t hod0 logy Sarnple Measures Procedure

Training Intervention Design P~lalysis

R e s r r 3 . t ~ Attitudes Which Mediate Career

Development Search Behaviors and Intentions Reactions and Learning Further Exploratory Analysis

iii

vii

viii

Discussion

Limitat ions

Appendix A - Questionnaire and Consent Forms Appendix B - Q a e s t i o n n a i r e Responses, Means

References

Tahie One :

MANOVA R e s u l t s for A t t i t u d i n a l Var iab les

Table Two:

MANOVA R e s u l t s of Search Behaviors & I n t e n t i o n s

Table Three:

MANOVA R e s u l t s of Q u i z Scores

Table Four:

Univar ia te S t a t i s t i c s for Hours P e r Week Worked

vii

Graph and S c h e f f e Tests o f Se l f -Es teem

F i g u r e Two:

Graph a n d S c h e f f e TesLs of S e l f - E f f i c a c y

F i g u r e T h r e e

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s o f I n t e n t i o n s t o T a l k t o C o u n s e l l o r s

F i g u r e F o u r :

Graph and S c h e f f e T e s t s o f T a l k i n g t o C o u n s e l l o r s A b o u t Careers

F i g u r e F i v e :

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s o f I n t e n t i o n s t o T a l k t o P e o p l e i n t h e F i e l d About Careers

F i g u r e S i x :

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s of Times T a l k e d t o P e o p l e i n t h e F i e l d About Careers

F i g u r e Seven:

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s o f Q u i z S c o r e s

F i g u r e E i g h t :

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s o f Times T a l k e d t o P e o p l e O f f e r i n g Empzoyment O p p o r t u n i t i e s

F i g u r e Mine:

Graph a n d S c h e f f e T e s t s o f Haurs P e r Week Worked

viii

IWTRODUCTION:

Y?;king t h e t r a n s i t i o n fron school t o w o r k l i f e is a d i f f i c u l t

and t u r b u l e n t t i m e o f i n d e c i s i o n , f r u s t r a t i o n and u n c e r t a i n t y

for many young people . Some youth can t r anscend t h e changes

q u i t e well, but o f t e n , o t h e r s do n o t . The d i f f i c u l t y o f t h i s

t r a n s i t i o n can be m d e r s t o o d from a ~ y s t e m s p e r s p e c t i v e . For

example, "school." and "work" have very d i f f e r e n t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . School is t h e p l a c e t o l e a r n and be young;

work is the p l a c e t o a c t and be an a d u l t . I n s choo l , t h e r o l e s

and behaviors a r e known; i n work, t h e y a r e n o t . I n school , t h e

answers t o quesElons such as "what should I do today?" are

a l r e a d y made by t h e a ~ t h o r i t i e s a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n t h e system.

When c o n s i d e r i n g making t h e t r a n s i t i o n from schoo l t o work,

youth must no t on ly begin t o p l a n and make d e c i s i o n s f o r

themselves , b u t a l s o answer for themselves v e r y impor t an t

q u e s t i o n s such a s what t o do f o r a l i v i n g .

Educators have r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s sys temic problem i s somewhat

u n i v e r s a l and have a t t empted i n t e r v e n t i o n s t o h e l p youth through

t h e p roces s of career development. Today, s t u d e n t s have

c o u n s e l l o r s who t r y t o h e l p them a long i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

d e c i s i o n s a k i n g . Counse l lo r s u s e s choo l r eco rds , test r e s u l t s

( i n t e r e s t s , a p t i t u d e s and v a l u e s ) and o c c u p a t i o n a l i n fo rma t ion

i n t h i s f a c i l i t a t i v e p roces s . These i n t e r v e n t i o n s are in t ended

t o h e l p youth examine t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s , a b i l i t i e s , a p t i t u d e s

and o r i e n t a t i o n s i n making career d e c i s i o n s ; however, t h e s e

i n t e r v e n t i o n s may n o t be working (Karjala, 1990) .

One of t h e r ea sons t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s may not work

is tha t t h e y do n o t a c t i v e l y empower youth i n t r a n s i t i o n .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , young peop le have been counse l l ed i n t h e i r careers

w i t h approaches c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e "medical modelm.

Counse l lo r s "diagnosen t h e s t u d e n t ' s problem (needs c a r e e r

d e c i s i o n ) , and a p p l y t h e "remedy" (career c o u n s e l l i n g ) . Thiz

sort of r e l a t i o n s h i p , i f it works, leads t o a dependency

r e l a t i o n s h i p . The s t u d e n t becomes r e l i a n t upon t h e c o u n s e l l o r

because h e or she has t h e tests, t r e a t m e n t s and in fo rma t ion with

which s t u d e n t s make t h e i r career d e c i s i o n s . Recent r e s e a r c h

s u g g e s t s t h a t p e o p l e make, on average, between t h r e e and e i g h t

o c c u p a t i o n a l changes I n t h e i r l i v e s , each t i m e r e q u i r i n g t h e

s a m e set of s k i l l s , s t r a t e g i e s , r e sou rces and d e c i s i o n s

(Danchier and Unruh, 1988). The t a s k of p r o g r e s s i v e and

p r o a c t i v e e d u c a t o r s then , is t o t r a i n i n d i v i d u a l s t o e x p l o r e

themse lves and t h e i r o p t i o n s , and t o cope wi th career decision-

making c h a l l e n g e s .

This p a p e r w i l i examine and d e f i n e : a t t i t u d e s which mediate

career development; i n f o r m t i m search sources useful in

exploration; and evaluation techniques for czreer development

programs. It w i l l also d e s c r i b e t h e i n t e r v e 9 t i o n for t h i s

study, e s t a b l i s h hypotheses for research and test them.

Recoamtendations far f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h w i l l also be made.

ATTXTWES WHICH MZDIATE CAREER DEVELOPMENT:

Two of the m o s t pp;Lar career 2evelopment t h i ~ k e r s in t h e iaat

for ty years are &An R3lland and Donald Super. M o s t theories of

vccational development are influenced b y Holland a n d Super and

cost of these a d v ~ c a ~ e --hat self-concept i s the central variable

i n career develapne3t. Super (1953) oresented a theoret ical

framework of v o c a ~ i ~ n a f c3oice with a conceptual self-system as

the central ele3ent. Super asser ts that occupa~ional choice

represents t h e translation of a person's self in to vocational

t t ~ i r i ~ . H e considers that in choosing an occupation, one is

choosing a means of irtrplernenting self concept. In effec t ,

knowing and accepting ane's se l f is a very important i i r s t step

in vocational planning and decision-making.

Holland's (1 977) normative approach t o career developaent res t s

or# a similar pr?mise. One of the well researched and supported

fou~~dations of Hollancigs theory of vocational develzpment i s

t h a t of congruency; that is, people w i L l f iourish i n

e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t are eons i s ten~ wi th t he i r personal

character is t ics . Based on t h i s premise, Holland has developed a

widely used classif icat ion system for evaluating individuals and

oscq~at ions . To a t t a i n occ~pationsf-personal congr71errce, iiciland

also main ta ins t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s need t o know and accept the i r

p+.?rsonal character is t ics to make the most of career exploration

and resultant decision-making. From career development cheory,

then, we know that effective self-appraisal is an important

precursor to active career development.

Cazeer Facilitators and Barriers

k host of barriers can impede one's ability tc actively and

effectively engage in career development, such as vocational

exploration and decision-making. It eppears as though there are

at least two personality characteristics that may reduce an

individual's propensity to engage in vocational exploration and

decision-making: (1) An individual may believe that his or her

chances of reaching expressed career goals are poor because of a

perceived personal inadequacy or inability or (2) An individual

may choose whether or not to plan his or her career based on

feelings of whether or not it is worthwhile (i.e. problem of

failure to see relevance of career planning to one's own

personal goals and objectives).

SeJ f - Esteem : The first of these personal characteristics

represents a self-esteem, or lack of it, which is essentially an

extension of Super's theory of "self-implementation". In its

simplest form, Super's theory proposes that an individual will

decide upon a given career if he or she believes it is likely to

allow expression of self concept and increase in self-worth. In

other words, indisiauals will choose occupations which permit

them to be what they think they are and become what they think

they will become. This implies that when making a career

decision, individuals evaluate options in terms of whether ox

no t t h e y w i l l a l l o w behavior c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e i r s e l f - concep t s

and l e v e l s of self-esteem. Self-esteem, t hen , i s an impor tan t

moderating v a r i a b l e i n t h e p r o c e s s of v o c a t i o n a l development.

Empir ica l r e s e a r c h in t ended t o examine t h e e f f e c t s o f self-

esteem upon c a r e e r - r e l a t e d behaviors s u p p o r t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

z e l a t i o n s h i p between esteem and v o c a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r s . I n female

c h i l d r e n , f o r example, se l f -es teem i s r e p o r t e d t o be h i g h l y

c o r r e l a t e d wi th n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l i t y of a t t i t u a e s toward work

(Hughes, Martinek and F i t z g e r a l d , 1985) . I n a s t u d y o f c h i l d r e n

of bo th sexes , c h i l d r e n wi th h igh self-esteem assumed more

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t o l e r a t e d f r u s t r a t i o n b e t t e r , f e l t better a b l e

t o i n f l u e n c e t h e i r environments and were more proud o f t h e i r

accomplishments t h a n w e r e c h i l d r e n wi th lower self-esteem

(Wiqgins, 1987) . With r e s p e c t t o academic accomplishments, h i g h

school s t u d e n t s w i th h i g h e r g rades have been r e p e a t e d l y found t o

have h i g h e r self-esteem t h a n lower academic pe r fo rmers (Wiggins,

1987; K i f e r , 1973; B loem, 1977; Clemes and Bean, 1981) . Another

c o n s i s t e n t f i n d i n g i s t h a t career i n d e c i s i v e youth are

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by 1o:rer self-esteem t h a n career dec ided youth

(Robbins, 1987, Lunneberg, 1975, M i l ler , 1982) . Such r e s e a r c h

f i n d i n g s imply t h a t if young people have h i g h e r s e l f - e s t eem t h e y

are better p repa red t o overcome obstacles and t o p r e p a r e

themselves academica l ly for their c a r e e r s . There i s a l s o some

ev idence t h a t women w i t h h i g h e r self-esteem are more l i k e l y t o

pursue n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l careers, t h u s expanding t h e i r o p t i o n s

(Betz and Hacket t , 1986) .

Locus of Control: The second aspect of sel f -appraisal tha t can

l i m i t an individual ' s career development i s based on Rot te r ' s

(1966) theory of internal-external locus of control . Rotter

postulates tha t individuals in te rpre t l i f e ' s events along a

continuum. The f i r s t end of the continuum i s label led "external"

and describes the person who perceives events as a r e su l t of

"luckv, "destiny" o r "chance". Conversely, the other end of the

continuum i s label led " internal ly l o c ~ s s e d ' ~ , and describes one.

who perceives events a s being contingent upon h i s or her own

behavior, o r control lable personal charac ter i s t ics . Logically,

it follows from Rotter ' s theory tha t an individual ' s sense of

control over events w i l l a f f ec t a b i l i t y t o engage i n exploration

behavior and make career decisions. ( I f , for example, an

individual believes t h a t events in h i s or her l i f e a re caused

la rge ly by chance o r uncontrollable factors , t h i s would preclude

him/her from exploring d i f fe rent options and making a decision

based upon r e s u l t s of such exploratory a c t i v i t i e s . ) In summary,

locus of control i s an important mediating charac ter i s t ic upon

vocational behavior.

Descriptive research on the charac ter i s t ics of 2eople with

e i t h e r " internal" o r "external" locus of control supports the

theore t i ca l propositions presented above. For example, locus was

found t o r e l a t e s igni f icant ly w i t h academic achievement among

children i n primary grades (Wiggins, 1977; Gordon, 1977) . Findings of a study of college students i n the midwestern United

S t a t e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s t u d e n t s who were i n t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d w e r e

more career decided, t h u s suppor t ing t h e p o s t u l a t i o n t h a t t h e y

had b e t t e r a n i l i t y t o r each c l o s u r e i n t h e i r career p l a n s d u r i n g

t h e i r c o l l e g e y e a r s ( C e l l i n i and Kantorowski, 1 9 8 4 ) . I n a

review o f s t u d i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n t e r n a l l y

o r i e n t e d youth, B z r T a l and B a r Zoher (1977) found t h a t i n

t h i r t y - o n e of t h i r t y - s i x s t u d i e s , conc lus ions w e r e drawn t h a t

i n t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d youth a t t a i n h i g h e r academic g r a d e s t h a n do

e x t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d s u b j e c t s (Boss and Tayle r , 1989) . B a r T a l

and B a r Z o h e r t s own s tudy o f g rade n i n e s t u d e n t s (1977) conf i rms

t h e s e r e s u l t s . R e s u l t s o f t h e s e d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s suppor t t h e

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s r e l e v a n t t o career development

e x i s t between i n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y o r i e n t e d youth, wi th t h e

former having an advantage over t h e l a t t e r .

R e s u l t s o f one s t u d y w e r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s e f i n d i n g s ,

however. B e r n a r d e l l i , D e S t e f a n o and Dumant (1983) examined t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p of in format ion seek ing behavior and l o c u s of

c o n t r o l on g rade n i n e s t u d e n t s i n an e a s t e r n Uni ted S t a t e s h i g h

schoo l . Resu l t s , based upon e v a l u a t i o n s of l i b r a r y in fo rma t ion

seek ing behavior , i n d i c a t e d t h a t informat ion-seeking i n t h e

l i b r a r y and i n t e r n a l l o c u s of c o n t r o l were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y

r e l a t e d , b u t t h a t career m a t u r i t y [ a s d e f i n e d by t h e Career

K a t u r i t y Scd le ( C r i t e s , 1981) ] w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d w i t h

l o c u s of c o n t r o l .

The conclusion pertaining to library information-seeking

behavior should be considered to be suspect. These findings

indicate that the locus of control of a grade nine student has

no influence on within-school information seeking behavior.

Other research suggests, however, that youth have very little

confidence in their school resources (Karjala, 1990). Therefore,

if an individual is internally-oriented, but has little

confidence in a source of information, they may use other

resources for information-seeking. The Bernardelli study did not

include seeking behaviors using other resources, such as

information interviews, field surveys, contacts with family and

friends and printed information from other libraries or career

resource centers. This study should have included a more

comprehensive measure of information-seeking behaviors to

adeq~ately examine the intended construct [e-g., measures used

by Stumpf, Colarelli, and Hartman, (1983) 1 .

Studies of locus of control and esteem appear to be drawing

similar conclusions. For example, achievement has been found to

covary with locus of control and esteem. In addition, internal

locus and higher self-esteem have both been found to be

characteristics of career-decided individuals. A path analysis

study appears to explain why these results have emerged by way

of describing the relationship between the two variables. A path

study of 28,000 high school seniors from 1,000 schools in the

United States examined the effects of race, ability, family

background, esteem and locus of control on achievement (Keith,

Pottebaum and Eberhart, 1986). Results indicate that the

strongest influence on achievenent is ability, and the second

strongest influence is locus of control. Although esteem

apparently has no effect on achievement, the path from esteem to

locus of control was significant. This suggests that seniors

with more positive self-images or self-esteem have a more

internal locus of control and that internal locus of control

strongly affects achievement. These results confirm an earlier

descriptive study of the relationship between self-esteem,

internal locus of control and career-decidedness in which

internal locus and esteem were both found to be significantly

higher in high academic achievers than low achievers (Keshoir,

1981) As in the Keith, et a1 study, however, the relationship

between esteem and achievement was less strong than that between

locus and achievement (Keshoir, 1981) .

- ,fficacY: The thlrd aspect of self-appraisal that can

affect an individual's ability to engage in exploration and

decision-making is one's sense of personal self-efficacy. Based

on Bandura's (1977) social-cognitive theory, self-efficacy is

defined as one's personal belief in his or her capability to

utilize their abilities to perform some task. A self-

efficacious person is one who not only believes that he or she

possesses the abilities, hut also believes that he or she can

use these abilities. It follows from Banaura's theory that if

people feel that they are unable to utilize their abilities to

explore d i f fe rent careers, they w i l l avoid, o r withdraw from,

the decision-making process.

Personal efficacy i s claimed t o be a domain-specific construct,

and i n recent years a small school of thought and research has

developed in the application of perceptions of self-efficacy t o

explain career-related behaviors. Specifically, career s e l f -

eff icacy i s defined a s a generic label encompassing judgements

of personal eff icacy i n re la t ion t o the wide range of behavior

involved i n career choice and adjustment (Lent and Hackett,

1 9 8 7 ) . I t i s s a i d t o a f fec t an individual ' s decisions t o

(a) attempt a behavior, (b) i f so, for how long, and, ( c ) w i t h

what degree of e f f o r t (Borders and Archadel, 1987). Sources of

information about personal eff icacy include mastery experiences

and models, but the aost e f fec t ive source i s an individual ' s own

ac t ive performance (Bandura, 1975, 1986). Actions which develop

a sense of personal eff icacy w i l l r e su l t i n future efficacious

expectations.

Research on career self-efficacy is recent, r z l a t e i t e s t

construct v a l i d i t i e s a r e speculative, and many of the research

findings a r e i n need of repl icat ion (Lent, Brown and Larkin,

1987; Lent and Hackett, 1983'). In s p i t e of these l imita t ions ,

some findings show promise for career development application.

The f i r s t of these i s t h a t self-efficacy e x p e c t a t i o ? ~ have been

found t o r e l a t e pos i t ive ly t o the range and number of career

options ser iously considered ( B e t z and Hackett, 1981) . Similar

t o t h e s t u d i e s of esteem and locus of c o n t r o l , Lent, Brown and

Larkin (1986; 1987) found t h a t p e r c e p t i o n s of s e l f - e f f i c a c y

c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n of academic

performance. Resal-cs of t h e l a t t e r of t h e s e two s t u d i e s (1987)

i n d i c a t e t h a t s e l f - e f f i c a c y i s a u s e f u l p r e d i c t o r o f r e t e n t i o n

i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l e g e majors over a one-year p e r i o d (Lent, Brown

and Larkin , 1987) . T h i s same s t u d y a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t c a r e e r

decision-making s e l f - e f f i c a c y i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r of

career i n d e c i s i o n ; t h a t is, s u b j e c t s who r e p o r t e d lower l e v e l s

of career d e c i s i ~ n - m a k i n g e f f i c a c y w e r e more career undecided

than were more h i g h l y e f f i c a c i o u s s u b j e c t s . These r e s u l t s

suppor t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s s e r t i o n s t h a t e f f i c a c y e x p e c t a t i o n s

mediate a c t i o n and decision-making, and have a p o s i t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p wi th t h e deg ree and e x t e n t o f g o a l - d i r e c t e d e f f o r t .

A new dimension is a l s o added t o t h e t h e o r y : t h e number of

o p t i o n s cons ide red widens a s e f f i c a c y e x p e c t a t i o n s i n c r e a s e

(Betz and H a c k e t t , 1981) .

It w a s mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h a t esteem and l o c u s are p o s i t i v e l y

r e l a t e d and t h a t r e s u l t s o f a p a t h a n a l y s i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t

esteem a f f e c t s l o c u s of c o n t r o l . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between

e f f i c a c y and l o c u s of c o n t r o l h a s no t been wide ly t e s t e d , b u t it

has been found t h a t pe r sons w i th low se l f - e s t eem have lower

e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r performance ( e f f i c a c y ) t h a n do pe r sons wi th

h i g h self-esteem ( C a m p b e l l and Fa i rey , 1985) . Drawing from t h e

results o f the p a t h study, it l o g i c a l l y follows t h a t l o c u s and

s e l f - e f f i c a c y may have some p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p which a f f e c t s

achievement. I n r e s e a r c h , however, l o g i c does no t s u f f i c e .

The la ter Lent, Brown and Larkin s tudy (1987) found t h a t t h e

c o n s t r u c t of s e l f - e f f i c a c y does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e

w i t h e i t h e r esteem or c a r e e r i n d e c i s i o n , sugges t ing t h a t

e f f i c a c y may be a n independent c o n s t r u c t . At t h i s p o i n t , it can

o n l y be s a i d t h a t t h e r e is a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two

independent c o n s t r u c t s of l ocus of c o n t r o l and s e l f - e f f i c a c y and

t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s somewhat p o s i t i v e .

Conclusions t o be drawn from t h e above s t u d i e s are t h a t self

esteem. locus o f c o n t r o l and ~ o s s l b l v p u e i v e d & .-. - efficacv

s e r v e t o m e d i a t e S ince t h i s paper i s about

t r a i n i n g young peo?le i n t h e development of t h e i r own c a r e e r s ,

it i s now a p p r o p r i a t e t o review r e s u l t s of v o c a t i o n a l

development i n t e r v e n t i o n s . A d i s c u s s i o n w i l l f o l l ow t h a t

o u t l i n e s f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n s des igned t o

maximize t h e p e r s o n a l psycho-soc ia l media tors of c a r e e r

e x p l o r a t i o n and career decision-making behav io r s .

Interventions Which Affect Career Development Attitudes

The f o l l o w i n g s t u d i e s and o p i n i o n s describe s o m e of t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e f f e c t i v e methods for i n t e r v e n i n g t o enhance

i n d i v i d u a l c a r e e r developmerzt. Three o f t h e s t u d i e s describe

g r o u p i n t e r v e n t i o n s , and t h e f o u r t h describes t h e n a t u r e of t h e

most v o c a t i o n a l l y enhanc ing c l i e n t / c o u n s e l l o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n

v o c a t i o n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n .

I n t h e f i r s t o f t h e empirical s t u d i e s reviewed, it w a s

h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t there would be a r e d t c t i o n i n career

i n d e c i s i o n a f t e r v a r i o u s c a r e e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s (Robbins, 1987).

The model was d e v e l o p e d t o p r e d i c t change i n career i n d e c i s i o n

l e v e l s a s a f u n c t i o n o f age , g o a l i n s t a b i l i t y , self esteem a n d

i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s t r u c t u r e . I n t e r v e n t i o n s i n c l u d e d f o u r

d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t s . Three of them w e r e s i m i l a r i n t h a t t h e y

i n c l u d e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y h o u r s o f t r a i n i n g on career

p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s , and e x e r c i s e s such a s q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , role-

p l a y s a n d g roup d i s c u s s i o n s i n t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e p a r t i c i p a n t

s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , c a r e e r knowledge and decis ion-making a b i l i t y .

L e c t u r e s were u s e d min imal ly , o n l y t o e x p l a i n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e

of test r e s u l t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o work v a l u e s , dec is ion-making,

v o c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , a n 3 career g o a l s . A f o u r t h g r o u p w a s

conduc ted i n a l e c t u r e format i n which career i n f o r m a t i o n w a s

conveyed by e i t h e r a f i e ld r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o r a t e a c h e r .

S u b j e c t s i n t h e f o u r t h g r o u p w e r e t e s t e d on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n

conveyed i n class a t t h e e n d of t h e t h i r t y h o u r s of t r a i n i n g .

R e s u l t s o f t h e s tudy i n d i c a t e d t h e model was no t h igh ly

p r e d i c t i v e of chsnge i n c a r e e r i n d e c i s i o n , bu t t h a t p e s t - t e s t

s c o r e s on es teem and i n d e c i s i o n i n t h e t h r e e e x p e r i e n t i a l groups

w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e l e c t u r e - o n l y group.

The l a t t e r group demonstra ted no s i g n i f i c a n t changes wi th r ega rd

t o t h e s e v a r i a b l e s .

Another Robbins s t u d y ( S c o t t and Robbins, 1985) r e s u l t e d i n the

f i n d i n g t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s wi th low se l f -es teem and h igh goa l

i n s t a b i l i t y performed t h e worst i n i ~ f o r m a t i o n - b a s e d c a r e e r

cou r se s , bu t t h a t s o c i a l suppor t and l e a d e r model l ing could

boos t t h e effects of in format ion- o r s k i l l s - o r i e n t e d

i n t e r v e n t i o n s among t h o s e w i t h low esteem and h igh g o a l

i n s t a b i l i t y .

A s t u d y d e s i g n s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Robbins (1987) was conducted

by Wiggins and Moody (1981) . In t h i s s tudy , t h e v o c a t i o n a l

i d e n t i t y scale from an ins t rument t i t l e d "My Voca t iona l

S i t u a t i o n " w a s used t o e v a l u a t e t h e l e v e l of c a r e e r decidedness

b e f o r e and a f t e r t r a i n i n g i n f o u r c a r e e r e x p l o r a t i o n programs.

S i m i l a r t o t h e Robbins s tudy , t h e most commonly used

i n t e r v e n t i o n , i n fo rma t ion seminars (Wiggins, 1987) , produced no

change i n t h e scale on p o s t - t e s t r e s u l t s , whi le each of t h e

t h r e e o t h e r programs r e s u l t e d i n lower s c o r e s on t h e scale

( l o w e r s c o r e s i n d i c a t e a n i n c r e a s e i n s e l f - con f idence p e r t a i n i n g

t o career development and dec rease i n c a r e e r i n d e c i s i o n ) . The

three s u c c e s s f u l g roups used e x p e r i e n t i a l l e a r n i n g , ro l e -p l ays

a long wi th Ho l l and ' s SeiF-Directed Search and Voca t iona l

P re fe rence Inventory, and C r i t e s ' Cz-reer Ma tu r i t y Inven to ry as

a s se s s rwn t i n s t r cmen t s . A l a t e r (1987) Wiggins s t u d y r e p l i c a t e s

t h e s e f i n d i n g s .

Authors o f t h e t h i r d s tudy t o be reviewed i n t h i s s e c t i o n moved

away from e v a l u a t i n g career indec i s ion , toward examinat ion of

i n t e r e s t cmgruence and l o c u s of c o n t r o l among c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s

i n England (Geoffroy, 1 9 8 7 ) . Congruence w a s de te rmined by

comparing each s u b j e c t ' s chosenfdec la red major w i t h t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e Holland codes, as de f ined by r e s u l t s on t h e

Voca t iona l P r e f e r e n c e Inventory . R e s u l t s of t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e

t h a t congruent s u b j e c t s had h ighe r l e v e l s o f i n t e r n a l i t y ( i n

t e r m s of l ocus of c o n t r o l ) t han non-congruent s u b j e c t s . That

is, s t u d e n t s who had chosen majors c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i r Hol land

codes had h i g h e r i n t e r n a l l o c u s of c o n t r o l s c o r e s t h a n d i d t h o s e

s t u d e n t s whose codes and majcrs were i n c o n s i s t e n t .

The Geoffrcy s t u d y is d e s c r i p t i v e , u n l i k e t h o s e by Wiggins and

Robbins. However, it i m p l i e s t h a t an i n t e r v e n t i o n i n which

Holland codes are used t o h e l p s t u d e n t s e x p l o r e and s t u d y i n

congruent f i e l d s can enhance l o c u s e f f e c t s . T h i s conc lus ion i s

h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e because t h e c a u s a l l i n k between l o c u s and

congruence has y e t t o h e demonstra ted i n e i t h e r l o n g i t u d i n a l o r

rnth s t u d i e s . I n suppor t o f t h i s sugges t ion , however,

d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s of congruence conclude t h a t i n b o t h h i g h

schoo l and c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , congruent s u b j e c t s ach ieved h i g h e r

grades than did non-congruent subjects (Holland, 1977). Thus, an

intervention which serves to encouriqe students to pursue study

in congruent subjec~ areas may enhance pers~nal ef f icacy through

ability-conf irming experiences (Eandura, 1989) .

Characteristics of the successful interventions in each of the

Robbins and Wiggins studies appear to be recommendable. A

rehabilitative counselizg expert claims that active

participation in the vocation~l development process improves

lctexvention outcomes (Kanellos, 1985). She asserts that acti

participation in the process increases a client's propensity to

pursue and attairi vocational satisfaction (Kanellos, 1985).

Kanellos states that one of the biggest threats to a clients'

effective vocational development is an external locus of control

because this orientation can lead to learned k~?lplessness and

dependency upon the occupational therapist. To overcome

dependency, Kanellos suggests that clients be encouraged to

actively self-assess, ;-xsue alternatives, and take risks but,

most of all, assume responsibility for their own vocational

health.

If these recommendations are adhered to, Kanellos claims that

the vocational rehabilitation process can actually serve as a

skill-building experience, F G ~ example, if clients assume

responsibility for themselves and as a resvlt learn to set goals

and priorities, chcose activities, and nmitor progress toiiard

the chosen goals, they are actually developing an4 using job-

related =kills -- skiffs needed to succeed in the world of work.

Developing and mastering new skills in turn, can serve to boost

clients' esteem.

Other activities suggesteci by Kanellos can also serve tc enhance

an individual's efficacy e:cpectations. The therapist can create

opportunities for efficacy development through confidence

training or mastery experiences (Kanelios, 1985; Bandura, 1986)

or through introducing clients to models (Bandura, 1986).

Kanellos suggests that models, mastery experience and confidence

training help to combat learned helplessness. This suggestion

i s consistent with empirical findings that mastery experiences

and modelling imprcve efficacy expectations and confidence in

job performance (Latham and Saari, 1979; Wood and Bandura,

1989).

Successful interventions discussed so far have striking

similarities to each other. Training formats developed by

Wiggins and Robbins were characterized by active participation,

group discussion, role-play and self-aseessment. Kanellos

stressed active participation as particularly important for

gaining the commitment and internality necessary for successful

vocational development. She also emphasized the necessity of

assessment feedback far heightened self awareness (Kanellos,

1985). Results of her work also include more specific

suggestions for effective career interventions. Mastery

experiences and training provided by significant models were

found t o improve s e f f - e f f i c a c y e x p e c t a t i o n s , i n c r e a s e esteem and

i n c r e a s e i n t e r n a l i t y of l ocus of c o n t r o l .

C a r e e r development t r a i n i n g programs f o r youth should inc lude

s p e c i f i c career mas te ry expe r i ences such as g o a l - s e t t i n g and

moni tor ing a c t i v i t i e s i n such a way t h a t t h e y enhance self-

esteem and p e r c e p t i o n s of s e l f - e f f i c a c y , and i n c r e a s e i n t e r n a l

l o c u s of c o n t r o l -- t h r e e v a r i a b l e s t h a t , from re sea rch , appear

t o a f f e c t career behav io r s .

Hypotheses

The t r a i n i n g program des igned f o r t h i s s tudy r e s p e c t s t h e above

r e s e a r c h and is des igned t o u t i l i z e mastery e x p e r i e ~ c e s ,

model l ing, s u b j e c t i v e feedback, group d i s c u s s i o n , a c t i v e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and ro le -p lay . The t r a i n i n g program i s comprised

of t w o p a r t s : (1) human r e l a t i o n s t r a i n i n g , a l s o known a s peer

c o u n s e l l i n g s k i l l s and (2) career development assessment and

t h e o r y . Each s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s a l l e lements from t h e above

recommended l ist . Therefore , it is expec ted t h a t t r ea tmen t

subjects w i l l have h i g h e r esteem and career s e l f - e f f i c a c y , and

he igh tened i n t e r n a l l o c u s of c o n t r o l a f t e r t r a i n i n g .

SEARCE BEHAVIORS

A s discussed previously, se l f knowledge i s an important variable

i n the process of career development. I n addition, how, where

and when an individual decides t o work depends upon the

information he gathers about d i f fe rent careers. The qual i ty of

information i s dependent upon the needs of the individual . The

exploration stage of career devel~pment most commonly a t t r ibu ted

t o youth i s characterized by an individual examining a number of

ranges and options of careers without becoming specif ied. I n

terms of the dynamics of implementing se l f concept through work,

the youth m u s t self-assess and gather information about

potent ia l ly su i tab le occupations and then synthesize the

information (Bloch, 1989) .

People serve as occupational ro le models from whish youth can

leaxn. McCormac (1989) and Rich (1579) both concluded t h a t

d i r e c t and personal contact has been ranked a s the most

important learning source of occupational knowledge. Information

and job interviews a re perhaps the primary information sources

w i t h which youth can t e s t r e a l i t y against t h e i r assumptions.

Many high schools organize career f a i r s e x p l i c i t l y f o r t h i s

purpose.

Personal contact helps develop a network of people which can be

used t o explore fur ther o r t o find jobs. Networking is one of

the best ways t o tap i n to the hidden market (Bloch, 1989), and

i s a method of exploration most counsellors strongly suggest

t h e i r c l i e n t s use. Chapman an6 Katz (1983) and McCormac (1989)

reported tha t students use many sources outside of t h e i r

families and schools t o develop networks, but the l i s t is

incomplete. There ex i s t many immediate sources of information

which a r e readi ly avai lable: family, school counsellors,

teachers, people offer ing employment opportunities and people

w i t h i r i t he f i e l d can a l l be used t o develop and f a c i l i t a t e the

networking process.

Career development interventions designed t o help youth develop

t h e i r careers should include some t ra in ing component of

e f fec t ive information search and network s t r a t e g i e s . Students

should be encouraged t o use more usual sources ( e . g . employment

agencies) , but a l so those who a re close a t hand and reasonably

avai lable .

Hypotheses

The t r a in ing intervention designed for t h i s study provides

subject t r a inees with the prac t ica l reasons fo r using family,

teachers, counsellors, people i n the f i e l d and people offer ing

employment opportunit ies as network members. It a l s o provides

them with some in-class and prac t ica l experience t o begin t o

bui ld and use t h e network. I t i s expected tha t a f t e r

experiencing success with t h i s method, subjects w i l l intend t o

continue t o t a l k with these people i n the fucuure. Therefore,

a d d i t i o n a l hypotheses of t h i s s t u d y are t h a t expe r imen ta l

s u b j e c t s w i l l bo th t a l k and i n t e n d t o t a l k t o fami ly , t e a c h e r s ,

c o u n s e l l o r s , people i n t h e f i e ld and people o f f e r i n g employment

o p p o r t u n i t i e s moreso t h a n c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s .

EVALUATING TRAINING INTERVENTIONS:

The ideal c a r e e r development t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s d e s c r i b e d

above o u t l i n e d e s i r a b l e effects i n t e r v e n t i o n s may have upon

t r a i n e e s . D e s i r a b l e t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s may t a k e many forms, and

are dependent upon t r a i n i n g o b j e c t i v e s . A s sugges t ed above, t h e

t r a i n i n g program des igned f o r t h i s s t u d y i n t e n d s t o affect b o t h

a t t i t u d e s and behav io r s impor tan t i n t h e p r o c e s s o f career

development. A d d i t i o n a l t y p e s of a n a l y s i s can be drawn from

K i r k p a t r i c k ' s (1959;1960) work which l a y s a s t r o n g t h e o r e t i c a l

founda t ion f o r t h e examination of t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s .

K i r k p a t r i c k s u g g e s t s t h a t t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s can be e v a l u a t e d on

f o u r l e v e l s : r e a c t i o n , l e a r n i n g , behavior and r e s u l t s . Reac t ion

c r i t e r i a , i n t h e i r s i m p l e s t form, are how w e l l t r a i n e e s / s u b j e c t s

l i k e d t h e t r a i n i n g program. Liking, however, i m p l i e s whether

e x p e c t a t i o n s and needs w e r e m e t , i f s u b j e c t s e n j ~ y e d t h e

l e a r n i n g p roces s , and, among o t h e r t h i n g s , i f p a r t i c i p a n t s f e l t

as though t h e program was a worthwhile unde r t ak ing . Learning

cri teria reflect how w e l l p a r t i c i p a n t s unde r s t and and are able

t o recall b a s i s concepts , p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s t h e t r a i n i n g

program covered. Behavior i s d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g how w e l l

p a r t i c i p a n t s are able t o t r a n s f e r t h e expe r i ence of t h e t r a i n i n g

program i n t o a c t i o n .

Measuring r e a c t i o n cr i ter ia may t a k e many forms. Some r e a c t i o n

measurements may be a s s imple as v e r b a l d e b r i e f i n g , o r may

i n c l u d e p e n c i l and paper q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o r essay- type open ended

response q u e s t i o n s (K i rkpa t r i ck , 1 9 5 9 ) . React ion measures may

b reak down " t o t a l l i k i n g " of t h e program i n t o how w e l l

p a r t i c i p a n t s l i k e d t h e c o n t e n t , t r a i n e r , methods used, and

t r a i n i n g environment (Wexley and Latham, 1981) o r even whether

p r e - t r a i n i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e program a r e met. However,

f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n s t o a t r a i n i n g program do no t gua ran tee t h a t

p a r t i c i p a n t s have l e a r n e d o r t h a t t h e behavior of t h e t r a i n e e s

h a s changed as a r e s u l t of t h e program (Wexley and Latham,

1981) .

Measuring r e a c t i o n s i s impor tan t f o r two r easons . F i r s t ,

fa-zorable r e a c t i o n s are l i k e l y t o enhance t r a i n e e mot iva t ion t o

l e a r n . That is , t r a i n e e s are more l i k e l y t o be mot iva ted t o

l e a r n material wben t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e program Is u s e f u l and

t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g expe r i ence i s p o s i t i v e (Wexley and Latham,

1981) . The second r ea son i s t h a t r e a c t i o n s i n some groups may be

d i f f e r e n t t h a n others. It may be u s e f u l t o examine r e a c t i o n

d i f f e r e n c e s i n l i g h t o f t h e t y p e of t r a i n i n g group ( f o r example,

youth vs non-youth) .The a n a l y s i s o f r e a c t i o n c r i te r ia t h e r e f o r e

p e r m i t e v a l u a t o r s t o m o r e c l o s e l y examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between group factors, and outcome v a r i a b l e s .

Learning measurements u s u a l l y i nc lude paper and p e n c i l tes ts bu t

may a l s o be performance-based (Ki rkpa t r i ck , 1 9 5 9 ) . Ana lys i s of

tes t r e s u l t s a r e on ly u s e f u l if t h e tes ts a r e based on the

program's l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s (Wexley and Latham, 1981) . Therefore , b e f o r e des ign ing l e a r n i n g assessment i n s t rumen t s , a

thorough assessment o f t h e l e a r n i n g c r i t e r i a must be made.

There i s a b i g d i f f e r e n c e between knowing p r i n c i p l e s t a u g h t i n a

t r a i n i n g program and a c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r r i n g t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s i n t o

behavior (K i rkpa t r i ck , 1960) . One o b j e c t i v e o f career

development programs may be t o encourage a c t i v e involvement i n

c a r e e r e x p l o r a t i o n and e s t a b l i s h m e n t . A s mentioned i n t h e

p rev ious s e c t i o n , s p e c i f i c e x p e c t a t i o n s of b e h a v i o r a l changes

have a l r e a d y been o u t l i n e d .

The f o u r t h and f i n a l l e v e l of a n a l y s i s i s " r e s u l t s " : t h e long

t e r m e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g . P r i o r t o deve lop ing o r a s s e s s i n g t h e

r e s u l t s of an i n t e r v e n t i o n , one must d e f i n e t h e expec t ed

outcomes i n d i c a t i v e of "successw i n t h e program. For t h e

t r a i n i n g program cons ide red i n t h i s s tudy , t h e o b j e c t i v e s would

be t o measure s o m e c o n s t r u c t t h a t i s i n d i c a t i v e o f long-term

career msuccess" . However, f o r two reasons , t h i s cannot be

done: (1) t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f career wsucces sw i s e x c e s s i v e l y

pe r son - spec i f i c and (2) t h e s t u d y cannot accommodate t h e t i m e

r e q u i r e d f o r long-term assessment . Therefore , r e s u l t s o f t h e

i n t e r v e n t i o n w i l l no t be a s s e s s e d .

K i r k p a t r i c k ' s framework f o r e v a l u a t i n g t r a i n i n g programs on f o u r

l e v e l s p e r m i t s t h e t r a i n i n g e v a l u a t o r t o g a i n a b e t t e r

unde r s t and ing of how t h e t r a i n i n g program a f f e c t s important

human dimensions . Understanding t r a i n e e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e program

may e n a b l e t h e e v a l u a t o r t o unders tand t h e a t t i t u d e s t r a i n e e s

have toward t h e program (and, as K i r k p a t r i c k sugges t s , a t t i t u d e s

may affect l e a r n i n g ) . Learning e v a l u a t i o n , a s measured by

be fo re -and-a f t e r - t e s t s , w i l l s i g n i f y t h e degree t o which

t r a i n e e s have absorbed program l e s s o n s , bu t n o t t h e e x t e n t t o

which t h e y a c t u a l l y put l e a r n i n g i n t o p r a c t i c e . Therefore , t o

examine thoroughly t h e e f f e c t s of l e a r n i n g , t h e a s t u t e e v a l u a t o r

must examine b e h a v i o r a l changes a r i s i n g from t h e program by

a s s e s s i n g impor tan t and r e l a t e d behavior b e f o r e and a f t e r

t r a i n i n g .

Hypotheses

K i r k p a t r i c k ' s t ~ o r k o u t l i n e s f o u r l e ~ ~ e l s of a n a l y s i s wi th which

a n e v a l u a t i o n can examine t h e e f f e c t s of a t r a i n i n g program. As

mentioned, t r a i n i n g r e s u l t s cannot be examined because of t i m e

l i m i t a t i o n s , and b e h a v i o r a l outcomes have a l r e a d y been d i scussed

i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . Two l e v e l s of a n a l y s i s remain t o be

examined.

It is t h e d e s i r e of t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g program

m e e t or exceed the e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . Thus, when

comparing expec ta t ions t o r e a c t i o n s t o t h e program, it i s

expected t h a t t h e two s h a l l meet. That is, s u b j e c t s w i l l

complete a f i v e po in t L i k e r t s c a l e ques t ionna i re a s s e s s i n g t h e i r

expec ta t ions of t h e program. The same a s p e c t s w i l l be evalua ted

on two pos t t e s t s . The scores of t h e p r e t e s t and t h e p o s t t e s t s

w i l l be s i m i l a r i f expecta t ions have been met.

In add i t ion , s u b j e c t s a r e being taught p e r t i n e n t c a r e e r theory

t o t h e development of exp lo ra t ion and d e c i s i o c making schemas.

Some of t h e theory taught i s included on a ten-quest ion q u i z .

I t i s expected t h a t t h e experimental group w i l l s c o r e

considerably h igher than t h e c o n t r o l group on t h e qu iz scores on

pos t t e s t s , but should score approximately t h e same as t h e

c o n t r o l group p r i o r t o any t r a i n i n g .

SUMMARY :

The previous s e c t i o n s have had a number of purposes: ( a ) t o

e s t a b l i s h from empi r i ca l r e sea rch which a t t i t u d e s enhance c a r e e r

development behaviors and t r a i n i n g methods which a f f e c t t h e s e

a t t i t u d e s , (b) t o determine which behaviors a r e most important

i n c a r e e r exp lo ra t ion and information ga ther ing , ( c ) t o i d e n t i f y

appropr ia t e methods of t r a i n i n g evalua t ion , and, (dl t o

e s t a b l i s h hypotheses f o r t h e t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h i s

s tudy. More succ inc t ly , t h e i n t e n t has been t o d e s c r i b e t h e

f e a t u r e s of a career t r a i n i n g program which a r e l i k e l y t o

enhance pe r sona l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and behaviors of p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

to identify an appropriate means of evaluating the training

program, and to establish specific hypotheses for the training

intervention of this study.

Regarding the first objective, it has been demonstrated that

esteem and self-knowledge are inportant mediating attitudes in

career implementation, and that self-assessment is a fundamental

first step in the process cf deciding upon a career. From

empirical studies of youth and career development, it was found

that career decision-making, information-gathering and

exploration behaviors are in part mediated by locus of contsol,

self-esteem and perceived self-efficacy. In addition, better

decision-making and increased information-gathering activity are

associated with higher esteem, self-efficacy and internal locus

of control. It was also found that some career preparatory

behaviors, such as achievement in school, are also mediated by

these variables. In short, personal psycho-social

characteristics can potentially have profound effectz upon one's

career development.

In addition, some tentative conclusions have been drawn about

the characteristics of career development programs effective in

fostering positive career development attitudes. The primary

characteristics of programs which enhance self-esteem and

internal locus of control are (a) active participation, and (b)

subjective personality feedback. In addition, if programs are

to enhance personal efficacy, they should certainly include

m a s t e r y e x p e r i e n c e s , and t r a i n i n g s h o u l d be done by e f f e c t i v e

models .

With r e g a r d s t o t h e second o b j e c t i v e , it w a s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t a

h o s t o f s o u r c e s e x i s t for career i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g , b u t t h a t

one of t h e b e s t s o u r c e s i s p e o p l e . Many s o u r c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e ,

b u t you th i n c a r e e r development programs s h o u l d u s e t h o s e which

are m o s t e a s y t o a c c e s s t o d e v e l o p t h e i r n e t w o r k s . These s o u r c e s

i n c l u d e f a m i l y , t e a c h e r s , c o u n s e l o r s , p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d , a n d

p e o p l e o f f e r i n g employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

T h i r d , t r a i n i n g e v a l u a t i o n h a s been b r i e f l y r e v i e w e d . Drawing

f r o m K i r k p a t r i c k , a n d la ter , Wexley a n d Latham, f o u r l e v e l s o f

a n a l y s i s i n t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s , ( r e a c t i o n , l e a r n i n g , r e s u l t s

and b e h a v i o r ) w e r e examined. It was stressed t h a t t h i s " l e v e l s

of a n & l y s i s 8 ' approach t o e v a l u a t i o n be u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e

e v a l u a t o r so s / k e can b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d how t r a i n i n g effects

come t o be r e a l i z e d .

F i n a l l y , i n e a c h o f t h e three p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s t h e t r a i n i n g

program c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been d i s c u s s e d a n d e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s

o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n have been o u t l i n e d . B r i e f l y , t h e y are (1) t o

improve a t t i t u d e s which m e d i a t e career development , ( 2 ) t o

i n c r e a s e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g a c t i v i t y a n d i n t e n t i o n s f r o m f o u r

s o u r c e s , a n d ( 3 ) t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g program s h o u l d m e e t the

e x p e c t a t i o n s of t r a i n e e s a n d t r a i n e e s s h o u l d l e a r n p e r t i n e n t

career development t h e o r y and s t r a t e g y .

The remainder of t h i s paper i s dedicated t o evaluating the

r e s u l t s of a career development t ra ining program for youth. The

t r a in ing program has been designed around the recommendations

made previously. That is, the program is characterized by

ac t ive par t ic ipa t ion , subjective feedback, mastery experiences

and modelling i n a career development context. The t ra in ing

program w i l l be evaluated a t each of the behaviors, learning,

and reactions l eve l s . The program w i l l f i r s t be evaluated by

which e f fec t s it had upon a t t i tudes , then by behavioral

changes. The f i n a l level of evaluation w i l l examining changes

i n subject reactions and learning.

METHODOLOGY

Sample

The subjects f o r t h i s study were th i r ty- f ive Canadian youth from

four high schools and one urban "employment s k i l l s t ra in ingw

f a c i l i t y . These source groups were chosen for a number of

reasons : (1) they provided capt9ve subpopulat ions of youth, and

w e r e r e l a t ive ly easy t o access, ( 2 ) school d i s t r i c t s across

Br i t i sh Columbia a r e becoming increasingly suppnrtive of

t r a i a l n g interventions of t h i s so r t , (3) youth were chosen

because they a r e s imilar (most, i f any, have made and

implemented career decisions before), ( 4 ) counsellor o r

coordinator support was avai lable a t each of the s i t e s , and (5 )

r e l a t i v e cu l tura l , social , and ethnic homogeneity was higheuk

among schoo l s i n t h e F r a s e r Val ley . In b r i e f , t h e t r a i n i n g

program and s t u d y o b j e c t i v e s r e q u i r e d i n t e r m i n g l i n g and

o f f s e t t i n g t h e requirements o f homogeneity, access, suppor t ,

a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n and need, and s t c d e n t i n t e r e s t .

S u b j e c t s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c a r e e r development t r a i n i n g

program were s e l f s e l e c t e d a t a l l si tes. P a r t i c i p a n t s a t each of

t h e high schoo l s w e r e aged 15 t o 18, and a t t h e urban si te, aged

19 t o 25. Only t h r e e s u b j e c t s i n t h e e n t i r e s t u d y r e p r e s e n t e d

Canada's v i s i b l e m i n o r i t i e s .

Before t r a i n i n g began, s u b j e c t s w e r e informed t h a t t h e y would be

asked t o f i l l o u t t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h r e e t i m e s : once on

t h e f i r s t day of t r a i n i n g , a second t ime on t h e las t day of

t r a i n i n g , and, f i n a l l y , a g a i n one month a f t e r t r a i n i n g w a s

f i n i s h e d . S u b j e c t s completed t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a t t h e same

t i m e , urider c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n . D a t a w a s missed when s u b j e c t s

w e r e unable t o a t t e n d class on t e s t i n g dsys .

O f t h e f i v e c o n t r o l groups, f o u r were s e l e c t e d randomly from

schoo l popu la t ions . Due t o t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s , the f i f t h c o n t r o l

group w a s s e l e c t e d from compulsory grade e l e v e n c o u r s e classes.

The selected class w s s i n Eng l i sh . E t h n i c composi t ion and s e x

r a t io i n t h i s c o n t r o l group w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e expe r imen ta l

group for t h a t s i te . A l l c o n t r o l group s u b j e c t s completed t h e

same q u e s t i o n n a i r e s as t h e e x p e r i ~ e n t a l group a t t h e same t i m e

i n t e r v a l s .

The drawing area for the nigh schools was suburban/rural. The

schools ' communities are largely supported by light industrial,

commercial, and service industries. Working residents are

comprised of those commute to other areas, others who work on

farms and in agriculture, and some who work within-district.

Measures :

Thz i n s t rumen t s chosen f o r t h i s s t u d y a r e as f o l l o w s . Copies of

each a r e i n Appendtx A .

2. Esteem. As used by Morris Rosenberg, 1979 . The scale

as used by Rosenberg and r e p l i c a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y reflects l a c k

of self-esteem; that is, t h e l o w e r t h e t o t a l s c o r e , t h e h i g h e r

se l f -es teem i s said t o be.The number of i t e m s the scales i s t e n .

2. LpCus of C o a L ~ - o l S c a l e . Two s u b s z a l e s of i n t e r n a l / e x t e r n a l

l o c u s of c o n t r o l scales w e r e used: Kei th , Pottebaum and

Ebe rha r t (1986) and components o f R o t t e r (1966) . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e

R o t t e r s c a l e u sed p a i r e d comparison t o de te rmine

i n t e r n a l / e x t e r n a l l o c u s . I n t h i s s tudy , randomly selected

q u e s t i o n s were selected from t h e o r i g i n a l scale and answered

w i t h f i ve -po in t L i k e r t scale response . Lower scores r e f l e c t

h i g h e r i n t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l .

3 - Gaa=er Deve-Quiz. A t e n q u e s t i o n t r u e f f a l s e scale w a s

d e v e h p e d and used t o assess s u b j e c t ' s knowledge of career

development t h e o r y a t each o f t h e t e s t i n g t i m e s .

4 - Career Exr>lorat ion B e h a v i o r s / I n t ~ n t i o n s Scalps, A C h i r t e e n

q u e s t i o n ins t rument rirs des igned and used t o assess a number o f

b e h a v i o r s and i n t e n t i o n s i n d i c a t i v e of career e x p l o r a t i o n .

Wssessments i n c l u d e (a) career d e c i s i o n (yes /no) , (b) i n t e r e s t

i n making career d e c i s i o n , (c) assessment of e x p l o r a t i o n

behav io r s i n t e r m s of a s k i n g p a r e n t s , f r i e n d s ,

c o u n s e l l o r s / t e a c ~ e r s , o r people i n t h e f i e l d about t h e i r

occupa t ions , and, (d) i n t e n t i o n s t o a s k p a r e n t s , f r i e n d s ,

c o u n s e l l o r s / t e a c h e r o r people i n t h e f i e l d about t h e i r

occupa t ions .

5. wScale. A t e n i t e m q u e s t i o n n a i r e was developed

and used t o assess f i r s C , which e x p e c t a t i o n s s u b j e c t s had be fo re

t r a i n i n g began, and second, whether t h o s e e x p e c t a t i o n s were met.

6. Qreer Devel-nt Se3 f - E f f i c a c y Scale. des igned by Taylor

and Betz (1987). Higher s c o r e s on t h e s c a l e r e f l e c t h ighe r

p e r c e i v e d career s e l f - e f f i c a c y .

P r i o r t o any data a n a l y s i s , r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s were

c a l c u l a t e d f o r the summative psycho-soc ia l i n s t r u m e n t s .

P r e l i m i n a r y assessment r e s u l t e d i n t h e fo l lowing Chronbach's

a l p h a estinates :

Ins t rument Chronbach's Alpha

E s t e e m (Rosenberg) -850 Locus of Con t ro l

( R o t t e r , K e i t h et a l l - 3 3 1 C a r e e r Se l f -E f f i cacy

(Taylor and Setz) - 9 3 4

The low r e l i a b i l i t y measure of the Locus of Con t ro l ins t rument

was unacceptab le , t h e r e f c r e factor a n a l y s i s ( p r i n c i p l e

component) w a s used t o determine those ques t ions which loaded

heav i ly on s e p a r a t e f a c t o r s . From t h i s a n a l y s i s , f i v e of t h e t e n

ques t ions loaded upon a f a c t o r l a b e l l e d a s "dec is ive , p roac t ive ,

and s e l f - d r i v e n ' . This s c a l e r e s u l t e d i n an alpha of - 5 9 0 and

has been used a s t h e su r roga te locus of c o n t r o l s c a l e f o r t h e

purposes of t h i s s tudy. However, even with t h e improved measure,

one would not expect much change t o be d e t e c t e d with low

r e l i a b l i t l y .

Procedure . . al Tralnlna Intervention: The f i r s t two t r a i n i n g groups began

t r a i n i n g i n t h e f a l l of 1990. In r e c r u i t i n g p o t e n t i a l

p a r t i c i p a n t s , s t u d e n t s w e r e s o l i c i t e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and

t eachers / counse l lo r s w e r e asked t o recommend s u b j e c t s who, i n

t h e i r opinion, would a c t as good peer c a r e e r c o u n s e l l o r s .

Sub jec t s were s e l e c t e d by an in terv iew. This method of s e l e c t i o n

w a s chosen because it was thought t h a t each candida te needed t o

demonstrate s t r o n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s and a d e s i r e t o h e l p

o t h e r s if they w e r e t o become e f f e c t i v e pee r counse l lo r s . This

same procedure was r e p l i c a t e d a t a l l s i t e s . Three t r a i n i n g

groups completed t r a i n i n g between January and A p r i l .

Treatment of s u b j e c t s a t each of t h e si tes w a s t h e same. For

purposes of t h e study a one-hundred-twenty page manual was

prepared and w r i t t e n f o r s t u d e n t s t o use and work through, and

t h e t r a i n e r c o n s i s t e n t l y used t h i s same t r a i n i n g program.

T r a i n i n g c o n s i s t e d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y - f o u r h o u r s o f

classroom t r a i n i n g a n d a o n M a y r e t r e a t upon c o m p l e t i o n .

Approximate ly t h e f i r s t t w e n t y h o u r s of t h e t r a i n i n g program .>- -

w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o t e a c h i n g p e e r c o u n s e l l i n g s k i l l s , o t h e r w i s e

known as human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s . S t u d e n t s w e r e g i v e n i n - c l a s s

m a s t e r y e x p e r i e n c e s a n d r o l e - p l a y s , which w e r e d i s c u s s e d i n

s m a l l g r o u p s . The t r a i n e r mode l l ed e f f e c t i v e v o c a t i o n a l

behaviors ( d i s p l a y e d p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , p e r m i t t e d c l o s e

i n t e r a c t i o n , spoke a n d p r e s e n t e d c l e a r l y , was on-time and n o t -

a b s e n t ) as w e l l as m o d e l l i n g t h e human r e l a t i o n b e h a v i o r s t h e

t r a i n e e s w e r e l e a r n i n g ( l i s t e n i n g , f a c i l i t a t i o n , empathy,

s u p p o r t , q u e s t i o n i n g , d i s c l o s u r e , e t c . ) . I n s h o r t , s u b j e c t s were

a s s i g n e d m a s t e r y e x p e r i e n c e s , worked i n g r o u p s , had s m a l l g roup

d i s c u s s i o n and feedback, w e r e model led , and had o p p o r t u n i t y t o

l e a r n a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s and t h e r e f o r e , p e r f o r m s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t .

T h e r emainder of t h e program was d e d i c a t e d t o t e a c h i n g s u b j e c t s

career development basics and a s s e s s m e n t t e c h n i q u e s . A s p e e r

c o u n s e l l o r t r a i n e e s , t h e y w e r e reminded t h a t t h e second h a l f o f

the c o u r s e had two p u r p o s e s : f i rs t and fo remos t , t o h e l p them i n

their own career development , a n d second, t o t r a i n them t o h e l p

others i n the i r career development . S u b j e c t s a c t i v e l y

participated i n self a s s e s s m e n t , by u s i n g Hol land codes t o

e x p l o r e a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d c o m p l e t i n g My V o c a t i o n a l S i t u a t i o n t o

assess t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , b a r r i e r s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n

needs. In a d d i t i o n , s u b j e c t s b r a i n s t o r m e d ways t o r e a c h their

career goals. Subjects were taught theory which s t ressed t h a t

career exploration i s a healthy and necessary stage i n career

development (Super, 1957 ) . To complement exploration, subjects

were a l so taught t a c t i c s and s t r a t eg ies f o r enhancing career

exploration ( fo r example, information interviewing, volunteer

work, and summer/part-time employment). Barr iers and

f a c i l i t a t o r s t o career development were discussed i n each group,

t h u s enabling subjects t o gain support from others . Subjects

were a l so given an assignment which required them t o ac t ive ly

explore t h e i r careers. A s such, the second half of the program

provided subjects w i t h more opportunity t o experience mastery

experiences, t o be provided with e f fec t ive models, t o receive

feedback and support, t o gain from the experience and support of

others, and t o make t h e i r own choices, a l l spec i f i ca l ly w i t h i n a

career development context.

The t ra ining program was conducted with student youth who were

t o become peer counsellors. A l l t ra inees par t ic ipa ted i n a l l

sessions of the t r a in ing intervention, t o avoid d i f f e r e n t i a l

treatment of subjects . Peer counsellors were t ra ined only t o ac t

a s peer counsellors, not t o become t r a i n e r s . A l l subjects

received the same t ra in ing .

b l J k s i g ~ : T h i s s tudy's design included the se l f -selection of

experimental subjects, a procedure chosen f o r two reasons: (1)

randomly assigned subjects were thought have a higher l ikelihood

of extreme a t t r i t i o n than self-selected subjects, and; ( 2 )

coopera t ing schools agreed t o p a r t i c i p a t e i f t h e t r a i n i n g

program study would provide them with competent peer c a r e e r

counse l lo r s a f t e r completion. A s a r e s u l t , i n t e r e s t e d , committed

and e n t h u s i a s t i c p a r t i c i p a n t s had t o be r e c r u i t e d and s e l e c t e d

if t h e pee r counse l l ing program was t o enjoy any success .

S e l f - s e l e c t i o n as t h e assignment procedure i n an experimental

s tudy has obvious l i m i t a t i o n s . The a n a l y t i c a l procedure fo r d a t a

a n a l y s i s i s MANOVA, which r e q u i r e s t h e assumption of equal

covariances between groups of s u b j e c t s . I n t h i s s tudy, t h i s

assumption may no t be v a l i d because, by design, s u b j e c t s a r e

d i f f e r e n t between t h e c o n t r o l and experimental groups.

Control s u b j e c t s were chosen from each s i t e f o r two reasons .

F i r s t , having a c o n t r o l group a t each s i te was thought t o

ba lance t h e combined c o n t r o l group with a composition of between

school d i f f e r e n c e s i n e t h n i c i t y and h i s t o r y . In r e t r o s p e c t , t h i s

may have not been necessary however, because t h e composition of

each group i n t e r m s of e t h n i c i t y , sex, and age was q u i t e

s i m i l a r . The a l t e r n a t i v e t o drawing c o n t r o l s from each school

w a s t o draw a l a r g e sample of c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s from a f i n i t e

school popula t ion of one thousand. Doing s o was thought t o

excess ive ly i n c r e a s e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i n t e r a c t i o n between

c o n t r o l 2nd e ~ ~ p e r i r n e n t a l s u b j e c t s . The r e s u l t i s t h a t c o n t r o l

subjects have been combined, but have been drawn from each site,

rather from one s i te .

Only t h r e e o f t h e f i v e groups t r a i n e d a r e used f o r d a t a a n a l y s i s

due t o confounding f a c t o r s . One of t h e f i r s t groups t o be

t r a i n e d had been p r e v i o u s l y exposed t o t h e t r e a t m e n t . Thus t h e

group w a s dropped t o reduce p o t e n t i a l h i s t o r i c a l confounding

f a c t o r s . The second group, an urban group of e a r l y s choo l

l e a v e r s , was omi t t ed from d a t a a n a l y s i s because t h e group

exper ienced a ve ry h igh a t t r i t i o n rate, u n l i k e t h e o t h e r

t r z i n i n g groups. The group began with twelve s u b j e c t s and

f i n i s h e d with o n l y f i v e . This q u i t r a t e n o t o n l y made t h i s group

much smaller t h a n t h e o t h e r s ( t h u s a f f e c t i n g t r a i n e r / s t u d e n t

r a t i o and group i n t e r a c t i o n ) , b u t a l s o t h e h i g h q u i t r a t e made

t h e s e s u b j e c t s ve ry d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s u b j e c t s .

The t h r e e remaining groups w e r e f a i r l y homogeneous i n t e r m s o f

a t t r i t i o n , sex, e t h n i c i t y , and age . Group s i z e varied from

f i f t e e n t o e i g h t , b u t i n t h e case of t h e l a r g e s t group,

a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n e r suppor t w a s used t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e

t r a i n e r / s u b j e c t r a t i o w a s h e l d c o n s t a n t .

c) -: The data used f o r a n a l y s i s w a s comprised o n l y o f

t h o s e s u b j e c t s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n groups from t h e F r a s e r Va l l ey

High Schoois . The c o n t r o l group w a s comprised o f i n d i v i d u a l s

f r o m each of t h e s e s c h o o l s . P r e - t e s t samples o f t h e c o n t r c l and

exper imenta l groups used i n a n a l y s i s are 37 and 35 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The s tat is t ical methods of a n a l y s i s used i n a n a l y s i s began wi th

=OVA of a 2 X 3 f a c t o r i a l de s ign . U n i v a r i a t e and m u l t i v a r i a t e

s t a t i s t i c s were examined t o determine t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of

changes t h a t occurred a c r o s s t ime while c o n t r o l l i n g f o r repeated

measures. Af te r MANOVA, Scheffe t e s t s were used a t each of t h e

t h r e e t e s t l e v e l s f o r each v a r i a b l e t o determine i f d i f f e r e n c e s

e x i s t between t h e scores of t h e experimental and c o n t r o l groups.

F i n a l l y , p a i r e d t - t e s t s were used f o r a s sess ing changes

occurr ing wi th in each of t h e experimental and c o n t r o l groups.

RESULTS

This s e c t i o n examines t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s t u d y ' s t h r e e v a r i a b l e

c a t e g o r i e s : a t t i t u d e s , search behavior and t r a i n i n g eva lua t ion .

MANOVA r e s u l t s are f i r s t examined t o determine which v a r i a b l e

s c o r e s i n each category r e f l e c t s i g n i f i c a n t changes over time

and between t h e c o n t r o l and experimental groups. Following t h i s ,

Scheffe tests a t each of t h e t e s t l e v e l s a r e examined t o

determine t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s between t reatment and

c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s . To confirm within-group changes, pa i red t-

tests a r e examined f o r each va r i ab le1 .

Att i tudes Which M e d i a t e C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t

The hypotheses p resen ted i n previous s e c t i o n s o u t l i n e d t h a t t h e

t r a i n i n g program was expected t o inc rease s u b j e c t s ' self-esteem

Note that the means in Appendix B may not coincide with the means denoted on Scheffe test figures. Sample sizes are not equal accress time within category, and Scheffe testing procedure omits time observations which are not paired at the comparison interval.

and career s e l f - e f f i c a c y and t o he igh ten i n t e r n a l l o c u s of

c o n t r o l . From Table One, t h e r e a d e r can observe that MANOVA

r e s u l t s o f bo th se l f -es teem and s e l f - e f f i c a c y are s i g n i f i c a n t ,

but t h a t l ocus o f c o n t r o l is n o t .

MANOVA R e s u l t s f o r A t t i t u d i n a l V a r i a b l e s

Variable F-Vaiue

S e l f E s t e e m B y Group, Con t ro l

V s Exper imental .12 Over Time 8 . 9 0 *** I n t e r a c t i o n 2.02 **

Locus O f Con t ro l By Group, Con t ro l

V s Exper imental - 0 5 Over T i m e . 7 7 I n t e r a c t i o n .08

Career Se l f -E f f i cacy By Group, Con t ro l

V s Exper imental 1 .16 Over T i m e 4.61*** I n t e r a c t i o n .81

J?st=: The MANOVA r e s u l t s o f esteem i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t

changes o v e r t h e cou r se of t i m e . From F i g u r e One, Sche f f e tests

show t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between c o n t r o l and exper imenta l

groups a t t h e p r e t e s t , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s do no t e x i s t

a t t h e p o s t - t e s t l e v e l s . A t p r e t e s t , t h e exper imenta l group

esteem s c o r e reflects a lower se l f -es teem than t h a t of t h e

c o n t r o l group, b u t becomes h i g h e r a t p o s t - t e s t l e v e l s . Thus,

t h e r e s u l t s of t h e two groups converge a t p o s t t e s t l e v e l s .

Within group t-tests show t h a t t h e exper imenta l group

exper ienced changes between t ime 1 and t ime 2 (p=.004) and t ime

1 and t ime 3 (p=.002) , whereas w i th in c o n t r o l group r e s u l t s over

t i m e do no t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Thus, as seen i n F igu re 1,

t h e s c o r e s o f t h e c o n t r o l and exper imenta l groups converge over

t i m e , w i t h t h e exper imenta l g roup ' s es teem s c o r e s "ca t ch ing up"

w i t h t h o s e of t h e c o n t r o l group.

Convergence of r e s u l t s may be due t o sampling methodology, As

mentioned p r e v i o v s l y , s u b j e c t s i n t h e exper imenta l group were

s e l f - s e l e c t e d . R e s u l t a n t d i s p a r a t e s ta t i s t ics a t t h e p r e t e s t

l e v e l are t o be expec ted . I n essence , t h e p r o c e s s of t r a i n i n g

appea r s t o have have some e f f e c t upon c a u s i n g t h e es teem of

expe r imen ta l s u b j e c t s t o " ca t ch up" wi th t h o s e of t h e i r

classmates.

Figure One Esteem Scores

2.2 2.1

2 -4- control 1.9 1.8 1.7 Scheffe Tests 1.6 Pretest p=.025 1.5 Post One p=.475

pretest post one post two Post Two p=.4025

m e to F i w O w Higher s c o r e s i n d i c a t e Lower se l f -es teem.

lcacv: From Table One, s e l f - e f f i c a c y MANOVA r e s u l t s

show t h a t time has an e f f e c t upon t h e measured s c o r e s . From

Figure Two, Scheffe t e s t s ~f s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e p r e t e s t and

f i r s t pos t t e s t l e v e l s i n d i c a t e t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

e x i s t between t h e groups, but a t t h e t h i r d l e v e l , d i f f e r e n c e s

are d e t e c t a b l e . That is, t h e experimental g roup ' s scores of

s e l f - e f f i c a c y a r e higher than those of t h e c o n t r o l group only

one month a f t e r t r a i n i n g . T- tes ts of wi th in c o n t r o l group

d i f f e r e n c e s show t h a t no s i g c l f i c a n t changes over t i m e e x i s t ,

while those of t h e experimental group do show d i f f e r e n c e s (tl -

t 3 p=.012). The experimental group's mean mean s c o r e i s h igher

than t h e f i r s t by 0 .4 on t n e ten-point s c a l e .

Figure Two Self Efficacy Scores

-E experimental

9.b. control

Scheffe Tests Pretest pz.275 Post One p=.43 Post Two p=.04

pretest post one post two

Search Behaviors and Intentions

In the previous sections, it was outlined t h a t t h i s t r a k i n g

program intended t o influence subjects t o search fo r career

information by way of ta lk ing t o people who are reasonably

accessible: family, teachers, counsellors, people i n the f i e l d

and people offer ing employment opportunit ies. Variable MANOVA

r e s u l t s a r e i n Table Two. A s can be seen from the tab le , the

intervention did not a f fec t e i t h e r the number of times or

intent ions t o t a l k family o r people offering employment

opportunit ies, but did a f fec t tne number of times and intentions

t o t a l k t o the other three categories of sources.

or About Ca-: Responses t o

t h i s v a r i a b l e e s t i m a t e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of s u b j e c t s a c t u a l l y

t a k i n g a c t i o n t o t a l k t o c o u n s e l l o r s about c a r e e r s i f t h e y

i n t e n d t o do so. U n i v a r i a t e r e s u l t s o f t h e MANOVA show t h a t

t i m e has an e f f e c t upon s c o r e s . A s seen i n F igu re Three,

p r e t e s t Sche f f e s c o r e s show no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between

c o n t r o l and exper imenta l groups, b u t t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between groups a t t h e f irst and second p o s t

test l e v e l s . Within group p a i r e d t - t e s t s conf i rm t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s : c o n t r o l group s u b j e c t s s c o r e s do n o t change whi le

exper imenta l group s c o r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y change from t l - t 2 and

t l - t 3 (p=.000; p=.006) .

Figure Three Intentions to Talk to Counsellors

+ control I Scheffe Tests

Pretest p=.275 Post One p=.032 Post Two p=.029

ZAamLXm Manova R e s u l t s o f Search Behaviors and I n t e n t i o n s

Source o f Source of Informat ion V a r i a t i o n

I n t e n t i o n s t o Ta lk t o Family Between Groups Over Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

T i m e s Talked t o Family Eetween Groups Over Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

e l 3 o r s /Teache r s I n t e n t i o n s t o Ta lk t o Counse l lo rs

Between Groups Over T i m e , Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

T i m e s Talked t o Counse l lo r s Between Groups Over Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

P p d I n t e n t i o n s t o Ta lk t o People i n F i e l d

Between Groups Over T ime , Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

T i m e s Talked t o People i n F i e l d Between Groups Over Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

P e o w 1 e O f f e r i n 9 Emlovment O ~ w o r t u n l t l e s . . I n t e n t i o n s t o Ta lk t o People O f f e r i n g Work

Between Groups Over Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

Times Ta lked To People 3 f f e r i n g Work Between Groups O v e r Time, Within Group I n t e r a c t i o n

s About C-: The responses t o t h i s

variable ref lec t t h e number of times subjects have talked t o

counsellors or teachers about careers within the l a s t month.

MANOVA r e s u l t s show tha t time and interaction of group and time

are s ignif icant . From Figure Four, pretest Scheffe t e s t s show

that t h e scores of the two groups are marginally d i f ferent .

F i r s t post t e s t scores re f lec t large differences between the

experimental and control group. A t t h i s level, the score of the

experimental group are more than double that of the control

group. A t the th i rd post t e s t however, the resu l t s converge,

with the control group's score taking a leap, bringing the

Scheffe score t o be non-significant. I n terms of changes, it

appears a s though the two groups are roughly the same a t

pretest , the experimental group scores surge upward a t the f i r s t

post t e s t level, and the control group scores catch up a t t h e

second post test test ing.

Figure Four Times Talked To Counsellor in Last Month

B I

Pretest Post One Post Two

-& Experimental

-d-- Control

Scheffe Tests Pretest: p.027

Post One p=.00025 Post Two p.215

I n t a t i o n s t o Talk t o People i n the F i e l d U o u t C a r e e r s . MANOVA

u n i v a r i a t e statistics demonstrate t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t reatment

upon v a r i a b l e outcomes i s s i g n i f i c a n t (p=.04, ad jus ted by

e p s i l o n ) . P r e t e s t and second pos t test Scheffe t e s t s show t h a t

t h e s c o r e s are no t d i f f e r e n t , as seen i n Figure Five, but t h a t

t h e y are marginal ly d i f f e r e n t a t t h e f i r s t pos t test l e v e l

(p=.07 o n e - t a i l e d ) . Although c o n t r o l sco res change over t ime,

changes were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . A s expected, p a i r e d t - t e s t s of

changes wi th in t h e experimental group a r e s i g n i f i c a n t between t l

and t 2 and t l and t 3 (p=.000; p=.008). A s seen i n Figure Five,

t h e t h i r d experimental t e s t sco re drops s l i g h t l y from t h e second

score while t h e c o n t r o l group s c o r e remains t h e same. The F-

va lue is not s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e t h i r d t e s t l e v e l .

Figure Five Intentions to Tafk to People In the Field

pretest post one post two

experimental

4- control

Scheffe Tests Pretest p=.245 Post One p=.07 Post TWO p=. 1 6

t h i s variable estimates the number of times subjects have talked

t o people i n the f i e ld about careers. It re f lec t s the number of

out-of-school personal interviews conducted. Univariate

s t a t i s t i c s show that treatment has a significant effect upon

variable outcome. Pretest Scheffe t e s t s from Figure S i x indicate

group scores are the same a t pretest and f i r s t post t e s t , but

that th i rd post t e s t scores are marginally d i f ferent . Control

group paired t - t es t s are not significant, but those of the

experimental group are ( t l - t 2 p=.04).

Figure Six Times Talked to People In the Field

3 2.8 experimental 2.6 2.4 control 2.2

2 1.8 1.6

I Scheffe Tests

1.4 Pretest p=.41 1.2 Post One p=.415

1 t I Post TWO p=. 1 0

pretest post one post two

Reactions and Learning:

as mentioned i n previous sections, it was expected tha t subjects

exposed t o treatinent would have the i r expectations met and that

they would learn career theory and strategy from the t raining

program. MANOVA resul ts of Quiz scores demonstrate s ignif icant

changes over t i m e , between g roups and i n t e r a c t i v e l y . S c h e f f e

tests f r o m F i g u r e Seven d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p r e t e s t s c o r e s do n o t

d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y , b u t t h a t between g roup s c o r e s d i v e r g e

s i g n i f i c a n t l y o v e r t i m e . T-tests of t h e c o n t r o l g roup show no

s i g n i f i c a n t changes o v e r t i m e . Wi th in e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup p a i r e d

t-tests are a l l s i g n i f i c a n t [ t l - t 2 p=.000; t l - t 3 p= ,000 ; t2

- t 3 p=.05 ( o n e - t a i l e d ) ] . The r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , d i v e r g e

(Figure Seven) w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup showing h i g h e r s c o r e s

t h a n t h o s e of t h e c o n t r o l g roup .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o r e a c t i o n s measures , t-tests of s i g n i f i c a n c e

w i t h i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup i n d i c a t e t h a t i n s u b s t a n t i a l

d i f f e r e n c e s be tween scores o v e r t i m e e x i s t . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t

s u b j e c t s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r a i n i n g program

h a d t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e t .

TABLE THREE

MANOVA R e s u l t s of Ouiz S c o r e s

S o u r c e of V a r i a t i o n

Between Groups - 6 8 W i t h i n Group, O v e r T i m e .83 I n t e r a c t i o n 6 . 9 9 * * *

********************************************

Figure Seven Quiz Scores

control

Scheffe Tests Pretest p=.47

Post One p=.00005 . . Post Two p=.00015 pretest post one post two

Further Exploratory Analysis

Small sample s i z e s and miss ing o b s e r v a t i o n s weaken t h e

u n i v a r i a t e tests o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s a r e s u l t , t h e y may no t

adequa te ly reflect t h e changes due t o t r e a t m e n t . Two v a r i a b l e s

which demons t ra te non- s ign i f i can t u n i v a r i a t e s ta t i s t ics , have

r e s u l t s of some i n t e r e s t and w i l l now be examined.

The f i r s t of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s is " i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k t o f ami ly

about careers i n t h e nex t month". MANOVA u n i v a r i a t e s t a t i s t i c s

a r e no t s i g n i f i c a n t , b u t Sche f f e t es t s i n d i c a t e t h a t s c o r e s do

change ove r t i m e . A t t h e p r e t e s t l e v e l , Sche f f e tests i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e scores between groups are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

(exp=4,489, cont=6,154; p= ,02 ) , b u t t h a t t h e y converge a t la ter

test l e v e l s . The exper imenta l group s c o r e s a t t i m e 2 and 3

i n c r e a s e and become s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e c o n t r o l group

(p=.21; p=.64). Within control group t - t e s t s show no change over

time, but those of the experimental group do. Therefore, while

the control group's scores do not change over time, the scores

of the experimental group increase and converge w i t h those of

the control group. T h i s change was not detectable by examining

the univariate s t a t i s t i c s , but fur ther t e s t s indicate tha t the

experimental group experienced greater intentions t o t a l k t o

family about t h e i r careers .

The second var iable of concern i s "times talked t o people

offer ing employment opportunit ies". Univarlate s t a t i s t i c s a re

not s igni f icant and Scheffe t e s t s (Figure Eight) show t h a t , a t

the f i r s t and second t e s t levels , differences between groups are

not remarkable. However, a t the t h i r d tes t ing , differences a re

marginally s igni f icant , w i t h control group scores higher than

those of the experimental group. W i t h i n experimental t - t e s t s

ind ica te tha t no changes over time ex i s t , but t e s t s of the

control group a r e s ign i f i can t . A s seen i n Figure Eight, the

scores of the control group r i s e and exceed those of the

experimental group, thus r e f l ec t ing more career exploration

a c t i v i t y with t h i s one source group.

Figure Eight Times Tdked to People Offering Employment

0.5 0

pretest Post one Post Two

-+ control I Scheffe Tests Pretest p=.28

Post One p=. 1 5 Post TWO p=.078

Three e x p l o r a t o r y v a r i a b l e s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y :

i n t e r e s t i n making a c a r e e r d e c i s i o n , c a r e e r dec idednes s , and

number o f hours p e r week worked. A l l r e s u l t s o f career

dec idedness and i n t e r e s t i n making a c a r e e r d e c i s i o n i n d i c a t e

t h a t s u b j e c t s f rom b o t h g roups expe r i enced no changes o v e r t h e

t e s t i n g p e r i o d s . However, hou r s p e r week worked d i d change.

TABLE FOUR

for H o v s Per Week W m

Source of V a r i a t i o n F-Value

Between Groups .68 Within Group, O v e r T i m e .83 I n t e r a c t i o n 6 . 9 9 ***

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * x * * * * * * * *

*** n<= .

Figure Nine Hours Per Week Worked

14 12 10 8 4- control 6

Scheffe Tests

o :: pretest Pretest p=.22 post one post two

Post One p=. 1 5 Post TWO p=.034

Univar ia te s t a t i s t i c s of hours wcrked i n d i c a t e t h a t

i n t e r a c t i v e l y , group and t i m e have an e f f e c t upon number of

hours worked. I n Figure Nine, p r e t e s t Scheffe t e s t s show no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between experimental and c o n t r o l groups,

but t h e c o n t r o l g roup ' s mean i s s l i g h t l y h igher than t h a t of t h e

experimental group (10 .82 hours v s . 9 . 0 3 hours/wk) . A t t h e f i r s t

p o s t test , t h e Scheffe t e s t r e s u l t i s s t i l l not s i g n i f i c a n t , but

is a t t h e t h i r d t e s t i n g . The experimental group 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n

rate begins lower than t h a t of t h e c o n t r o l group, but inc reases

and remains h igher a t t h e pos t t e s t l e v e l s .

To summarize, t h e above r e s u l t s suggest t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g

program served t o enhance t h e esteem and s e l f - e f f i c a c y of

experimental group s u b j e c t s , but t r a i n i n g d i d not a f f e c t locus

of c o n t r o l . Experimental s u b j e c t s work more hours, know more

about career theory, t a l k t o counse l lo r s and people i n t h e f i e l d

m o r e o f t e n , and i n t e n d t o t a l k t o c o u n s e l l o r s m o r e t h a n non-

p a r t i c i p a n t s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e program m e t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f

e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s . The r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s e v a r i a b l e s c o n f i r m

t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d outcomes o f t h e t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n .

C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , c o n t r o l g roup scores are h i g h e r t h a n

t h o s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup on two v a r i a b l e s : (a) t i m e s

t a l k e d t o p e o p l e i n t h e f i e ld a b o u t c a r e e r s and, (b) t i m e s

t a l k e d t o p e o p l e o f f e r i n g employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s . A l l

v a r i a b l e s n o t ment ioned i n t h i s s e c t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e d

i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s f r o m e a c h o f MANOVA, S c h e f f e , a n d p a i r e d

t - t e s t i n g . I n t h e case of l o c u s of c o n t r o l , however,

i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s may b e due t o low i n s t r u m e n t r e l i a b i l i t y

( a l p h a = . 5 9 ) .

R e s u l t s of t h e q u i z and r e a c t i o n s measurements have i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g how r e s u l t a n t p s y c h o - s o c i a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l

changes come t o e x i s t . Obvious ly , some l e a r n i n g o c c u r r e d , as

r e f l e c t e d by t h e s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p

s c o r e s . "Reac t ions" r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f

t h o s e y o u t h who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e program w e r e m e t . T h e r e f o r e ,

n o t o n l y d i d s t u d e n t s l e a r n something from t h e program, b u t t h e

program also m e t s u b j e c t e x p e c t a t i o n s .

DISCUSSION

The above r e s u l t s indicate tha t the t ra ining has had a posit ive

impact upon t r a inee esteem and self-efficacy, but did not have

an e f f e c t upon locus of control . I n addition, program t ra in ing

expectations were met and the quiz scores r e f l ec t tha t subjects

learned per t inent career development theory and ef fec t ive

s t r a t e g i e s fo r exploration. The following examination of career

exploration behaviors and intentions discussion uncovers the

manifestations of these changes.

Two exploratory var iables were included i n t h i s study: career

choice and i n t e r e s t i n making career choice. The univariate and

Scheffe t e s t s of significance obtained for each of these

var iables indicate t h a t no changes occurred over time i n e i the r

of the control o r experimental groups. T h i s s t a t e may have been

caused by the mixed messages being sent t o subjects. The t r a ine r

encouraged subjects t o explore a s many d i f fe rent careers as

possible before deciding upon a f i e ld , as t o avoid prematurely

c rys ta l iz ing i n par t icu lar area of work. However, i f subjects

had explored t h e i r careers su f f i c i en t ly (as decided upon by

~ r a i n e r s ) , they were encouraged t o concentrate on achieving

t h e i r career goal. Thus, some subjects may have become more

exploratory, l e s s decided and l e s s interested i n making a choice

while others became more decided, l e s s exploratory and more

in te res ted i n making a choice. These e f fec t s may have o f f s e t

each other, thus presenting an image of no s t a t i s t i c a l e f fec t .

A c t u a l b e h a v i o r s of t a l k i n g t o f a m i l y m e m b e r s and i n t e n t i o n s t o

t a l k t o them show t h a t f a m i l y may n o t b e a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f

c a r e e r i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e you th s t u d i e d . Over t h e c o u r s e o f

t r a i n i n g , t h e number o f t i m e s s u b j e c t s of b o t h g r o u p s t a l k e d t o

f a m i l y members a b o u t careers d id n o t change, b u t w i t h i n t h e

c o n t r o l group, i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k t o f a m i l y d i d . T h i s s u g g e s t s

t h a t , a l t h o u g h s u b j e c t s i n t e n d e a t o t a l k t o f a m i l y , t h e y d i d

n o t .

The p r o s p e c t i v e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s are numerous. Q u a l i t a t i v e

d i s c u s s i o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y have

p a r t i c u l a r barriers t o t a l k i n g t o f a m i l y a b o u t careers. Many

s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s would n o t l i s t e n t o t h e i r

c o n c e r n s a b o u t making t h e i r own d e c i s i o n s b u t , r a t h e r , would

impose t h e i r w i s h e s upon t h e i r c h i l d r e n . Fur the rmore , s u b j e c t s

s a i d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s seemed o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t a l k i n g t o

them a b o u t careers when t h e c h i l d ' s c a r e e r goal w a s c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h p a r e n t a l w i s h e s . The r e s i s t a n c e may n o t , therefore, come

f r o m l a c k of desire t o t a l k t o f a m i l y members, b u t r a t h e r from

t h e dynamics of p a r e n t / c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p .

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n may have h a d t h e

e f f e c t o f g i v i n g s u b j e c t o p t i o n s a b o u t where t o l o o k f o r s u p p o r t

a n d i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e i r p r o c e s s of career e x p l o r a t i o n . F o r

example, t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p ' s i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k t o f a m i l y

members a b o u t careers i n c r e a s e d o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f the t r a i n i n g

program, b u t t h o s e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup d i d n o t change. The

e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ' s s c o r e s ref lec t g r e a t e r i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k

t o c o u n s e l l o r s a n d p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d a f t e r t r a i n i n g t h a n t h e

c o n t r o l g r o u p . Thus, t h e emphasis o f s o u r c e s o f c a r e e r

i n f o r m a t i o n may have s h i f t e d f r o m f a m i l y t o p e o p l e who a r e more

knowledgeable, namely c o u n s e l l o r s and p e o p l e working i n t h e

f i e l d .

R e s u l t s from t h e v a r i a b l e s t a l k i n g t o and i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k t o

c o u n s e l l o r s a b o u t careers i n d i c a t e t h a t c o u n s e l l o r s have become

a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f career i n f o r m a t i o n f o r e x p e r i m e n t a l

s u b j e c t s . Over t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t u d y , e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s

t a l k e d t o c o u n s e l l o r s more o f t e n abou t c a r e e r s t h a n d i d t h e i r

classmates, b u t t h e classmates somewhat "caught up" a t t h e t h i r d

t e s t l e v e l a f te r the e x p e r i m e n t a l s c o r e s "settled".

The changes i n t h e c o n t r o l g roup i n d i c a t e t h a t some e x t e r n a l

forces may have been i n effect . The r e s e a r c h e r i s at;are t h a t

c o u r s e p l a n n i n g o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e s t u d y s X w o of t h e t h r e e

sites. Under u s u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n t h e B . C . p u b l i c s c h o o l

sys tem, c o u r s e p l a n n i n g r e q u i r e s a l l Grade 1 0 and I1 s t u d e n t s t o

t a l k t o t h e i r c o u n s e l l o r s a t least once a b o u t t h e i r c a r e e r

g o a l s . The r e a s o n fo r t h i s is so Grade 11 and 1 2 s u b j e c t s can be

c h o s e n tha t best p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s w i t h p r e r e q u i s i t e c o u r s e s . The

n e t d i f f e r e n c e be tween c o n t r o l g roup p o s t tes t one a n d p o s t test

t w o scores i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 5 t i m e s , which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e

t i m e s t a l k e d t o c ~ u n s e l l o r s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t

t h a t a l l s t u d e n t s t a l k t o t h e i r cm-sellor a t least once d u r i n g

c o u r s e p l a n n i n g t i m e .

Zxper imenta l s u b j e c t s i n t e n d t o t a l k t o c o u n s e l l o r s more t h a n do

t h e i r c l a s s m n t e s . While t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s d id

n o t change o v e r t i m e , t h o s e of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s d i d .

So, w h i l e c o n t r o l g r o u p s u b j e c t s may o n l y speak t o c o u n s e l l o r s

when t h e y have t o ( for example, d u r i n g c o u r s e p l a n n i n g ) a n d have

little i n t e n t i o n t o t a l k t o them o u t s i d e of h a v i n g t o d o s o , it

a p p e a r s as though t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s i n t e n d t o t a l k t o

c o u n s e l l o r s on a more r e g u l a r basis.

The t r a i n i n g program encouraged s u b j e c t s t o a c t i v e l y s e e k o u t

and speak w i t h p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r i n g

p u r s u i n g , a s t h e y a r e a n e x c e l l e n t s o u r c e o f career i n f o r m a t i o n .

C o n t r a r y t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s , r e s u l t s show t h a t b o t h q r o u p s

i n c r e a s e d t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n rate a t t h e first p o s t t es t , b u t

t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n d r o p s a t t h e second

p o s t test . Thus, c o n t r o l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s b o t h

i n c r e a s e d t h e number of t i m e s t a l k e d t o p e o p l e i n t h e f i e ld , b u t

t h a t d o i n g so w a s s h o r t l i v e d for t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s . .

Evidence s u g g e s t s one p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e d i f f e r e n c e .

The r e s u l t s f r o m the g a e s t i o n "number o f h o u r s worked" i n d i c a t e

t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l subjects w e r e working m o r e h o u r s t h a n c o n t r o l

s u b j e c t s . T h e r e f o r e , e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s may have h a d less

t i m e t o a c t i v e l y explore i n t h e f o u r weeks a f te r t r a i n i n g .

Furthermore, while the hours worked by experimental subjects

increased, the control subject scores decreased. I n essence,

control subjects had more time t o look for work and probably

more motivation t o do so. So, it may have been that external

forces caused the control group's number of hours worked to

drop, and those subjects t r i e d look for work. Meanwhile,

experimental subjects were working more and did not have to look

for work and therefore t a lk t o people i n the f i e ld .

However, the qual i ty of the resul ts must be considered i n l ight

of the question as posed. The question, as s tated on the

questionnaire, does not carefully define the rationale for

motivating talking t o people in the f i e ld . That is, talking t o

people i n the f i e l d may be for a number of reasons, not just for

looking for work. The above propositions assume that talking to

people i n the f i e l d is precipitated by looking for gainful

employment, which may or may not be the case. Thus, while i t i s

of in te res t t o speculate about the nature of the relationship

between number of hours worked and talking t o people i n the

f ie ld , l i t t l e can be said because the interpretation of t h e

question as posed is uncertain.

Coatrol s-ilbjects talked t o people i n the f i e i d t h e same, i f not

sore than experixtentitl subjects, but t h e i r intentions t o do 30

w e r e not as high as those of the experimental group. While

control subjects did not intend t o t a l k t o people i n t h e field

as much a s experimental subjects, they did so just as often, i f

R G ~ more, The experimental group's higher intention rate, but

lower participation rate implies that experimental subjects may

have had some barriers to actively participating after the

second test level.

A host of barriers may have existed for experimental subjects.

First, as mentioned previously, the number of hours worked

increased over the study for experimental subjects, while hours

worked decreased for controls. Thus, while experimental subjects

may have seen the value in information interviewing with people

in the field, they may have been too busy with paid and

volunteer employment to be able to do so.

A second reason for this may be that experimental subjects knew

that information interviewing is important for their career

development but that talking to people in the field can be put

off. Throughout training, subjects were encouraged to explore

and talk to people ic the field when they felt that doing so was

necessary. However, they were also told that decision making is

a Long process and that it will take them years to come to a

firm decision in one particular field, so they should not wpush"

to come to a firm conclusion in high school. The net result

would be that they would intend to explore with people in the

field, but not have any particular immediate investment in doing

SO.

The th i rd reason for the differences may be that the purpose of

t h e interviews was not the same for control subjects as it was

fo r experimental subjects. A s mentioned previously, the

motivations behind t h e responses t o the question are unclear,

and may even be different for experimental subjects than for

controls. Specifically, experimental subjects were taught that

people i n the field are possibly the most important source of

information available t o them, and proposed that they be used

f ~ r t h e i r resources, not fo r just getting them a job. Control

subjects however, may have interpreted the question i n terms of

looking for work. These interpretat ive differences make

speculation d i f f i c u l t .

The resu l t s of the career exploration intentions and behaviors

variables indicate tha t the program had l i t t l e impact upon

career decidedness. The program did, however, resul t i n more

act ive career exploration w i t h school counsellors and increased

time spent working i n volunteer and paid employment. Other

s ignif icant resu l t s show tha t experimental subjects have higher

intentions t o t a l k t o people i n the f i e l d and counsellors, but

t ha t they have lower intentions than the i r classmates t o speak

with family members about t he i r careers.

The resu l t s confirm the theoret ical propositions presented

earlier. As expected, t h i s t raining program, characterized b y

mastery experiences, act ive participation, small group

discussion, subjective feedback, and modelling did iricrease the

se l f -es teem and s e l f - e f f i c a c y o f exper imenta l s u b j e c t s .

However, no changes i n l ocus o f c o n t r o l were d e t e c t e d .

A number of r ea sons may e x i s t f o r t h e d i s p a r a t e e f f e c t s among

the psycho-socia l v a r i a b l e s , t h e f i r s t be ing i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .

As mentioned p rev ious ly , t h e l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i n s t rumen t had low

r e l i a b i l i t y , whi le t h e o t h e r s had r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y ,

thus a f f e c t i n g t h e measurement's a b i l i t y t o detect c o n s t r u c t

changes. However, one must a l s o cons ide r t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e

~ Z ~ o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n of t r a f n i n g 's a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t t h i s

c o n s t r u c t . I t may be t h a t t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s s i m i l a r t o

t h i s one a r e no t a b l e t o a f f e c t t h i s c o n s t r u c t , and t h a t o t h e r

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be encompassed t o have any a f f e c t upon

l o c u s of c o n t r o l . However, due t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s l o w

r e l i a b i l i t y , conc lus ions cannot be drawn r e g a r d i n g t h e t r a i n i n g

program's effects upon l o c u s o f c o n t r o l .

Changes i n esteem are s i g n i f i c a n t , b u t examinat ion of t h e r e s u l t

i n l i g h t of c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s i s r e q u i r e d . Exper imental s u b j e c t s

exper ienced he igh tened self-esteem a f t e r t r a i n i n g , b u t o n l y t o

t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e r e s u l t s converged w i t h t h e scores o f t h e i r

classmates. That is, t o beg in wi th , expe r imen ta l s u b j e c t s had a

lower se l f -es teem t h a n t h e i r classmates and che t r e a t m e n t o n l y

had t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s i n g scores t o equa l , n o t exceed, the

scores of c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s . Thus, t r a i n i n g he igh tened t h e esteem

of s u b j e c t s which had a l o w e r self-esteem t o beg in wi th .

LIMITATIONS

The sampling methodology and small sample size impair this

study's conclusions insofar as they must be interpreted in light

of resultant limitations. For the previously mentioned reasons,

experimental subjects for the study were self-selected. As a

result, conclusions drawn from the study must be considered

only valid for this study and may not be generalized to other

populations.

Subjects for this study were youth within the Canadian school

system between the ages of 15 and 18. The study does not address

the possibility of utilizing such an intervention with adult

populations.

The study resulted in having small sample sizes in each of the

control and experimental groups. Although the number of subjects

included in each of the groups total above thirty f i v e , some

subjects missed completing instruments at the second or third

test levels. Consequently, data analysis could only be

performed upon those subjects who had completed questionnaires

at each and every test level. Subject data was missed for n i n e

subjects total in each of the groups. Resultantly, normal

distribution cannot be assumed which seriously affects the

quality of the statistics gained from analysis.

Although t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s tudy conf i rm t h e p r e d i c t e d

outcomes of t h e mentioned psycho-socia l c o n s t r u c t s , t h e e f f e c t s

of t r a i n i n g upon c a r e e r e x p l o r a t i o n behaviors i s e x p l o r a t o r y .

That is, few e v a l u a t i v e s t u d i e s have been p u b l i s h e d a d d r e s s i n g

t h e e f f e c t s t r a i n i n g have upon e x p l o r a t o r y behav io r .

Furthermore, t o adequa te ly examine t h e f u l l spectrum o f

e x p l o r a t o r y behav io r s would r e q u i r e hundreds of v a r i a b l e s t o be

examined. Thus, t h i s s t u d y i s l i m i t e d by t h e r e l a t i v e l y f e w

e x p l o r a t i o n behav io r s it examined.

Box 's M and Mauchley's Eps i lon tests examine t h e u n i v a r i a t e

assumptions of e q u a l v a r i a n c e s w i t h i n groups ove r t i m e and

between groups . I n t h e cases of t h r e e v a r i a b l e s , t h e s e

assumptions have been v i o l a t e d : 1) Quiz s c o r e , 2 ) t i m e s t a l k e d

t o c o u n s e l l o r s , and 3 ) i n t e n t i o n s t o t a l k t o peop le i n t h e

f i e l d . The r e s u l t s f o r each o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t ,

w i th r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e exper imenta l groups exper ienced

p o s i t i v e outcomes ove r t h e s tudy p e r i o d .

The v i o l a t i o n s should be expec ted t o e x i s t . P r i o r t o t r a i n i n g ,

s u b j e c t s i n each group have as t h e i r founda t ion for t h e i r

careers what t h e i r d i f f e r e n t p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , f r i e n d s and

relatives have t o inform them of . A s a result, i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e s within any one group w i l l be h igh . T ra in ing ,

however g i v e s s u b j e c t s i n t h e exper imenta l group a s i m i l a r p o i n t

of r e f e r e n c e w i t h which t o c o n s i d e r and e x p l o r e t h e i r careers.

~ h u s , it i s a b s o l u t e l y l o g i c a l t h a t v a r i a n c e s b e t u e e n and within

g r o u p s o v e r t i m e w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t i n t h i s s t u d y .

F i n a l l y , as ment ioned p r e v i o u s l y , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e

q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t a l k i n g t o p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d may have

b e e n d i f f e r e n t for e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s t h a n c o n t r o l s .

T h e r e f o r e , r e s u l t s fo r e a c h g roup may be i n d i c a t i v e of

c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e n t i o n s and b e h a v i o r s . R e s u l t s from t h e

q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t h e t a l k i n g t o p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d s h o u l d ,

t h u s be c o n s i d e r e d t o be s u s p e c t .

F u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h i n career development t r a i n i n g

i n t e r v e n t i o n s s h o u l d examine l o n g i t u d i n a l e f f e c t s among b o t h

a d u l t a n d y o u t h p o p u l a t i o n s u s i n g random a s s i g n m e n t . I n

a d d i t i o n , e x p l o r a t i o n s h o u l d be made i n t h e a r e a s of s p e c i a l

i n t e r e s t g roups s u c h a s women r e - e n t e r i n g t h e work f o r c e , peop le

w h o have become disabled, y o u t h w i t h d i s a b i l i t y , a n d immigrant

p o p u l a t i o n s .

APPENDIX A:

Questionnaire and consent forms

Please answer the following brief questions using the following scale. For each of your answers, circle the response that best represents your answer.

SA -- strongly agree A -- agree D -- disagree SD -- strongly disagree

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. SA A D SD

2. At times i think 'r am no good at all. SA A B SO

3. 1 feel that I have a number of good qualities. SA A D SD

4. I feel able to do things as well as most other people. SA A D SD

5. 1 feel I do not have mcch to be proud of. SA A D S

6. 1 certainly feel useless at times. SA A D SD

7. 1 feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.

SA A D SD

8. i wish I could have more respect for myself. SA A D SD

9. All in all, 1 am inclined to feel that I am a failure. SA A D SD

10. I take a positive attitude toward myself. SA A D SD

Source: Morris Rosenberg, 1 979.

6 7 Please answer the following brief questions using the following scale. For each of

the answers, circle the response that best represents your answer. Use the following abbreviations for your responses.

SA Strongly Agree A Somewhat Agree N Neither Agree or Disagree D Somewhat Disagree SD Strongly Disagree

1. Good luck is more important than hard work for success. SA A N D SD

2. Planning only makes a person unhappy, since plans hardly work out anyway. SA A N D SD

3. No matter how hard you try, some people just don't like y ~ u . SA A N D SD

4. People who accept their condition are happier than those people who try to change things.

SA A N 0 SD

5, In the long run, people get the respect they deserve in this world. SA A N D SD

6. Every time I try to get ahead, something or somebody stops me. SA A N D SD

7. There is too much emphasis on athletics in school. SA A N D

8. In the case of the weli prepared student, there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test.

SA A N D SD

9. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin. SA A N D SD

10. By taking an active part in political and social affairs, the people can control world events.

I ? . People are lonely because they don't try to be friend&.

(Source: Keith, Pottebaum and Ebrhart, 1986; Rotter. 1 966)

6 S The following quastions ask you to jog your memory a bit. When

responding, use the first answer that pops into your mind. If this response is not explicity expressed as one of the available responses, indicate the response that best represents your initial answer.

1. Have you made either a firm or tentative career choice in the last month?

Yes -

2. In your opinion, how interested are you right now in making a career choice? (Circie the number that best represents your response.)

Very 1 2 3 4 5 Not Very Interested Interested

3. Mow many times in the last month have you talked to your parents, relatives, brothers or sisters about what type of career they have? (Circle the most appropriate category.)

4. If within the next three months you plan on talking to either your parents, relatives or siblings about the type of career they have, how sure are you that you will actually talk to them? (Circle the response that best corresponds to how sure you are. If you don't plan on talking to them, circle Ox.)

P/o 200% 40% 60% 80% 100% / - - - - - - / - - - - - I - - - - - - / - - - - - / - - - - - /

I'm sure I'm positive I won't I will talk talk to to them. them

5. How many times in the last month have you talked to your counsefior or teachers about careers?

6 9 6. If within the next three months you plan on talking to either your counseilors or teachers about careers, how sure are you that you will talk to them?

OO/o 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% /---..-I---- /----/----/----I I'm sure I'm positive I won't I will talk to talk to them. them.

9. How many timss in the last month have you talked to people in the field about what kinds of jobs they have?

10. If within the next three months you intend on talking to people in the field about what kinds of jobs they have, how sure are you that you will talk to them?

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% / - - - - - / - - - - I - - - - / - - - - / - - - - - /

I'm sure I'm positive I won't I will talk talk to to them. them.

11. How many times in the last month have you visited a place of work offering career or occupational opportunites?

12. if within the next three months you intend on visiting a place of work offering career or occupational opportunites, how sure are you that you wilt talk to them?

OO/o 20% 40% 6070 80"h 100% /----/-----/----I----/------ /

I'm sure I'm sure I won't I will talk talk to to them. them.

13. How many hours per week are you presently working in volunteer or paid employment? (Please fill in the blank.)

hours per week.

The following are ten Oruelfalse questions that test your knowledge of careers. Please circle either true or false at the right-hand edge of this sheet as your response that corresponds to the question at the left.

1. Holland typeologies are a typ9 of career development disorder.

2. One of the subscales on My Vocational Situation is vocational identity.

3. When listing empathically, it is most important to listen for only content.

4. A peer helper takes on other people's problems when they help.

5. Pseudo-chrystallization is an important and healthy stage in career development

6. When deciding upon a career, young people should & what their parents suggest because parents usually know what is best for their kids.

7. There are more opportunities for people in the full-time sector of the world of work than there are in the part-time/contracUtemporary sector of the world of work.

8. The best place to get occupational information is in the classified ads section of the newspaper.

9. A practice field survey is useful to do after we start looking for a job.

10. People should know what they want to do for the rest of their lives by the time they finish high school.

The following questions are about your expectations for this training program. They will help your trainers get an understanding of the things you want to get out of participating in this program so they can better satisfy your needs.

The scale ranges from one to five. One represents Strong Agreement with the statement. Five represents Strong Disagreement with the statement. Circle the number along the right hand side of each statement that best represents your response.

Each question below is a sentence stem of the statement "I expect that this course ..." as shown below.

Question Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree

I expect that this course ...

1. will help me get a better under- 1 2 3 4 5 standing of where my career is heading. 2. will be interesting. 1 2 3 4 5 3. will help me become more confident. 1 2 3 4 5 4. will help me feel better about myself. 1 2 3 4 5

5. will provide me an opportunity to make some really good friends 1 2 3 4 5 6. wilt be really fun. 1 2 3 4 5 7. will teach me so;ne practical skills for on the job. 1 2 3 4 5 8. will teach me how to be an effective peer helper. 1 2 3 4 5 9. will teach me heiw to get useful information on different types of careers. 1 2 3 4 5 10. will teach me how to be a better friend to people. 1 2 3 4 5

The following questions are about your teactions for this training program. They will help your trainers get an understanding of the things you got out of participating in this program so they can better satisfy the needs of students in the future.

The scale ranges from one to five. One represents Strong Agreement with the statement. Five represents Strong Disagreement with the statement. Circle the number along the right hand side of each statement that best represents your response.

Each question befow is a sentence stem of the statement *This course ..." as shown befow.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Question Strongly

Strongly Agree

Disagree

This course ...

1. did help me gel a better under- standing of where my career is heading. 2. was interesting, 3. did help me become more confident. 4. did help me fed better about myself. 5. did provide me an opportunity to make some really good friends 6. was really fun. 7. did teach me some practical skills for on the job. 8. did teach me how to be an effective peer helper. 9, did teach me how to get useful information on different types of careers. 10. did feach me how to be a better friend to people.

On the following pages are fifty brief questions. Please answer each one of them with the response that first pops into your mind. For each answer, use the scale from 0 to 9 with 0 indicating No Confidence in completing the task and 9 indicating Complete Confidence in completing the task. Circle the number on the scale that best represents your preferred response.

Question No Complete Confidence

Confidence

Make a career decision and then not worry about whether it was right or wrong. Find information about companies who employ people with college majors in English. Come up with a strategy to deal with flunking out of training school. Go back to college to finish a degree after being out of school for five to ten years. Find information about educational programs in engineering. Make a pian of your goals for the next five years. Chmse a major or career that your parents do not approve of. Prepare a good resome. Change occupations if you are not satisfied with the one you enter.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Question No Complete Confidence

Confidence - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Choose the training you want even though the job market is declining with opportunities in this field. Accurately assess your abilities. Get letters of recommendation from your teachers or past employers. Determine the steps to take if you are having academic trouble with an aspect of your chosen training. Choose a career in which most workers are the opposite sex, Identify some reasonable career alternatives if you are unable to get your first choice. Change college majors if you did not like your first choice. Figure out whether you have the ability to successf;llly take math courses. Figure out what you are and are not ready to sacrifice to achieve your career gods. Find and use the placement o W i in your school or college. Determine what your ideal job would be. Select one occupation from a list of potential occupations you are considering. Describe the job duties of the career/ occupation you are considering. Succ~sshrlty manage the job interview process.

Question No Complete Confidence

Confidence

Select one field of training from a list of potential fields you are considering. Apply again to schools after you have been rejected the first time. Get information in the library about occupations you are interested in. Find out the employment trends for an mupation in the 1990's. List several majors that you are interested in. Leave to another city to get the kind of job you really would like. Decide what you value most in an occupation. Consistently work at your career goal even when you get frustrated. Choose a career that will fit your preferred f ifestyfe Plan course work outside of your preferred field that wilt help you in your future career. Determine the academic subject you have the most ability in, Identify employers, firms, institutions relevant to your career possibilities. Resist attempts of parents or friends to push you into a career you believe beyand your capabiiities. Determine the steps you need to taka to successfuffy complete your chosen training.

Questioa No Complete Confidence

Confidence - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * - - - - - - - - * - - - - - - - - - - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

List several occupations that you are interested in. Choose a career that will suit your abilities. Decide whether or not you wilf need to attend graduate school to achieve your career goals. Choose a career that will fit your interests. Choose the best training for you even if it took longer to finish your college or vocational degree. Get involved in a work experience relevant to your future goals. Find information about graduate or professional schools. Find out about the average yearly earnings of people in an occupation. Ask a teacher or instructor about schools and job opportunities in your field of interest. Talk to a teacher or instructor in a department that your are considering to major in. Define the type of lifestyle you wouM like to live. Determine whether you would rather work primarily with people or with things. Talk to a person already employed in the field you are interested in.

I have been asked to participate in a research study conducted by Charise Karjala. The study is part of Ms. Karjala's thesis work as required for graduaaion from the Department of Business Administration with designation of Masters in Business Administration.

The study involves my participating in a training program in career development peer helping. I will participate in approximately 13 two hour sessions that invoive training, rule plays, group discussion and lectures. The training program is designed to improve my ability to make career decisions and explore different career alternatives.

Before training can begin, I wilt be asked to complete questionnaires assessing my level of knowledge of career development, expectations for the program, level of decision-making ability and a few psychological constructs. I wiH also write tests after the training program is completed and once more 4 weeks after training.

Consent:

I have read tire above and understand the nature of the training program i will be involved in. f also understand that participation in this program involves the administration of tests to me. I have any questions or concerns, I will contact Charise Karjala at 277-3443 or Steve W h a n e (Phdj at 291 -31 11.

Name:

Address:

Phone No-:

Form for informed consent -- years and Less

Your daughterlsonlward has been asked to participate in a research study conducted by Charise Karjala. The study is part of Ms. Karjala's thesis work as required for graduation from the Department of Business Administratio? with designation of Masters in Business Administration.

The study involves your sonldaughterlward participating in a training program in career development peer helping. Your son/daughter/ward will participate in approximately 13 two hour sessions that involve traitling, role plays, group discussion and lectures. The training program is designed to improved your daughter/son/ward's ability to make career decisions and explore different career alternatives.

Before training can begin, your sonldaughterlward will be asked to complete questionnaires assessing their level of knowledge of career development, expectations for the program, level of decision- making ability and a few psychological constructs. This testing will also be done after the training program is completed and once more 7 weeks after training.

Consent:

I have read the above and understand the nature of the training program my sonfdaughtertward will be involved in. I also understand that participation in this program involves the administration of tests to my son/daughter/ward. I have any quesiorrs or concerns, i will contact Charise Karjala at 277-3443 or Steve McShane (PhD) at 291-321 1.

Name: Address:

mne w*:

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRES AND

MEAN RESPONSES

Source -- M . Rosenberg, 1 9 7 9 Alpha=.850

(mean r e s p o n s e s ) :

GZQU2 an Resgalse at m e L e w l

a. u. rir s.D. 31;ts.DI

Experimental 2.143 .4c3 1.977 . 4 92 1.920 .466

Control 1.949 - 4 6 6 i .971 . 4 64 1 . 8 9 3 . 4 1 4

etation:

The lower the score, the higher the esteem.

Experimental

Control

or co- srg;tE;

-Five Question Subscale (alpha=.59)

- The lower the score, the more internal the locus of control.

Group

Experimental

Contro l

Quiz Score by T i m e Level

33. S.D. n S.D.

6.811 1.543 8.161 1.186

ret at lon

- Total possible score (Highest) = 10.

Group

Experimental

Mean Responses by Time Level

- Conducted only on experimental groug.. - Five-point scale - Pretest provides base level of expectations. Lower scores on post tests indicate either meeting or

exceeding expectations of the program.

Variable/Group

Made Career Choice

Experimental Control

Interest in Making Career Choice

Experimental Control

- Times Talked to Family About Careers

Experimental Control

Intentions to Talk To Family About Careers

Experimental Control

Times Talked to Caunsellors About Careers

Experimental Control

Inteations to Talk To Counselfars About Careels

Experkmental cent raf

Mean 33-

. 4 86

* 333

2.189

1.897

3.189

3.641

4 . 4 5 6

6-154

2,270 1.385

5.514 6.5@3

Responses By Time L R . r;? s.D.

Variable/Group Mean Responses by Time L e v e l

22 S,f). T 2 S . D . 2 3

Times Talked to P e o p l e In the F i e l d About Careers

Experimental 1.784 2.029 2.645 2,317 2.133

Control 1.897 2.125 2.771 2.568 2.857

Intentions to Talk to People in the Field About Careers

Experimeneal 4.486 2.959 6.774 2.404 6.533

Control 5.026 3.752 5.771 3.059 5.786

Times Talked to People Offering Employment Opportunities

Experimental 1.703 2.768 1.645 2.i84 1-86?

Control 1.281 2,089 2.314 2.938 2.821

Intentions to Talk to People Offering Employment Opportunities

Experimental Control

Hours Worked P e r Week On Average

Experimental 9.027 10.38 12.355 12.43 12.07 Central 10.821 9.654 9.629 8 -99 7.54

Choice: A Zero/One C a t e g o r i c a l V a r i a b l e . - Zero=yes, made d e c i s i o n , One=no, have n o t .

I n t e r e s t e d i n Making C a r e e r D e c i s i o n : - F i v e P o i n t S c a l e l = v e r y i n t e r e s t e d

5=not v e r y i n t e r e s t e d

T i m e s Ta lked t o V a r i o u s Groups: - S c a l e : 0-9 t i m e s i n t h e last month.

I n t e n t i o n s t o T a l k t o V a r i o u s Groups: - S c a l e : P e r c e n t a g e P r o b a b i l i t y of Taking a c t i o n

if i n t e n t i o n s e x i s t .

()%=NO i n t e n t i o n 509=Some i n t e n t i o n and

w i l l p r o b a b l y d o so. l O O % = S ~ m s u r e I w i l l

Group

- Source, Tay lo r and Betz. - Alpha = . 9 3 4

Exper imenta l

C o n t r o l

I n t e r p r e t a t ion :

Mean Responses by Time Leve l

L R . Xz s.D. 3 3 s.0.

- S c a l e i s from 0-9. Nine=high e f f i c a c y f o r s c e n a r i o . Zero=low e f f i c a c y f o r s c e n a r i o .

Bandura, A. "Se l f e f f i c a c y : Toward a u n i f y i n g t h e o r y o f 0 b e h a v i o r a l change". J?avchological Review. Volume 84. Pp

191-215. 1977.

Bandura, A. Social Foun-ns i n Thoucrht and Act ion : B S u C o s n i t i v e Theorv. Englewood C l i f f s , N e w J e r s e y . P r en t i ce -Ha l l . 1986.

B a r T a l , D . and B a r Zohar, Y. "The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p e r c e p t i o n of l o c u s o f c o n t r o l and academic achievement"

Psvck&&gy. Vol 2 Pp 181-199. 1977.

B e r n a r d e l l i , A . , D e S t e f ano , J. and Dumont, F. "Occupa t iona l in format ion-seek ing as a f u n c t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l and o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s " . Canad ian

/C-ler C a n a d i e n . Vol 1 7 ( 2 ) . Pp75-81. 1983

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