nmdm121 medicinal food science session 13 … · culinary herbs and spices part i nutritional...

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NMDM121

MEDICINAL FOOD SCIENCE

Session 13

Culinary Herbs and Spices Part I

Nutritional Medicine Department


Session Summary

Discuss the nutritional values, phytochemical profiles,

culinary uses and therapeutic benefits of:

• Onion

• Garlic

• Ginger

• Chilli

• Rosemary

• Nutmeg

• Fennel

• Cloves


Naming of Plants

• Common name – e.g. onion, nutmeg. Common name

often varies around the world. One plant may have many

different common names.

• Scientific name – usually written in italics with a capital

letter for the genus – e.g. Allium cepa.

• Plants that belong to the same botanical family often

have similar phytochemicals and therefore may have

similar therapeutic actions.


Herbs and Spices

(Source: Zak Greant at http://flickr.com/photos/91083986@N00/6802894502)


Herbs and Spices

• Herbs and spices have a long history of both culinary

and medicinal uses as well as acting as preservatives.

• Herbs are generally plant leaves, other than those

classified as vegetables. Examples include basil, chives,

dill, parsley and thyme.

• Spices can be buds (e.g. cloves), bark (e.g. cinnamon),

rhizomes (e.g. ginger), berries (e.g. peppercorns),

aromatic seeds (e.g. cumin), the stigma of a flower (e.g.

saffron) or other plant parts.

(Hemphill, 2006)


Herbs and Spices

• Herbs and spices are generally eaten in small quantities

so contribution to nutrient intake is small. There are

exceptions such as parsley in tabouli and turmeric in

India.

• Herbs and spices add flavour to food so can make

wholesome foods tastier and therefore encourage

consumption.

• Concentrated sources of phytochemicals in herbs and

spices gives them therapeutic potential.


Herbs and Spices: Digestion

Several animal studies have shown that some spices

enhance the secretion of digestive enzymes. Examples

include:

• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, fenugreek and

asafoetida enhanced pancreatic lipase.

• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, cumin and

asafoetida enhanced pancreatic amylase.

• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger and cumin enhanced

trypsin.

• Curcumin, capsaicin, piperine, ginger, cumin, fenugreek

and asafoetida enhanced chymotrypsin.

(Platel & Srinivasan, 2000)


Herbs and Spices: Digestion

In another animal study three spice mixes were tested on

rats. All spice mixes contained coriander, turmeric, red

chilli, black pepper and cumin.

• Spice mix I contained just those noted above

• Spice mix II additionally contained ginger

• Spice mix III additionally contained onion.

All 3 spice mixes enhanced the activities of pancreatic

lipase, chymotrypsin and amylase and increased bile

secretion. Spice mix III had the greatest stimulatory

effect.

(Platel et al., 2002)


Onion

Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/53611153@N00/303892944/ open onion


Onion: Introduction

• The scientific name for the common (or garden) onion is

Allium cepa.

• Onions belong to the Liliaceae (Lily) family (United

States Department of Agriculture, n.d.)

• Commonly used edible Allium plants include onion,

garlic, leeks, chives, spring onions and shallots.

• About 40-100 grams of onion daily is recommended to

achieve therapeutic effects (Suleria et al., 2014).


Onion: Constituents

o Whilst onions provide some nutrients they are not

nutrient-dense. Key nutrients are summarised on the

next slide.

o The main therapeutic actions of onions are due to the

phytochemicals. Key phytochemicals are:

• Flavonoids: Quercetin and its derivatives (flavonols)

which give some onions yellow and brown skins.

Anthocyanins which impart a red to purple colour in

some varieties.

• Alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs) (sulphur-

containing compounds).


Onion: Key Nutrients

One medium onion weighs approximately 110 grams

½ cup chopped onion weighs approximately 80 grams

(Source for nutrient composition: FSANZ, NUTTAB 2010)


Onion: FOS Prebiotic

Fructo-oligosaccharides:

• Onions are a good source of certain dietary fibres,

particularly fructans and FOS(16–19). Inulin-type

fructans have a potential role in colorectal cancer

prevention, associated with their ‘bifidogenic’ prebiotic

effect in animal models (Roldan-Marin et al., 2009).

• Effects of onion components on gut health parameters

including changes in pH, transit time, bacterial activities

and SCFA production need further investigation.


Onion: Flavonoids

• The flavonols (i.e. quercetin and its derivatives) are often

found concentrated in the skin of most onions where

they impart the yellow/brown colour, unless concealed by

the red pigment, anthocyanin.

• Quercetin content is highest in the dry skin and

decreases from the outer to inner rings. Thus, peeling

may significantly reduce the flavonoid content (especially

anthocyanins and to a lesser extent flavonols). (Suleria

et al., 2014).


Quercetin Content

Food source Quercetin

content mg/kg

Onion 300 mg/kg

Broccoli 100 mg/kg

Apples 50 mg/kg

Kale 450 mg/kg

Blackcurrants 40 mg/kg

Teas 30 mg/kg

Source: Griffiths et al., 2002


Which Allium is that?

According to Onions Australia (2010) the main Allium crops

in Australia are:

• Bulb onions (Allium cepa) – brown, red and white

• Garlic (Allium oleraceum)

• Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum). These are

grown for their leaves and thickened stem.

• Spring onions (Allium fistulosum) - means different

things to different people. True spring onions are

harvested with about 40cm of green leaves and a

slightly enlarged bulb. In NSW spring onions are

generally a white bulbing variety harvested when the

bulb is immature and the leaves are intact.


Which Allium is that?

o (Continued from previous slide)

• Shallots (Allium cepa, aggregatum) - means different

things to different people. True shallots are grown for

their bulbs only. Shallots marketed in NSW are similar

to true spring onion and are harvested with about

40cm of green leaves and a slightly enlarged bulb.

Also called Eschallots (Allium ascalonicum).

• Chives (Allium schoenoprasum)


Onion: Buying and Storing

• Choose onions that are clean and have crisp, dry outer

skins. Avoid those that are sprouting, have mould, have

soft spots or dark patches.

• Do not store in the refrigerator because of its high

moisture atmosphere.

• Store in a cool, dry place away from excessive heat and

light but with plenty of air circulation to avoid spoilage.

• Don’t store with potatoes as potatoes have a lot of

moisture and give off a gas that causes onions to spoil

more quickly.

• Stored carefully, onions will keep for several weeks.


Why do onions make us cry?

• When the onion tissue is disrupted by cutting, crushing,

or chewing, the Alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides (ACSOs)

are enzymatically degraded by the enzyme, alliinase, to

iminopropionic acid and alk(en)yl cysteine sulfenic acids.

• The iminopropionic acid spontaneously hydrolyses to

form ammonia and pyruvic acid.

• The sulfenic acids decompose spontaneously afterward.

Methyl and propyl sulfenic acids yield mainly

thiosulfinates. Prop-1-enyl sulfenic acid forms both the

corresponding thiosulfinate and thiopropanal S-oxide,

the onion lachrymatory factor.

(Griffiths et al., 2002)


Onion: Traditional Uses

• Stimulant and counter irritant.

• Crushed raw onion applied to the forehead for relief of

headaches.

• Red small onions used as an expectorant.

• Onion and honey syrup for coughs, sore throats and

respiratory tract infections.

(Suleria et al., 2014)


Onion: Therapeutic Actions

In vitro studies suggest the following potential therapeutic

actions for onions:

• Antimicrobial

• Anti-asthmatic

• Anti-tumour and anticancer effect

• Platelet anti-aggregating agent

• Hypocholesterolaemic effect

• Anti ulcer and anti gastric cancer agent

• Antioxidant

• Prebiotic

(Griffiths et al., 2002; Mitra et al., 2012)


Onion: Antimicrobial Effects

In vitro studies have demonstrated the following:

• Crude extracts of onion exert potent antifungal and

antibacterial properties;

• Onion oils and aqueous extracts have been shown to

be active against several gram positive bacteria but

ineffective against gram-negative bacteria;

• Onion juice has been shown to be effective against

many yeast species;

• Onion oil has been shown to be effective against

dermatophytic fungi;

(Suleria et al., 2014)


Onion: Antimicrobial Effects

• Onion extracts have been shown to inhibit oral

bacteria which are associated with formation of dental

caries (Suleria et al., 2014).

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:

Onion_bulbs#mediaviewer/File:Sweet_onions_1.jpg


Onions: Cancer Protective

• The organo-sulphur compounds in onions have been

shown to have anti-carcinogenic action in in-vitro studies

and animal studies. This is thought to be partially due to

their role in the activation of detoxifying enzymes that

remove potentially cancer-causing substances (Suleria

et al., 2014).

• Onions are rich in organo-selenium compounds, which

may help in preventing cancer. Selenium is usually fixed

to sulphur-containing amino acid derivatives (Suleria et

al., 2014).


Onion: Human Studies CVD

• Human studies have generally investigated the effects of

a high flavonoid diet rather than high onion consumption.

• Epidemiological studies suggest that high intakes of

dietary flavonoids are associated with decreased

cardiovascular disease mortality and risk factors.

• Although flavonoids from apples, berries and onions

appear to impact favourably on blood pressure, vascular

function and serum lipid levels, further research is

needed to determine the optimal quantity and food

matrix for conferring substantial clinical benefit.

(Toh et al., 2013)


Onion: Human Studies CVD

• A single-blind, dose-dependent, parallel randomized controlled

dietary intervention study was conducted on male and female low

fruit and vegetable consumers who had a ≥ 1.5-fold increased risk of

CVD (n = 174).

• Participants were randomly assigned to receive a high flavonoid

Fruit and Vegetable diet, a low flavonoid F&V diet, or a habitual diet.

• Microvascular reactivity, arterial stiffness, 24-h ambulatory blood

pressure, and biomarkers of nitric oxide (NO), vascular function, and

inflammation were determined at baseline and at 6, 12, and 18 wk.

• Results support recommendations to increase F&V intake to ≥ 6

portions daily, with additional benefit from F&Vs that are rich in

flavonoids, particularly in men with an increased risk of CVD.

(Macready et al., 2014)


Onion: TCM

Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristics:

Thermal Nature: Warm

Flavour: Acrid and sweet (by lightly braising)

Prep Methods: As juice, fried, pickled or dried;

onions lose their effect when cooked

too long.

(Kastner, 2004)


Onion: Contraindications

• Eating raw onion can lead to halitosis

• Onion may cause flatulence for some people

• In rare cases onion may be a trigger for migraine(Mitra et al., 2012)

• There are case reports of asthmatics developing an

asthma attack after eating pickled onions. High sulphite

content plus low pH (3.3) of Spanish pickled onions

increases the risk of an asthma attack in sulphite-

sensitive asthma sufferers.(Gastaminza et al., 1995)


Onion: Contraindications (cont.)

• A high dietary intake of flavonoids can elevate urinary

homovanillic acid (HVA). Urinary HVA measurement is

used routinely as a marker of the first test for the

screening of catecholamine-secreting tumours and

dopamine metabolism. A high dietary intake of flavonoids

could result in a false positive result. Eat a low flavonoid

diet for 3 days before the test.(Combet et al., 2011)

• Some groups, such as Brahma Kumaris and Hari

Krishnas, avoid onions and garlic. Major Oriental

traditions recommend avoidance of onions and garlic for

those seeking ‘mental and spiritual refinement’.


Garlic

(Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Garlic#mediaviewer/File:Garlic_Press_and_Garlic.jpg: )


Garlic: Introduction

• The scientific name for cultivated garlic is Allium sativum.

• Garlic belongs to the Liliaceae family.

• There is some evidence that garlic was fed to athletes

during the earliest Olympics in Greece to increase

stamina.

• Two classes of organosulfur compounds are found in

whole garlic cloves:

‒ γ-glutamyl-cysteines

‒ Cysteine sulfoxides [Allylcysteine sulfoxide (alliin) accounts

for ~ 80% of the cysteine sulfoxides in garlic]


Garlic: Introduction

• Garlic has been used as both a food and medicine since

antiquity.

• Legend is that garlic was used in ancient Egypt to

increase workers’ resistance to infection and later used

externally to prevent wound infection.

• Traditionally garlic has been used as a warming and

blood cleansing herb to prevent and treat colds and flu,

coughs, menstrual pain and expel worms and other

parasites. (Braun & Cohen, 2005)


Garlic: Therapeutic Actions

In-vitro studies suggest the following possible therapeutic

actions:

• Inhibits cholesterol synthesis

• Inhibits platelet aggregation

• Anti-inflammatory

• Antioxidant

• Inhibits Phase 1 biotransformation enzymes

• Induction of Phase II biotransformation enzymes

• Enhanced cellular glutathione synthesis

• Induction of apoptosis

• Antimicrobial

(Higdon, 2007)


Garlic: Antimicrobial

• Allicin (diallyl-dithiosulphinate) is produced by the action

of the garlic enzyme, alliinase, from alliin when the flesh

is crushed, chopped or chewed.

• Allicin and other sulphur compounds are thought to be

the major compounds responsible for the antimicrobial

effect of garlic.

• Heat, such as cooking, inactivates alliinase.

• Allowing crushed/chopped garlic to “stand” for at least 10

minutes prior to cooking may result in the formation of

allicin.


Garlic Supplements

Garlic supplements can be classified into four groups:

• Garlic essential oil is obtained by passing steam through

garlic. Commercially available garlic oil capsules generally

contain vegetable oil, but only have a small amount of

garlic essential oil because of its strong odour.

• Garlic oil macerate products are made from encapsulated

mixtures of whole garlic cloves ground into vegetable oil.

• Garlic powder is produced by slicing or crushing garlic

cloves, then drying and grinding them into powder. Garlic

powder is used as a flavouring agent for condiments and

food and is thought to retain the same ingredients as raw

garlic.


Garlic Supplements (cont.)

• Garlic extract is made from whole or sliced garlic cloves

that are soaked in an alcohol solution (an extracting

solution) for varying amounts of time. Powdered forms of

the extract also are available.


Garlic Supplements

Product Principal Organosulfur

compounds

Delivers Allicin-Derived

Compounds?

Fresh garlic cloves Cysteine sulfoxides (alliin) Yes, when chopped,

crushed or chewed raw

Powdered garlic

(tablets)

Cysteine sulfoxides (alliin)

γ-glutamylcysteines

Varies considerably

amongst commercial

products.

Steam-distilled

garlic oil (capsules)

Diallyl disulphide. Diallyl

trisulphide, allyl methyl

trisulfide

Yes

Garlic oil macerate

(capsules)

Vinyldithiins, ajoene, diallyl

trisulfide

Yes

Aged garlic extract

(tablets/capsules)

S-allylcysteine, S-

allylmercaptocysteine, S-1-

propenylcysteine

Minimally

(Higdon, 2007)


Garlic: TCM


Thermal: Cooked-warm; Raw-hot

Flavour: Raw-acrid; Gently cooked-sweet-acrid

Prep Methods: Raw, gently braised (on low heat), as a

juice or decoction.

(Kastner, 2004)


Garlic: Contraindications

• Ingestion of garlic and garlic supplements can cause bad

breath and body odour.

• Gastrointestinal symptoms have been reported including

heartburn, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, flatulence

and diarrhoea.

• Garlic supplements may enhance the anticoagulant

effect of warfarin.

• Some people may be allergic to garlic.

• Some people experience contact dermatitis when skin is

exposed to garlic.

(Higdon, 2007)


Garlic: Contraindications

• Garlic supplements have been shown to interfere with

several prescription drugs, especially the HIV medication

saquinavir (brand names Invirase® and Fortovase®).

Garlic supplements can lower the serum levels of

saquinavir by as much as 50 percent (Piscitelli et al.,

2002)


Ginger

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:

Ginger_flower_04516.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:

Ginger#mediaviewer/File:Gingembre.jpg


Ginger: Introduction

• Belongs to the Zingiberaceae family.

• Scientific name is Zingiber officinale (garden ginger).

• Part used is the rhizome.

• The rhizomes and stems of ginger have assumed

significant roles in Chinese, Japanese, and Indian

medicine since the 1500s.

• Major constituents include: Gingerols and shogaols, e.g.

6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol, 8-

shogaol, and 10-shogaol.


Ginger: Introduction

• The rhizome of ginger contains pungent vanillyl ketones,

including 6-gingerol and 6-paradol, and has been

reported to possess strong anti-inflammatory activity and

antitumor properties.

• Other compounds present include carbohydrates, fats,

minerals, oleoresins, vitamins, waxes, and zingibain (a

proteolytic enzyme).

(Natural Standard, 2014a)


Ginger: Therapeutic Effects

• There is supportive evidence from several randomised

controlled trials that ginger reduces the severity and

duration of nausea or emesis during pregnancy.

• Ginger's effects on other types of nausea or emesis,

such as chemotherapy-induced, postoperative nausea,

or motion sickness need further investigation to confirm.

• One small RCT suggested that ginger supplements may

be helpful for dysmenorrhoea (250mg of dried Z.

officinale rhizome powder X 4 times daily starting three

days prior to the onset of menstruation).

• In vitro studies demonstrate antioxidant effect.



Ginger

Culinary and other uses:

• Ginger can be used fresh, dried, grated, preserved in

syrup or vinegar, and crystallised.

• It can be added to savoury and sweet dishes.

• In China and other parts of Asia it is added to fish dishes.

• In Japan pink, pickled ginger is served with sushi.

• Dried and powdered ginger is used in biscuits, breads and

desserts.

• It can be used to make chutney.

• Ginger ale is a soft drink and ginger beer is a fermented

drink.


Ginger: Cautions

• The most frequent side effects associated with ginger use are

gastrointestinal upset, heartburn, gas, and bloating.

• Ginger may inhibit platelet aggregation or decrease platelet

thromboxane production, thus theoretically increasing

bleeding risk.


• People with gallstones are suggested to consult with their

physician and those with reflux or gastric ulcers are to use

ginger with caution, as advised by the Commission E.

• Pregnancy – upper limit of 2 g/day.

(Braun & Cohen, 2010)


Chilli: Introduction

• The scientific name for chilli is Capsicum anuum.

• Chilli belongs to the Solanaceae family.

• The heat or ‘bite’ in chillies comes from phytochemicals

called capsaicinoids. Spices containing capsaicinoids

include chilli, cayenne, paprika and red pepper.

• The level of pungency (heat) of the Capsicum species

depends mainly upon the concentration of capsaicinoids,

primarily capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. The Scoville

Scale is a common taste-based subjective measure of

pungency.


Chilli: Therapeutic Uses

• Overall there is good clinical evidence to support the use of

topical Capsicum in a plaster for low back pain and at various

acupoints for postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting.

• The mechanism of action for topical pain relief by Capsicum is

well studied. It is likely that the analgesic effect of pungent

Capsicum spp. is due to the analgesic effects of its

constituent capsaicin.

• Capsaicin is an activator of nociceptors, cutaneous peripheral

receptive endings of primary sensory neurons (unmyelinated

C-fibres) activated by noxious stimuli. Pain relief may occur

due to sensitisation of these neurons. Capsaicin depletes

stores of substance P from sensory neurons, thus reducing

pain with extended use.

(Natural Standard, 2014b)

Chilli: Therapeutic Effects

• A recent animal study showed that high-fat fed mice given dietary capsaicin, a component of chili pepper, showed improved glucose tolerance, reduced liver fat, and improved insulin sensitivity.

• In another animal study, the topical application of capsaicin in mice saw a reduction in visceral adipose tissue resulting in decreased inflammation and increased insulin sensitivity.

• Preliminary human trials suggest that capsaicinoids may have a beneficial effect on weight loss. This effect has been shown to be due to increased energy expenditure, increased lipid oxidation, and decrease in appetite (may reduce hunger hormone Ghrelin). However, further investigations are needed to evaluate their role in long-term usage.

(Agarwal, 2014)

Chilli: Therapeutic Effects

• A meta analysis investigated the potential effects of capsaicinoids on energy intake. 74 clinical trials were identified but 8 were included based on suitability for combined analysis (191 participants).

• Doses of chillies used in the studies varied from 0.4 mg to 33 mg. The sub-group analysis showed lower effect for dosages < 2 mg (energy intake increase of 35.4 kJ (8.4 kcal) p = 0.74), whereas dosages >2 mg produced a significant effect (energy intake decrease of 372.0 kJ (88.9 kcal) p < 0.001).

• Overall results suggested that capsaicinoid ingestion prior to a meal reduced ad libitum energy intake by 309.9 kJ (74.0 kcal) (p < 0.001) during the meal.

• However as heterogeneity of the participants/studies was high (Table on next slide), results should be interpreted with caution and further studies are required.

(Whiting, Derbyshire & Tiwari., 2014)

(Whiting, Derbyshire & Tiwari., 2014)


Chilli: Cautions

• When used orally, Capsicum may cause gastrointestinal

irritation, mouth and throat irritation, damaged taste buds

with reduced ability to taste foods, fullness, flatulence,

dyspepsia, diarrhoea, ulcer aggravation, and stomach

pain.

• According to secondary sources, large amounts may

cause kidney and liver damage.

• Topically, Capsicum may cause burning, redness, and

irritation. Inhalation of Capsicum may cause dyspnea

and cough. It may also irritate mucous membranes.

(Natural Standard, 2014b)


Rosemary: Introduction

• The scientific name for rosemary is Rosmarinus

officinalis.

• Rosemary belongs to the Lamiaceae/Labiateae (mint)

family.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

Rosmarinus_officinalis#mediaviewer/File:Rosemaryflower.jpg



Rosemary: History

• The ancient Greeks used rosemary to strengthen

memory function and scholars wore garlands of

rosemary during examinations in order to improve their

memory and concentration.

• It is widely used as a food spice and as an antioxidant to

preserve foods.

• Topically it has also been used traditionally for wound

healing, as an insect repellent, and to treat toothache

and eczema.

(Braun & Cohen, 2005)


Rosemary: Therapeutic Effects

• The most well-studied constituents of rosemary are caffeic

acid and its derivative, rosmarinic acid. These compounds are

thought to have antioxidant properties and are under

investigation as potential therapies for cancer, hepatotoxicity,

and inflammatory conditions.

• Currently, high-quality human trials investigating rosemary

and its possible therapeutic applications are lacking. A small

number of methodologically weak studies show some promise

in the improvement of mental state (via aromatherapy) and as

a topical treatment for alopecia.

• Germany's Commission E has approved rosemary leaf for the

treatment of dyspepsia and rosemary oil (used externally) for

joint pain and poor circulation.

(Natural Standard, 2014c)


Rosemary: TCM


Thermal Nature: Warming

Flavour: Bitter, acrid

(Kastner, 2004)


Rosemary


• Often included in a bouquet garni.

• Added to marinades for meat, poultry and fish.

• Studded into lamb with garlic for a roast.

• Can be added to some desserts.

• Can be used as a fumigant – burn rosemary and wave its

plume of smoke around the room to get rid of bad odours.

(Batemen, 2003, p. 208)


Nutmeg: Introduction

• The scientific name for nutmeg is Myristica fragrans.

• Nutmeg belongs to the Myristicaceae family.

• The spice, mace, comes from the lacy red covering of

the nutmeg seed.


Myristica_fragrans#mediaviewer/File:Muskatnuss.jpg



Nutmeg: Constituents

• Nutmeg contains a compound called macelignan. In vitro

studies have shown a spectrum of pharmacological

activities for macelignan, including anti-bacterial, anti-

inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and

hepatoprotective activities; recently, it has also been

shown to have neuroprotective activities (Paul et al., 2013).

• Myristicin is the main component of nutmeg essential oil.

This compound acts as a serotonin receptor agonist and

a hallucinogenic agent. It is also a weak monoamine

oxidase inhibitor.


Nutmeg: Biological Effects

• While nutmeg is most commonly known for its use in foods,

such as eggnog, it also has a history of abuse as a

recreational psychoactive drug. Users have reported narcotic-

like effects with two tablespoons of nutmeg. Unpleasant

effects, including bitter taste, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and

disorientation, may limit its popularity as a psychoactive

substance.

• Evidence from human study suggests that nutmeg extract,

when used as part of chewing gum, may decrease plaque and

gingivitis. However, well-designed clinical trials in this context,

or any other human indication, are currently lacking.

(Natural Standard, 2014d)


Nutmeg


• Best to buy whole nutmeg and grate freshly when needed.

• In India it is used as a warming ingredient in spice pastes

and powders.

• In the Caribbean it is often included in pastes to marinate

pork, goat, chicken and fish.

• In Europe it is included in Christmas pudding and mince

pies. It is also used with cheese and milk dishes.

(Bateman, 2003, p. 230)


Nutmeg: Cautions

• Cases of acute nutmeg poisoning from ingestion of very

large amounts of nutmeg (over 10g), for recreational

purposes, have been reported.

• Symptoms include, but are not limited to,

electrocardiographic changes, severe gastrointestinal

symptoms, severe musculoskeletal symptoms (such as

muscle weakness and ataxia), neurological symptoms

(such as headache and dizziness), blurred and duplicate

vision, various psychotic symptoms, and death.

(Natural Standard, 2014d)


Fennel

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennel)


Fennel: Introduction

• The scientific name is Foeniculum vulgare.

• Fennel belongs to the Apiaceae (also called the

Umbelliferae) family.

• Parts used are the bulb and stems, the seeds and the

green foliage.

(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fennel_flowers_J1.jpg)


Fennel Bulb: Key Nutrients

Raw fennel Per 100 grams

Energy 92 kJ

Water 92.9 grams

Protein 1 gram

Dietary fibre 1.8 grams

Sugars 3.3 grams

Calcium 20 mg

Potassium 280 mg

Vitamin C 9 mg

(FSANZ: NUTTAB, 2010)


Fennel Seed: Constituents

The essential oil of fennel seeds contain many constituents

including:

• d-α pinene

• Camaphene

• d-α phellanderin

• Dipentene

• Trans-anethole

• d-fenchone

• Estrogolefoeniculin

• Anisaldehyde

• Several alkaline compounds that cause its distinctive smell

(Akha, 2014)


Fennel Seeds: Traditional Uses

Fennel seeds have been used traditionally as:

• Carminative – term used to describe remedies that

ease flatulence and abdominal cramping.

• Galactagogue – term used to describe remedies that

increase the supply of breast milk.

• Anorexia, colic, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea,

diarrhoea, nausea, cold and coughs (Akha, 2014).


Fennel Seeds: Therapeutics

In-vitro and animal studies suggest that fennel seed may

have the following therapeutic actions:

• Antimicrobial

• Antioxidant

• Antitumour

• Chemopreventive

• Cytoprotective

• Hepatoprotective

• Hypoglycemic

• Oestrogenic

(Badgujar et al., 2014)


Fennel Seeds: Therapeutics

• In-vitro studies have demonstrated Apiaceae extracts

have high antibacterial activity with fennel possessing

the strongest and broadest activity (Nguyen et al., 2014).

• A small placebo controlled trial (n=60) found that 30 mg

of fennel seed extract capsule taken 4 times a day for 3

days from the start of menstruation resulted in greater

pain relief than placebo in young women with primary

dysmenorrhoea (Omidvar et al., 2012).


Fennel: Therapeutic Actions

• Fennel seed ethanol extract has been shown to have

phytoestrogenic activity.

• In-vitro studies have suggested an anti-osteoporotic

effect for fennel seed ethanol extract.

• More than 80% of the essential oil of fennel seeds is

trans-Anatole. This constituent appears to have

oestrogenic activity and is believed to be responsible for

the potential anti-osteoporotic effect. Further research is

needed, especially human clinical trials.

(Mahmoudi et al., 2013)


Fennel: Therapeutic Actions

• Several randomised controlled trials have shown

promising results for the topical use of a fennel gel

(2%/3% fennel seed extract gel) in the treatment of mild

to moderate idiopathic hirsutism.

• A reduction in hair thickness of 22.7% was noted in the

group applying the fennel gel after 24 weeks.

• There were no noticeable side effects.

• Mechanism of action is not clear but believed to be due

to an anti-androgenic effect of trans-anethole and di-

anethole.

(Akha et al., 2014)


Fennel: Characteristics

TCM:

Thermal Nature: Warming (Bulb and Seed)

Flavour: Sweet, acrid (Bulb)

Acrid, Sweet (Seed)

(Kastner, 2004)


Fennel: Culinary Uses


• In Italy ‘Florence fennel’ is used raw as a crunchy salad

vegetable or braised or boiled to be eaten warm or cold

with an olive oil dressing.

• In India fennel seeds are chewed to freshen the breath.

• Fennel has an affinity for fish. In France, fish is often

baked on a bed of sliced fennel.

• Fennel stalks can be used like celery stalks.

• Separate the fennel stems (stalks) from the bulb before

storing.


Cloves

(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Cloves.JPG)

(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Cloves_fresh_in_hand.JPG)


Cloves: Introduction

• Myrtaceae family

• Scientific name is Syzygium aromaticum.

• Part used is the flower bud.

• In-vitro studies indicate that clove oil has analgesic, local

anaesthetic, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects (Kothiwale et al., 2014).

• Traditional remedy for: dental conditions, respiratory

conditions, headache and sore throat. Believed to be an

aphrodisiac in Ayurvedic medicine; used to treat male

sexual disorders (Mishra & Singh, 2013).


Cloves: Bioactive Compounds

Bioactive compounds include (Liu et al., 2014):

• Eugenol

• β-caryophyllene

• Humulene

• Chavicol

• Methyl salicylate

• α-ylangene

• Eugonene

• Flavonoids: eugenin, rhamnetin, kaempferol and eugenitin

• Triterpenoids: oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and campesterol

• Several sesquiterpenes


Cloves: Culinary Uses


• One of the ingredients in garam masala (Indian spice mix)

– warming spice often added at the end of cooking curries.

• In the UK cloves are added to Christmas cake, Christmas

pudding and mulled wine – brings warmth.

• Used with apples – e.g. apple pie.

• Used as a pickling spice because of its antimicrobial

qualities.

• World’s major consumers are the Indonesians who use

cloves in the manufacture of a flavoured cigarette, Kretek.

(Bateman, M, 2003, p. 212)


Session Summary

Discuss the nutritional values, phytochemical profiles,

culinary uses and therapeutic benefits of:

• Onion

• Garlic

• Ginger

• Chilli

• Rosemary

• Nutmeg

• Fennel

• Cloves


References

Akha, O., Rabiei, K., Kashi, Z., Bahar, A., , Zaeif-Khorasani, E., Kosaryan, M., Saeedi,

M., Ebrahimzadeh, M.A. & Emadian, O. (2014). The effect of fennel

(Foeniculum vulgare) gel 3% in decreasing hair thickness in idiopathic mild to

moderate hirsutism, a randomised placebo controlled clinical trial. Caspian

Journal of Internal Medicine 5(1), 26-29. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3894467/

Agarwal, A. (2014). Spice up your life: Adipose tissue and inflammation. Journal of Lipids,

vol. 2014, Article ID 182575, 8 pages, doi: 10.1155/2014/182575. Retrieved

from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3950654/pdf/JL2014-

182575.pdf

Badgujar, S. (2014). Foeniculum vulgare Mill: A review of its botany, phytochemistry,

pharmacology, contemporary application and toxicology. Biomed Research

International, Article ID 842674, 32 pages. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/842674

Bateman, M. (2003). The world of spice. Great Britain: Kyle Cathie Ltd.

Braun, L. & Cohen, M. (2005). Herbs and natural supplements. NSW: Elsevier Mosby,


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3950654/pdf/JL2014-182575.pdf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/842674


References

FSANZ. (2010). Onion, mature, brown skinned, peeled, raw. NUTTAB 2010. Retrieved

November 1, 2014, from

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nutt

ab/Pages/default.aspx

Griffiths, G., Trueman, L., Crowther, T., Thomas, B & Smith, B. (2002). Onions – A global

benefit to health. Phytotherapy Research, 16(7), 603-615.

Hemphill, I. & Cobiac, L. (2006). The historical and cultural use of herbs and spices.

Medical Journal of Australia, 184(4), Suppl S5-S6.

Higdon, J. (2007). An evidence-based approach to dietary phytochemicals. New York:

Thieme.

Kastner, J. (2004). Chinese nutrition therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Thieme.

Kothiwale, S., Patwardhan, V., Gandhi, M., Sohoni, R. & Kumar, A. (2014). A comparative

study of antiplaque and antigingivitis effects of herbal mouthrinse containing

tea tree oil, clove and basil with commercially available essential oil

mouthrinse. Journal of the Indiian Society of Periodontology, 18(3), 316-320.

Liu, H., Schmitz, J., Wei, J., Cao, S., Beumer, J., Strychor, S…..Lin, X. (2014). Clove

extract inhibits tumour growth and promotes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

Oncology Reviews 21(5), 247-259.

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx


ReferencesMacready, A., George, T., Chong, M., Alimbetov, D., Jin, Y., Spencer, J……Lovegrove, J.

(2014). Flavonoid-rich fruit and vegetables improve microvascular reactivity

and inflammatory status in men at risk of cardiovascular disease--FLAVURS: a

randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 99(3), 479-

89. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/99/3/479.long

Mahmoudi, Z., Soleimani, M., Saidi, A., Khamisipour, G. & Azizsoltani, A. (2013). Effects

of Foeniculum vulgare ethanol extract on osteogensis in human mecenchymal

stem cells. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine, 3(2), 135-142. Retrieved from


Mishra & Singh (2013). Reproductive effects of lipid soluble components of Syzygium

aromaticum flower bud in male mice. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative

Medicine, 4(2):94-8. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.113870.

Mitra, J., Shrivastava, S. & Rao, P. (2012). Onion dehydration: a review. Journal of Food

Science and Technology 49(3), 267-277.

Natural Standard 2014a, ‘Ginger’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com

Natural Standard 2014b, ‘Cayenne’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com

Natural Standard 2014c, ‘Rosemary’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com

Natural Standard 2014c, ‘Nutmeg’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com

http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/99/3/479.long


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23930041

http://www.naturalstandard.com/





References

Nguyen, S. , Huang, H., Foster, B., Tam, T., Xing, T. Smith, M……Akhtar, H. (2014).

Antimicrobial and P450 inhibitory properties of common functional foods.

Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17(2), 254-265.

Omidvar, S., Esmailzadeh, S., Baradaran, M. & Basirat, Z. (2012). Effect of fennel on

pain intensity in dysmenorrhoea: a placebo controlled trial. Ayurveda, 33(2),

311-313.

Onions Australia 2010. Allium crops in Australia. Retrieved November 1, 2014, from

http://www.onionsaustralia.org.au/aboutonions/allium-crops.htm

Paul, S., Hwang, J., Kim, H., Jeon, W., Chung, C. & Han, J. (2013). Multiple biological

properties of macelignan and its pharmacological implications. Archives of

Pharmacology Research, 36(3), 264-272.

Piscitelli, S.C., Burstein, A.H., Welden, N., Gallicano, K.D., & Falloon J. (2002). The effect

of garlic supplements on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir. Clinical Infectious

Diseases, 34(2):234–238.

Platel, K. & Srinivasan, K. (2000). Influence of dietary spices and their active principles

on pancreatic digestive enzymes in albino rats. Nahrung, 44(1), 42-46.

http://www.onionsaustralia.org.au/aboutonions/allium-crops.htm


References

Platel, K., Rao, A., Saraswathi, G. & Srinivasan, K. (2002). Digestive stimulant action of

three Indian spice mixes in experimental rats. Nahrung, 46(6), 394-398.

Roldan-Marin, E., Krath, E., Poulsen, M., Binderup, M., Nielsen, T., Hansens,

M……Dragsted, L. (2009). Effects of an onion by-product on bioactivity and

safety markers in healthy rats. British Journal of Nutrition, 102, 1574-1582.

Suleria, H., Butt, M., Anjum, F., Saeed, F. & Khalid, N. (2014). Onion: Nature protection

against physiological threats. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition,

55(1), 50-66.

Toh, J., Tan, V., Lim, P., Lim, S. & Chong, M. (2013). Flavonoids from fruit and

vegetables: a focus on cardiovascular risk factors. Current Atherosclerosis

Reports 15(12), 368. doi: 10.1007/s11883-013-0368-y.

United States Department of Agriculture (n.d.). Classification of plants. Retrieved from

https://plants.usda.gov

Whiting, S., Derbyshire, E.J., Tiwari, B. (2014). Could capsaicinoids help to support

weight management? A systematic review and meta-analysis of energy intake

data. Appetite 73, 183–188.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666313004492

https://plants.usda.gov/

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666313004492


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nmdm121 medicinal food science session 13 … · culinary herbs and spices part i nutritional...

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