WIT 0782

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN INDOCHINA

FOCUS: VIETNAM

by

Jenne H. de Beer

FO:Misc/93/5Worldng Paper

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, May 1993

FO:Misc/93/5 Working Paper

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN INDOCHINA

FOCUS: VIETNAM

by

Jenne H. de Beer

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, May 1993

n/v 0182

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publicationdo not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of anycountry, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation ofits frontiers or boundaries.

The opinions expressed in the document are those of the author and notnecessary reflect the opinion on the part of the FAO.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The opinions expressed in the document are those of the author and not necessary reflect the opinion on the part of the FAD.

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN INDOCHINA

FOCUS: VIETNAM

by

Jenne H. de Beer

This document is a working paper. It documents information forming partof a larger study and informs interested persons about work in progress.

It is made available in limited numbers for comment and discussion.

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN INDOCHINA

FOCUS: VIETNAM

by

Jenne H. de Beer

This document is a working paper. It documents information forming part of a larger study and informs interested persons about work in progress.

It is made available in limited numbers for comment and discussion.

PREFACE

This document was prepared, under author's contract, by Mr. Jenne H. deBeer of AIDEnvironment, Amsterdam, as one of the several Regional and CountryStudies on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP), commissioned by FAO.

This, along with other similar and related studies will be used for preparing asubstantial publication of wider coverage on NWFP.

Comments on the document, (along vvith supporting materials as relevant), willbe greatly appreciated.

PREFACE

This document was prepared, under author's. contract, by Mr. Jenne H. de Beer of A1DEnvironment, Amsterdam, as one of the several Regional and Country Studies on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP) , commissioned by FAO.

This, along with other similar and related studies will be used for preparing a substantial publication of wider coverage on NWFP.

Comments on the document, (along with supporting materials as relevant), will be greatly appreciated.

i

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction 1

II The Forest Resource 3

III The Household Economy 5

IV Domestic and Export Markets 9

V Discussion of some Non-Wood Forest Products 11

5.1 Extracts and exudates 115.1.1 Essential oils and incense 115.1.2 Resins and gums 165.1.3 Industrial oil 195.1.4 Tannins and dyes 195.1.5 Insecticides 19

5.2 Medicinal plants 21

5.3 Fibres: rattan and bamboo 25

5.4 Edible plant products 275.4.1 Edible oils and nuts 275.4.2 Spices 28

5.5 Animal products 295.5.1 Honey and wax 295.5.2 Sticklac 30

VI Non-Wood Forest Products in Reforestation in 32Vietnam

VII Recommendations and Conclusions 337.1 General 337.2 Market aspects and research: Vietnam 337.3 Market aspects and research: Laos 35

References 37Annex I List of contacts 41Armex II Map of Indochina, with provinces of Vietnam 43Annex III Map of provinces of Laos 44

CONTENTS

Preface

I Introduction

II The Forest Resource

III The Household Economy

IV Domestic and Export Markets

V Discussion of some Non-Wood Forest Products 5.1 Extracts and exudates 5.1.1 Essential oils and incense 5.1.2 Resins and gums 5.1.3 Industrial oil 5.1.4 Tannins and dyes 5.1.5 Insecticides

5.2 Medicinal plants

5.3 Fibres: rattan and bamboo

5.4 Edible plant products 5.4.1 Edible oils and nuts 5.4.2 Spices

5.5 Animal products 5.5.1 Honey and wax 5.5.2 Sticklac

VI Non-Wood Forest Products in Reforestation in Vietnam

VII Recommendations and Conclusions 7.1 General 7.2 Market aspects and research: Vietnam 7.3 Market aspects and research: Laos

References Annex I Annex II Annex III

List of contacts Map of Indochina, with provinces of Vietnam Map of provinces of Laos

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11 11 11 16 19 19 19

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27 27 28

29 29 30

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33 33 33 35

37 41 43 44

I INTRODUCTION

Objectives and scope

Mr. J.H. de Beer, AIDEnvironment, was commissioned by the FAORome to carry out a short study on non-wood forest products (henceforthcalled NWFPs) in Indochina, with a strong focus on Vietnam.

The primary objectives were to

select NWFPs with a significant potential for expandedsustainable output, but for which market intelligence iscurrently inadequate in the producer countries;

identify the market potential of the selected NWFPs.

While in Vietnam, it was revealed to the consultant that in the lightof current discussions in that country, a report with a somewhat broaderscope was urgently needed.

However, basic information on the NWFP-sector is seriously lacking.In order to comply with this demand, this report aims at providing aprospective, along which the conservation and development of the NWFPsector can be approached.

If only because of the limited time available to the consultant, thisreport cannot pretend to be anywhere near comprehensive. From theplethora of products which can be considered, only a few were selected.Important aspects, such as the use of NWFPs on the household level, willreceive too little attention.

The scope is Indochina as far as products occur in the whole regionor as far as the aspects discussed are relevant for the whole of Indochina.However, a clear focus will be on Vietnam. Some specifics will also bediscussed for Laos, whilst Cambodia is only referred to in passing.

The report is based on information gathered during travel to theregion, supplemented by the study of literature and consultation withtraders in Europe and with specialists in international market conditions.Also included is information gathered during earlier visits to Laos.

FAO commissioned the consultant to work altogether one month onthis report. An invaluable source for the identification of products wasPetelot's monumental four volume work "Les plantes médicinales duCambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam". Among the other literature comulted,from trade periodicals via case studies to more general publications, Dr.Luang Van Tien's "country paper Vietnam", prepared for the FAO regionalexpert consultation on non-wood forest products, in November 1991 inBangkok, deserves special mentioning.

1 INTRODUCTION

Objectives and scope

Mr. J.H. de Beer, AIDEnvironment, was commissioned by the FAO Rome to carry out a short study on non-wood forest products (henceforth called NWFPs) in Indochina, with a strong focus on Vietnam.

The primary objectives were to

a) select NWFPs with a significant potential for expanded sustainable output, but for which market intelligence is currently inadequate in the producer countries;

b) identify the market potential of the selected NWFPs.

While in Vietnam, it was revealed to the consultant that in the light of current discussions in that country, a report with a somewhat broader scope was urgently needed.

However, basic information on the NWFP-sector is seriously lacking. In order to comply with this demand, this report aims at providing a prospective, along which the conservation and development of the NWFP sector can be approached.

If only because of the limited time available to the consultant, this report cannot pretend to be anywhere near comprehensive. From the plethora of products which can be considered, only a few were selected. Important aspects, such as the use of NWFPS on the household level, will receive too little attention.

The scope is Indochina as far as products occur in the whole region or as far as the aspects discussed are relevant for the whole of Indochina. However, a clear focus will be on Vietnam. Some specifics will also be discussed for Laos, whilst Cambodia is only referred to in passing.

The report is based on information gathered during travel to the region, supplemented by the study of literature and consultation with traders in Europe and with specialists in international market conditions. Also included is information gathered during earlier visits to Laos.

FAO commissioned the consultant to work altogether one month on this report. An invaluable source for the identification of products was Petelot's monumental four volume work ilLes plantes medicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnamll

• Among the other literature consulted, from trade periodicals via case studies to more general publications, Dr. Luang Van Tien's IIcountry paper Vietnamll

, prepared for the FAO regional expert consultation on non-wood forest products, in November 1991 in Bangkok, deserves special mentioning.

Trade statistics for the region, as far as they do exist, are to behandled with much circumspection, as a very large volume of NWFPs arebeing traded unregistered. Under-reporting, double counting and the use ofunrealistic prices are among the systematic shortcomings of these statistics.Where statistics on volumes and prices of NWFPs produced and tradedwere available, these were used as a starting point, supplemented byqualified guesses made by local and international traders and expertsfamiliar with the trade in specific products. In other cases these qualifiedguesses were the only source.

Concepts

The term 'non-wood forest product' encompasses all biologicalmaterials other than timber and fuelwood which are extracted from naturalforests for human use. These include fibre products such as bamboo andrattan; edible plant products, such as condiments and fniits; animal foodproducts such as bushmeat, bird's nests and honey; non-edible animalproducts such as live animals, feathers and horns; medicinal plants; andextracts and exudates such as essential oils, resins, gums and dyes.

By 'forest' is meant a natural ecosystem in which trees are adominant component. However, the trees do not exist in an ecologicalvacuum but, together with other plants and with animals, are part of a 'webof life'. Forest products are potentially derived from trees, but also from allplants, fungi and animals (including fish) for which the forest ecosystemprovides habitat.

This report vvill deal with NWFPs which are collected in naturalforests and indigenous plant species which are grown under forest coverand under an agroforestry system in homegardens. Hence, whereasmanaged secondary or degraded forests are included as sources of NWFPs,plantations are not.

2

Trade statistics for the region, as far as they do exist, are to be handled with much circumspection, as a very large volume of NWFPs are being traded unregistered. Under-reporting, double counting and the use of unrealistic prices are among the systematic shortcomings of these statistics. Where statistics on volumes and prices of NWFPs produced and traded were available, these were used as a starting point, supplemented by qualified guesses made by local and international traders and experts familiar with the trade in specific products. In other cases these qualified guesses were the only source.

Concepts

The term 'non-wood forest product' encompasses all biological materials other than timber and fuelwood which are extracted from natural forests for human use. These include fibre products such as bamboo and rattan; edible plant products, such as condiments and fruits; animal food products such as bushmeat, bird's nests and honey; non-edible animal products such as live animals, feathers and horns; medicinal plants; and extracts and exudates such as essential oils, resins, gums and dyes.

By 'forest' is meant a natural ecosystem in which trees are a dominant component. However, the trees do not exist in an ecological vacuum but, together with other plants and with animals, are part of a 'web of life'. Forest products are potentially derived from trees, but also from all plants, fungi and animals (including fish) for which the forest ecosystem provides habitat.

This report will deal with NWFPs which are collected in natural forests and indigenous plant species which are grown under forest cover and under an agroforestry system in homegardens. Hence, whereas managed secondary or degraded forests are included as sources of NWFPs, plantations are not.

2

2 THE FOREST RESOURCE

In the past, Indochina disposed of vast forest reserves of differenttypes. Although there are no exact figures for the size of the flora or thenumber of endemics, plant species richness is considered to be highl. Inthe last decades the total land area under closed forest cover has declinedrapidly in all three countries; Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. The maincauses of forest degradation and destruction have been uncontrolled orpoorly controlled logging and shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation inparticular is a major cause of deforestation where lowlanders with pooragricultural practices inadequate for upland plots, have taken up uplandagriculture in large numbers.

The extent to which the region can capitalize on its rich potential ofNWFPs depends primarily on the extent to which the countries ofIndochina will be able to reverse the negative trend of deforestation. Onthe other hand, strengthening the NWFP sector can also contribute toforest conservation, as this would enlarge the benefits from forests for ruralpeople in the region, and therefore the impetus for resources conservation.

Vietnam

Vietnam has 65 million inhabitants, with an average population of190/km2. However, population densities vary widely between the differentprovinces.

In 1943 Vietnam had extensive tropical forest, with an estimatedarea of 14.3 million hectares, corresponding to a forest coverage of 43%.The latest inventory shows that the forest area in 1987 was 9.3 millionhectares or 28 % of the national land area.

According to estimates made by the Ministry of Forestry, the annualloss of forests is some 110,000 hectares. The rate of reforestation is 130,000- 150,000 hectares per year. This rate compensates for the annual forestloss and has led to some expansion of the forested area. However, in termsof biodiversity, these new plantations are empty, if compared with thenatural forest they gradually replace, as they consist of rather uniformstands of only a few exotic fast grovving species. At present, large naturalforests are only found in the Southern Highlands and in border areas withLaos (Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1991:33,34).Because of overlogging the forests of the Southern Highlands (centralVietnam) are at present becoming severely degraded.

About 12,000 species of plants are estimated to occur in Vietnam of which only7,000 have been described; up to 1,000 species are known to be endemic to thecountry (Vo Quy, quoted in Ministry of Forestry, 1991: 42)

3

2 THE FOREST RESOURCE

In the past, Indochina disposed of vast forest reserves of different types. Although there are no exact figures for the size of the flora or the number of endenHcs, plant species richness is considered to be highl. In the last decades the total land area under closed forest cover has de.clined rapidly in all three countries; Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. The main causes of forest degradation and destruction have been uncontrolled or poorly controlled logging and shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation in particular is a major cause of deforestation where lowlanders with poor agricultural practices inadequate for upland plots, have taken up upland agriculture in large numbers.

The extent to which the region can capitalize on its rich potential of NWFPs depends primarily on the extent to which the countries of Indochina will be able to reverse the negative trend of deforestation. On the other hand, strengthening the NWFP sector can also contribute to forest conservation, as this would enlarge the benefits from forests for rural people in the region, and therefore the impetus for resources conservation.

Vietnam

Vietnam has 65 million inhabitants, with an average population of 190/km2

• However, population densities vary widely between the different provinces.

In 1943 Vietnam had extensive tropical forest, with an estimated area of 14.3 million hectares, corresponding to a forest coverage of 43%. The latest inventory shows that the forest area in 1987 was 9.3 million hectares or 28 % of the national land area.

According to estimates made by'the Ministry of Forestry, the annual loss of forests is some 110,000 hectares. The rate of reforestation is 130,000 - 150,000 hectares per year. This rate compensates for the annual forest loss and has led to some expansion of the forested area. However, in terms of biodiversity, these new plantations are empty, if compared with the natural forest they gradually replace, as they consist of rather uniform stands of only a few exotic fast growing species. At present, large natural forests are only found in the Southern Highlands and in border areas with Laos (Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1991:33,34). Because of overlogging the forests of the Southern Highlands (central Vietnam) are at present becoming severely degraded.

1 About 12,000 species of plants are estimated to occur in Vietnam of which only 7,000 have been described; up to 1,000 species are known to be endemic to the country (Vo Quy, quoted in Ministry of Forestry, 1991: 42)

3

Laos

Laos has a population of about four million people, of which 85 %are living in rural areas. With an average population of 15 people/km2, ithas one of the lowest population densities in Southeast Asia.

There are large areas of more or less evergreen forest whichoriginally covered about 160,000 km2 or about 70 % of the land area.Lowland and mountain rainforests occupied much of the northern part ofthe country, the Annamite mountains along the border vvith Vietnam, theBoloven plateau and the Mekong plains.

Data on forest cover and rates of forest loss in Laos are in shortsupply. Perhaps the best estimate is that approximately 29 % of the landarea is at present under closed forest cover and a further 25 % is coveredwith degraded forest (Collins et al., 1991). There is no doubt that forestdestruction and forest degradation have been serious in the recent past.Nevertheless, at present Laos still has considerable natural NVVFP stocks.

4

Laos has a population of about four million people, of which 85 % are living in rural areas. With an average population of 15 people/km2, it has one of the lowest population densities in Southeast Asia.

There are large areas of more or less evergreen forest which originally covered about 160,000 km2 or about 70 % of the land area. Lowland and mountain rainforests occupied much of the northern part of the country, the Annamite mountains along the border with Vietnam, the Boloven plateau and the Mekong plains.

Data on forest cover and rates of forest loss in Laos are in short supply. Perhaps the best estimate is that approximately 29 % of the land area is at present under closed forest cover and a further 25 % is covered with degraded forest (Collins et al., 1991). There is no doubt that forest destruction and forest degradation have been serious in the recent past. Nevertheless, at present Laos still has considerable natural NWFP stocks.

4

3 THE HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY

Altogether it is estimated that there are 24.3 million people living inVietnam on and near forest lands, accounting for 30 % of the country'spopulation (Van Tien, 1991:13).

The importance of NWF'Ps on the domestic level cannot beoverestimated. This particularly applies to the ± 7.8 million people of ruralethnic minorities in Vietnam and the 1,8 million people of ethnicminorities in Laos, who make up 45 % of the total population of Laos.Some ethnic groups (e.g. the Than and the Tai) spend up to 235 days peryear on hunting and collecting forest products (Tran Van Nao, 1987). As isthe case elsewhere in Southeast Asia, gathering, hunting, and fishing are allvital adjuncts of traditional forest farming. These activities, together withfarming, form an integrated system of resource utilization. In ruralhouseholds, NWFPs fulfil several functions. They provide food security,health care, materials for implements and construction, fodder, fuelwood,and income.

Food and fodder

Food from the forest, such as game, bamboo shoots, ferns, fruits andnuts, honey, and mushrooms, are consumed as side dishes and snacks. Assuch it provides a considerable supplement to agricultural crops. Variousspecies of wild tubers, vegetables, and other forest foods are vvidely used asbuffers against seasonal and emergency shortages. In many areas ofVietnam rural people rely entirely on the forest as the source of food andfodder for pigs and cattle for four months per year or more (Gammelgaard1990:8, Tran Van Nao 1987:5).

The same phenomenon is reported in Laos. The provinces ofSavanaketh and Sayaboury, for example, had a bad rice harvest for threeconsecutive years since 1987, because of droughts and pests. During thistime most people relied on wild tubers and other forest food for about fourmonths every year.

Health care

All over rural Indochina traditional practitioners represent themajor medical facility which is available. A large part of the ingredients fortraditional prescription originates from natural forest resources.

Construction and implements

In rural Indochina wood, rattan, palm and imperata leaves are used.Bamboo however, mainly from secondary forest, is a particularly importantmaterial. Houses, furniture, barns, fences and a whole range of implements

5

3 TIlE HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY

Altogether it is estimated that there are 24.3 million people living in Vietnam on and near forest lands, accounting for 30 % of the country's population (Van Tien, 1991:13).

The importance of NWFPs on the domestic level cannot be overestimated. This particularly applies to the ± 7.8 million people of rural ethnic minorities in Vietnam and the 1,8 million people of ethnic minorities in Laos, who make up 45 % of the total population of Laos. Some ethnic groups (e.g. the Than and the Tai) spend up to 235 days per year on hunting and collecting forest products (Tran Van Nao, 1987). As is the case elsewhere in Southeast Asia, gathering, hunting, and fishing are all vital adjuncts of traditional forest farming. These activities, together with farming, form an integrated system of resource utilization. In rural households, NWFPs fulfil several functions. They provide food security, health care, materials for implements and construction, fodder, fuelwood, and income.

Food and fodder

Food from the forest, such as game, bamboo shoots, ferns, fruits and nuts, honey, and mushrooms, are consumed as side dishes and snacks. As such it provides a considerable supplement to agricultural crops. Various species of wild tubers, vegetables, and other forest foods are widely used as buffers against seasonal and emergency shortages. In many areas of Vietnam rural people rely entirely on the forest as the source of food and fodder for pigs and cattle for four months per year or more (Gammelgaard 1990:8, Tran Van Nao 1987:5).

The same phenomenon is reported in Laos. The provinces of Savanaketh and Sayaboury, for example, had a bad rice harvest for three consecutive years since 1987, because of droughts and pests. During this time most people relied on wild tubers and other forest food for about four months every year.

Health care

Allover rural Indochina traditional practitioners represent the major medical facility which is available. A large part of the ingredients for traditional prescription originates from natural forest resources.

Construction and implements

In rural Indochina wood, rattan, palm and imperata leaves are used. Bamboo however, mainly from secondary forest, is a particularly important material. Houses, furniture, barns, fences and a whole range of implements

5

are made of bamboo. It is appropriately called the poor man's timber (Rao1991).

Fuelwood

In Vietnam an estimated 23 million tonnes of fuelwood are usedannually. In rural areas, together with rice straw and other residues, it isthe common fuel for cooking. In thinly populated areas which are stillunder closed forest cover, fuelwood collection is not considered a problem.In many other areas there is an acute scarcity of the product. In the ruralareas of Laos fallen branches, litter, and dead wood are widely gatheredfrom secondary forests and swidden fields to use as fuelwood. With its lowpopulation densities, Laos has no scarcity of fuelwood.

Income

As a source of income the sale of NWFPs, both in Vietnam andLaos, often exceeds income derived from the sale of agricultural products,such as rice. In some isolated provinces of Laos, NWFPs indeed do formpractically the only source of income apart from opium.

For an example from north Vietnam, see the box below. A fewother examples are discussed in the section on products (see also VanTien, 1991).

6

are made of bamboo. It is appropriately called the poor man's timber (Rao 1991).

Fuelwood

In Vietnam an estimated 23 million tonnes of fuelwood are used annually. In rural areas, together with rice straw and other residues, it is the common fuel for cooking. In thinly populated areas which are still under closed forest cover, fuelwood collection is not considered a problem. In many other areas there is an acute scarcity of the product. In the rural areas of Laos fallen branches, litter, and dead wood are widely gathered from secondary forests and swidden fields to use as fuelwood. With its low population densities, Laos has no scarcity of fuelwood.

Income

As a source of income the sale of NWFPs, both in Vietnam and Laos, often exceeds income derived from the sale of agricultural products, such as rice. In some isolated provinces of Laos, NWFPs indeed do form practically the only source of income apart from opium.

For an example from north Vietnam, see the box below. A few other examples are discussed in the section on products (see also Van Tien, 1991).

6

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8

4 DOMESTIC AND EXPORT MARICETS

In Vietnam, the NWFP-sector as a whole, including cultivation,collecting, trading and processing, gives employment to hundreds ofthousand of people (Van Tien, 1991: 14).

A significant part of the NWFPs harvested are entering the homemarket for direct consumption or for use in industries which produce forthe homemarket. The overall economy of Vietnam is in rapid transition,characterized by the decentralization of control and liberalization of tradeand industry. As a consequence more diversified trade channels can beused by producers and customers.

A considerable part of Vietnams NWFP-export is in fact re-exportfrom Laos and Cambodia (e.g. eaglewood). The export trade is in thehands of a few state and provincial companies and numerous small privatetraders. Until recently, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were themain export destinations for a large number of NWFPs. Trade was basedon barter and quality standards demanded in this trade were low. Since thecollapse of the Soviet economy, Vietnam is turning to other markets. Infact, the official export to China and a number of other destinations were

on the increase already well before the collapse of the Soviet market.

Now Hongkong, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, 'Thailand and France arebecoming increasingly important customers for NWFPs from Vietnam.China is at the same time an important importer of NWFPs, as well as amajor competitor on the world market for products, such as essential oils.Thailand, in the last decade, changed from a country exporting a range ofNWFPs into an importer from Indochina. In order to be able to penetrateother 'new' markets a constant effort to keep up quality standards will beneeded.

At present, world market prices for raw materials such as spices andessential oils are generally low as a result of a stnictural oversupply fromproducer countries and the current recession in North America andEurope. This is particularly tnie for products which are easily cultivated.On the other hand, the growing demand for natural products in theindustrialized countries opens new markets for some specific products.For labour intensive products, such as pine resin, Vietnam has theadvantage of comparatively cheap labour.

In the past Indochina as a whole enjoyed a special position on theworld market as a supplier of NWFPs. Now, while the Indochinesecountries are trying to re-establish international trade links, it should bepossible to win back at least a share of their former markets. Thisobviously will be a long term operation.

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4 DOMESTIC AND EXPORT MARKETS

In Vietnam, the NWFP-sector as a whole, including cultivation, collecting, trading and processing, gives employment to hundreds of thousand of people (Van Tien, 1991: 14).

A significant part of the NWFPs harvested are entering the home market for direct consumption or for use in industries which produce for the homemarket. The overall economy of Vietnam is in rapid transition, characterized by the decentralization of control and liberalization of trade and industry. As a consequence more diversified trade channels can be used by producers and customers.

A considerable part of Vietnams NWFP-export is in fact re-export from Laos and Cambodia (e.g. eaglewood). The' export trade is in the hands of a few state and provincial companies and numerous small private traders. Until recently, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were the main export destinations for a large number of NWFPs. Trade was based on barter and quality standards demanded in this trade were low. Since the collapse of the Soviet economy, Vietnam is turning to other markets. In fact, the official export to China and a number of other destinations were

on the increase already well before the collapse of the Soviet market.

Now Hongkong, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand and France are becoming increasingly important customers for NWFPs from Vietnam. China is at the same time an important importer of NWFPs, as well as a major competitor on the world market for products, such as essential oils. Thailand, in the last decade, changed from a country exporting a range of NWFPs into an importer from Indochina. In order to be able to penetrate other 'new' markets a constant effort to keep up quality standards will be needed.

At present, world market prices for raw materials such as spices and essential oils are generally low as a result of a structural oversupply from producer countries and the current recession in North America and Europe. This is particularly true for products which are easily cultivated. On the other hand, the growing demand for natural products in the industrialized countries opens new markets for some specific products. For labour intensive products, such as pine resin, Vietnam has the advantage of comparatively cheap labour.

In the past Indochina as a whole enjoyed a special position on the world market as a supplier of NWFPs. Now, while the Indochinese countries are trying to re-establish international trade links, it should be possible to win back at least a share of their former markets. This obviously will be a long term operation.

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Laos is also in the process of liberalizing its economy. A specificproblem for Laos is that, being landlocked, it suffers from particular hightransport costs for exports.

Although the actual capacity for processing NWFPs in Laos islimited, the NWFP based industry is nevertheless of importance vis a visthe smallness of the national industry as a whole. It includes rattan for thedomestic and export market, pharmaceuticals for the domestic market,essential oils (eaglewood and star anise), and the distillation of pine resinfor the export market.

Cambodia is at present exporting a range of NWFPs to Vietnamand Thailand. It has no processing capacity of its own. A major problem isthat many of the forests where NWFPs used to be collected, are infestedwith landmines.

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Laos is also in the process of liberalizing its economy. A specific problem for Laos is that, being landlocked, it suffers from particular high transport costs for exports.

Although the actual capacity for processing NWFPs in Laos is limited, the NWFP based industry is nevertheless of importance vis a vis the smallness of the national industry as a whole. It includes rattan for the domestic and export market, pharmaceuticals for the domestic market, essential oils (eaglewood and star anise), and the distillation of pine resin for the export market.

Cambodia is at present exporting a range of NWFPs to Vietnam and Thailand. It has no processing capacity of its own. A major problem is that many of the forests where NWFPs used to be collected, are infested with landmines.

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5 DISCUSSION OF SOME NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS

In this section specific NWFPs occuring in Indochina are discussed.Again it must be stressed that this section is far from comprehen,sive. Afew examples are given of NWFPs in various product groups. Someproducts are dealt with in some detail, whilst other products and productgroups are discussed more briefly. Several other interesting products, e.g.mushrooms, ornamental plants, flowers, nipah palms and birds' nests arenot touched upon here.

The following product groups are discussed below: extracts andexudates, medicinal products, fibres, edible plant products, and animalproducts.

5.1 Extracts and exudates

5.1.1 Essential oils and incense

Essential oils can be defined as a volatile mixture of organiccompounds derived by physical means from odorous plant material, such asflowers, herbs, woods, fruits, and roots. Essential oils are the basic rawmaterials for perfumes on a large scale and for flavouring to a lesserextent, as for flavouring a wider range of other ingredients is available.Essential oils find their applications in the food and in the fragranceindustry (perfumes, soaps, detergents), and in pharmaceutical products.

Vietnam is currently expanding its capacity for the production andexport of high quality essential oils. A pivotal role is played by the Enteroilcompany, which was established four years ago within the CNRS (CentreNational des Recherches Scientifiques). Enteroil is a specialised exportunity. Distillation of essential oils is for the larger part done in smallercottage industries near the areas where the raw material is harvested.Enteroil acts primarily as a centre of quality control and certification. Ithas adequate equipment and staff for this purpose. Much energy is investedin extension work aimed at bringing up quality standards with thecollectors/cultivators and the cottage industries.

In Laos one sophisticated distillation unit exists in pharmaceuticalindustry nr. 3 at Vientiane. At present, the distillation unit reportedlyoperates far below its potential capacity.

Market trends and consumer preferences

In general, this is not the best time for a producer of essential oilsto enter new markets. On the one hand there is a considerable oversupplyof certain products. Particularly China is dumping large volumes of some

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5 DISCUSSION OF SOME NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

In this section specific NWFPs occuring in Indochina are discussed. Again it must be stressed that this section is far from comprehensive. A few examples are given of NWFPs in various product groups. Some products are dealt with in some detail, whilst other products and product groups are discussed more briefly. Several other interesting products, e.g. mushrooms, ornamental plants, flowers, nipah palms and birds' nests are not touched upon here.

The following product groups are discussed below: extracts and exudates, medicinal products, fibres, edible plant products, and animal products.

5.1 Extracts and exudates

5.1.1 Essential oils and incense

Essential oils can be defined as a volatile mixture of organic compounds derived by physical means from odorous plant material, such as flowers, herbs, woods, fruits, and roots. Essential oils are the basic raw materials for perfumes on a large scale and for flavouring to a lesser extent, as for flavouring a wider range of other ingredients is available. Essential oils find their applications in the food and in the fragrance industry (perfumes, soaps, detergents), and in pharmaceutical products.

Vietnam is currently expanding its capacity for the production and export of high quality essential oils. A pivotal role is played by the Enteroil company, which was established four years ago within the CNRS (Centre National des Recherches Scientifiques). Enteroil is a specialised export unity. Distillation of essential oils is for the larger part done in smaller cottage industries near the areas where the raw material is harvested. Enteroil acts primarily as a centre of quality control and certification. It has adequate equipment and staff for this purpose. Much energy is invested in extension work aimed at bringing up quality standards with the collectors/cultivators and the cottage industries.

In Laos one sophisticated distillation unit exists in pharmaceutical industry nr. 3 at Vientiane. At present, the distillation unit reportedly operates far below its potential capacity.

Market trends and consumer preferences

In general, this is not the best time for a producer of essential oils to enter new markets. On the one hand there is a considerable oversupply of certain products. Particularly China is dumping large volumes of some

11

oils on the world market.

On the other hand especially the fragrance industry is badly affectedby the recession in North America and Europe. In combination this has ledto very low prices for a range of essential oils.

From the demand side, prospects in the flavours industry look muchbetter. T'he reduction of saturated fats, calories, sugar, salt and othercomponents in processed food, has created a strong demand, particulary inthe USA, for flavours which are needed to offset diminished palatability.Perhaps even more importantly, natural ingredients are more and morepreferred by consumers in the industrialized countries.

Cinnamomum cassia. Cinnamomum loureirii2 (Cassia)

Cassia trees occur naturally in large parts of Indochina, but mostabundantly in north and central Vietnam (e.g. Hoang Lien Son province),where it is also widely cultivated. Wild stands of Cassia trees occur in theeastern provinces of Laos. About 2000 tonnes of Cassia bark are exportedfrom Vietnam annually, at US $ 2,000 - 3,000/tonne. In addition a smallamount of cassia oil is exported (about 10 tonnes, at US $ 27 per kg). Thevolume of export has steadily increased during the 1980s.

Laos: Cassia bark enters local markets (e.g. Pakse, bark from theBaktian district, Champasak province). Cassia in its ground form is used inNorth America, Europe and Japan in bakery products, in meat and fishseasoning and generally in spice mixes. The oil is used in small quantitiesby the flavouring industry (e.g. cola type soft drinks). The quantity of cassiaentering world trade is in the order of 20,000 to 25,000 tonnes annually,with Indonesia and China being the main suppliers. In the past 'Saigon'cassia from Vietnam was regarded in the USA as the superior qualityspice. Although Chinese cassia is now the standard, it is to be expectedthat Vietnam stands a fair chance to win back a share of the US marketafter the ban on imports from Vietnam will have been lifted there. This isexpected soon after the presidential elections in the U.S.A.

In the areas where cassia is cultivated or collected it forms a veryvaluable source of income for the local population. Reports from Van Yendistrict in the province of Hoang Lien Son learn that the local Daoeconomy, which is focused towards cassia cultivation, thrives very well. TheDao have currently 1000 ha (out of a total of 2400 ha) for Cinnamomumcassia , which area is steadily expanded (Van Tien, 1991:13, H. Bovil, J.Brands, pers. comm.).

2 The difference between the two species is very small.

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oils on the world market.

On the other hand especially the fragrance industry is badly affected by the recession in North America and Europe. In combination this has led to very low prices for a range of essential oils.

From the demand side, prospects in the flavours industry look much better. The reduction of saturated fats, calories, sugar, salt and other components in processed food, has created a strong demand, particulary in the USA, for flavours which are needed to offset diminished palatability. Perhaps even more importantly, natural ingredients are more and more preferred by consumers in the industrialized countries.

Cinnamomum cassia. Cinnamomum loureirii2 (Cassia)

Cassia trees occur naturally in large parts of Indochina, but most abundantly in north and central Vietnam (e.g. Hoang Lien Son province), where it is also widely cultivated. Wild stands of Cassia trees occur in the eastern provinces of Laos. About 2000 tonnes of Cassia bark are exported from Vietnam annually, at US $ 2,000 - 3,000/tonne. In addition a small amount of cassia oil is exported (about 10 tonnes, at US $ 27 per kg). The volume of export has steadily increased during the 1980s.

Laos: Cassia bark enters local markets (e.g. Pakse, bark from the Baktian district, Champasak province). Cassia in its ground form is used in North America, Europe and Japan in bakery products, in meat and fish seasoning and generally in spice mixes. The oil is used in small quantities by the flavouring industry (e.g. cola type soft drinks). The quantity of cassia entering world trade is in the order of 20,000 to 25,000 tonnes annually, with Indonesia and China being the main suppliers. In the past 'Saigon' cassia from Vietnam was regarded in the USA as the superior quality spice. Although Chinese cassia is now the standard, it is to be expected that Vietnam stands a fair chance to win back a share of the US market after the ban on imports from Vietnam will have been lifted there. This is expected soon after the presidential elections in the U.S.A

In the areas where cassia is cultivated or collected it forms a very valuable source of income for the 'local population. Reports from Van Yen district in the province of Hoang Lien Son learn that the local Dao economy, which is focused towards cassia cultivation, thrives very well. The Dao have currently 1000 ha (out of a total of 2400 ha) for Cinnamomum cassia, which area is steadily expanded (Van Tien, 1991:13, H. Bovil, J. Brands, pers. comm.).

2 The difference between the two species is very small.

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Cananga odorata (Bang Ilang)

This is a large tree, cultivated in home gardens, all over Vietnam.The flowers are used for worship. Domestically the oil is used as afragrance for soap. At present there is no export of this essential oil. Theworld market is less than 100 tonnes and is stable, but not growing. InFrance, the best quality is used in high-class perfume of the floral andheavy oriental types, in which the oil blends well with other essential oils.

.Melaleuca leucadendron (Cajeput oil)

In the past melaleuca forests took up a large area in the Mekongdelta and along the coast of central Vietnam. In the Mekong delta thetotal area with stands of Melaleuca has shrunk during the last threedecades to less then 100.000 hectares. The Melaleuca forests in centralVietnam also have diminished considerably.Some cajeput oil is used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry and asmall quantity (± 50 tonnes) is exported to Singapore. For cajeput oils asan export commodity the future looks bleak because world market pricesare falling rapidly, following the collapse of Eucalyptus oil prices.

Illicium venim (star anise)

This small tree, belonging to the family Iliciaceae which grows inthe evergreen forests of southern China and the mountainous regions ofIndochina, is being cultivated in the Vietnamese province of Lang Son andin the mountainous regions of Eastern Laos.

Vietnam produces more than 2000 tonnes of star anise seeds perannum. A small quantity is used domestically in tonicums. About 1600tonnes of seeds are exported to Cuba, China and the Soviet Union. On topof that 200 - 250 tonnes of essential oil are shipped to France andCzechoslovakia. In China, the largest supplier of star anise to the worldmarket, Vietnam star anise is blended and then exported to France. InFrance it is used as a raw material in the production of alcoholicbeverages.

The world market price is at present approximately US $ 7.50/kgfor star anise oil, down from US $15/kg a few years ago. The price appearsto have stabilized now and star anise oil is considered a fairly goodproduct. Vietnam has one distillation plant for star anise at Lang Son andabout eight manual production lines around Caobang and Lang Son. InVientiane, Laos, a small quantity of star anise oil is distilled annually.

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Cananga odorata (Bang Bang)

This is a large tree, cultivated in home gardens, all over Vietnam. The flowers are used for worship. Domestically the oil is used as a fragrance for soap. At present there is no export of this essential oil. The world market is less than 100 tonnes and is stable, but not growing. In France, the best quality is used in high-class perfume of the floral and heavy oriental types, in which the oil blends well with other essential oils.

Melaleuca leucadendron (Cajeput oil)

In the past melaleuca forests took up a large area in the Mekong delta and along the coast of central Vietnam. In the Mekong delta the total area with stands of Melaleuca has shrunk during the last three decades to less then 100.000 hectares. The Melaleuca forests in central Vietnam also have diminished considerably. Some cajeput oil is used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry and a small quantity (± 50 tonnes) is exported to Singapore. For cajeput oils as an export commodity the future looks bleak because world market prices are falling rapidly, following the collapse of Eucalyptus oil prices.

Illicium verum (star anise)

This small tree, belonging to the family Iliciaceae which grows in the evergreen forests of southern China and the mountainous regions of Indochina, is being cultivated in the Vietnamese province of Lang Son and in the mountainous regions of Eastern Laos.

Vietnam produces more than 2000 tonnes of star anise seeds per annum. A small quantity is used domestically in tonicums. About 1600 tonnes of seeds are exported to Cuba, China and the Soviet Union. On top of that 200 - 250 tonnes of essential oil are shipped to France and Czechoslovakia. In China, the largest supplier of star anise to the world market, Vietnam star anise is blended and then exported to France. In France it is used as a raw material in the production of alcoholic beverages.

The world market price is at present approximately US $ 7.50/kg for star anise oil, down from US $15/kg a few years ago. The price appears to have stabilized now and star anise oil is considered a fairly good product. Vietnam has one distillation plant for star anise at Lang Son and about eight manual production lines around Caobang and Lang Son. In Vientiane, Laos, a small quantity of star anise oil is distilled annually.

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Aquilaria crassna (Eaglewood)

Eaglewood or aloeswood is a resinous incense wood, produced bydiseased tissues of certain individuals of Aquilaria crassna, growing inIndochina. This highly valuable product is used in Chinese and SouthernAsian medicine as well as for incense and cosmetics in the Middle East.The tree is found in the Annamite highlands in Laos and Vietnam and inthe coastal mountains of Cambodia.

Tbe ethnic minorities, collecting eaglewood, make small holes in thetrees they encounter to investigate its content. If no eaglewood is found,they leave the tree alone. The scars stimulate the production of eaglewood.A few years later the same trees are investigated again. Only if the treecontains eaglewood, the whole tree is cut.

First grade eaglewood from Indochina values up to US $ 2000/kg inSingapore. From lesser grades the essential oil is distilled in small factoriesin Ho Chi Minh-city and Vientiane. Eaglewood from Cambodia and Laosis shipped via Vinh and Ho Chi Minh-city. About 100 tonnes of eaglewoodis officially exported from Vietnam, but the real export most be muchmore.

Jasminum sambac oil

This is the product of the flower of a small tree, cultivated in homegardens all over Vietnam. The essential oil is domestically used forflavouring tea.

Fokienia hodginsii (Pemou oil)

Pemou oil is derived from a large tree, up to 30 m. It growsnaturally in Vietnam in the northern province of Dai Son, in the centralhighlands and in the Lam Dong province in the south. Nowadays the treehas become quite rare. The essential oil is extracted from roots andstumps. The timber is evorted to Taiwan, where it is used for themanufacture of coffins and furniture. Pemou oil is used as a fragrance incosmetics (e.g. soap). Its fragrance is described as very good and unique.

Up to 20 years ago pemou oil was exported to Western Europe (a.o.Germany) at a price of US $ 20/kg. This trade ended after supplies driedup during the war. At present 50 tonnes of oil are exported annually toCzechoslovakia. From the south another 50 tonnes of powder is exportedto Hongkong and Singapore at US $ 350/tonne f.o.b. Ho Chi Minh-city.

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Aquilaria crassna (EagJewood)

Eaglewood or aloeswood is a resinous incense wood, produced by diseased tissues of certain individuals of Aquilaria crassna, growing in Indochina. This highly valuable product is used in Chinese and Southern Asian medicine as well as for incense and cosmetics in the Middle East. The tree is found in the Annamite highlands in Laos and Vietnam and in the coastal mountains of Cambodia.

The ethnic minorities, collecting eaglewood, make small holes in the trees they encounter to investigate its content. If no eaglewood is found, they leave the tree alone. The scars stimulate the production of eaglewood. A few years later the same trees are investigated again. Only if the tree contains eaglewood, the whole tree is cut.

First grade eaglewood from Indochina values up to US $ 2000/kg in Singapore. From lesser grades the essential oil is distilled in small factories in Ho Chi Minh-city and Vientiane. Eaglewood from Cambodia and Laos is shipped via Vinh and Ho Chi Minh-city. About 100 tonnes of eaglew'ood is officially exported from Vietnam, but the real export most be much more.

J asminum sambac oil

This is the product of the flower of a small tree, cultivated in home gardens all over Vietnam. The essential oil is domestically used for flavouring tea.

Fokienia hodginsii (Pemou oil)

Pemou oil is derived from a large tree, up to 30 m. It grows naturally in Vietnam in the northern province of Dai Son, in the central highlands and in the Lam Dong province in the south. Nowadays the tree has become quite rare. The essential oil is extracted from roots and stumps. The timber is exported to Taiwan, where it is used for the manufacture of coffins and furniture. Pemou oil is used as a fragrance in cosmetics (e.g. soap). Its fragrance is described as very good and unique.

Up to 20 years ago pemou oil was exported to Western Europe (a.o. Germany) at a price of US $ 20/kg. This trade ended after supplies dried up during the war. At present 50 tonnes of oil are exported annually to Czechoslovakia. From the south another 50 tonnes of powder is exported to Hongkong and Singapore at US $ 350/tonne f.o.b. Ho Chi Minh-city.

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Homalomena aromatica

Homalomena aromatica is a herb naturally widely distributed inVietnam. The essential oil is distilled from the root and is domesticallyused in perfume. The dried root is being used in Vietnamese medicineagainst sldn diseases.

Litsea cubeba oil

This oil is derived from a tree which naturally occurs mainly in thenorthern provinces of Vietnam. Litsea cubeba is also planted as a shadowplant, e.g. for tea. The oil is obtained from the fruits of the tree. CurrentlyVietnam exports over 30 tonnes per year. Apart from Vietnam, China isthe only producer. China used to export 200-300 tonnes per annum, butexports from this country have fallen sharply in recent years.Litsea cubeba oil is a competitor for lemon grass oil. The oil is used in itsown right in cheap fragrance work, but is more commonly employed as asource of citral and thence as a source of vitamins. The future of thisunique oil depends on developments in the price and quality of syntheticcitral and changes in perfumers preferences. The main markets are theUSA, Western Europe and Japan.

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Homalomena aromatica

Homalomena aromatica is a herb naturally widely distributed in Vietnam. The essential oil is distilled from the root and is domestically used in perfume. The dried root is being used in Vietnamese medicine against skin diseases.

Litsea cubeba oil

This oil is derived from a tree which naturally occurs mainly in the northern provinces of Vietnam. Litsea cubeba is also planted as a shadow plant, e.g. for tea. The oil is obtained from the fruits of the tree. Currently Vietnam exports over 30 tonnes per year. Apart from Vietnam, China is the only producer. China used to export 200-300 tonnes per annum, but exports from this country have fallen sharply in recent years. Litsea cubeba oil is a competitor for lemon grass oil. The oil is used in its own right in cheap fragrance work, but is more commonly employed as a source of citral and thence as a source of vitamins. The future of this unique oil depends on developments in the price and quality of synthetic citral and changes in perfumers preferences. The main markets are the USA, Western Europe and Japan.

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5.1.2 Resins and gums

Naval stores: pine oleoresin and derivatives

The term 'naval stores' denotes the products obtained from theoleoresin of pine trees and includes gum rosin, wood rosin, tall oil rosin,turpentine and a whole range of chemicals derived form turpentine.Various modified forms of rosin are extensively employed in paper sizes,adhesives, printing inks, rubber compounding and surface coatings.Turpentine is nowadays mostly processed to isolate its components whichform the basis of a growing chemical industry. Pinus merkusii is by far themore important source for pine resin in the area, Pinus khasya is a minorone. The main production areas in Vietnam are the provinces of LamDong and Quang Ninh, in Laos these are the eastern provinces.

In Vietnam natural pine forests are tapped, but pine trees are alsomuch planted. A few hundred tonnes of pine resin are used domestically inVietnam in the paper industry and for the production of varnish. Laosexports a few hundred tonnes of pine resin to Vietnam. Vietnam exports atpresent about 4500 tonnes of pine resin and derivatives. Japan is now themain customer.

The present prospects for producers in developing countries of rosinand turpentine are favourable, since tapping is labour-intensive. Worlddemand is strong, while the level of production is declining. The largestexporter, China, is increasingly producing for the domestic market and theproduction of Portugal, the second largest exporter, has declineddramatically with about 50 % in recent years.

Unfortunately for the country, Vietnam has already gone into longterm (20 years) delivery contracts with Japan on the basis of relatively lowworld market prices in the past.

Laos produces over 500 tonnes of pine resin per year, mainly in theprovinces of Khamrnouane and Ziangkhoang. After destillation the resin isexported to Vietnam and Thailand. There appears to be room for amoderate expansion of the industry, based on the tapping of natural standsof Pinus.

Liquidambar formosana

This is a large tree, occurring naturally in the north of Vietnam.Experimental planting by FIPI has revealed that the tree is excellent forsoil improvement. The resin has a light fragrance of incense. It is useddomestically in cottage industries. There appears to be interest fromtraders in Hongkong for this resin.

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5.1.2 Resins and gums

Naval stores; pine oleoresin and derivatives

The term 'naval stores' denotes the products obtained from the oleoresin of pine trees and includes gum rosin, wood rosin, tall oil rosin, turpentine and a whole range of chemicals derived form turpentine. Various modified forms of rosin are extensively employed in paper sizes, adhesives, printing inks, rubber compounding and surface coatings. Turpentine is nowadays mostly processed to isolate its components which form the basis of a growing chemical industry. Pinus merkusii is by far the more important source for pine resin in the area, Pinus khasya is a minor one. The main production areas in Vietnam are the provinces of Lam Dong and Quang Ninh, in Laos these are the eastern provinces.

In Vietnam natural pine forests are tapped, but pine trees are also much planted. A few hundred tonnes of pine resin are used domestically in Vietnam in the paper industry and for the production of varnish. Laos exports a few hundred tonnes of pine resin to Vietnam. Vietnam exports at present about 4500 tonnes of pine resin and derivatives. Japan is now the main customer.

The present prospects for producers in developing countries of rosin and turpentine are favourable, since tapping is labour-intensive. World demand is strong, while the level of production is declining. The largest exporter, China, is increasingly producing for the domestic market and the production of Portugal, the second largest exporter, has declined dramatically with about 50 % in recent years.

Unfortunately for the country, Vietnam has already gone into long term (20 years) delivery contracts with Japan on the basis of relatively low world market prices in the past.

Laos produces over 500 tonnes of pine resin per year, mainly in the provinces of Khammouane and Ziangkhoang. After destillation the resin is exported to Vietnam and Thailand. There appears to be room for a moderate expansion of the industry, based on the tapping of natural stands of Pinus.

Liquidambar formosana

This is a large tree, occurring naturally in the north of Vietnam. Experimental planting by FIPI has revealed that the tree is excellent for soil improvement. The resin has a light fragrance of incense. It is used domestically in cottage industries. There appears to be interest from traders in Hongkong for this resin.

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Benzoin. Styrax tonkinensis

The tree Styrax tonkinensis is found in the Northern provinces ofLaos. It also grows exceptionally in north Vietnam. In the province ofOudamxai and in the North of Luang Phabang the Styrax forests form partof a shifting cultivation cycle with long fallow. Only under specificcircumstances the tree produces the very valuable benzoin resin.

Laos produces over 100 tonnes of benzoin annually, which isexported to France and China. Prices paid in provincial towns to thetappers in the producing areas in April 1991 were about 2000 kip ( US $3)/kg, down from 5000 kip/kg a few years earlier. The price for top qualitybenzoin paid in China in the beginning of 1991 was reportedly 119Renminbi ($ 22)/kg. At present the price for top quality benzoin inEurope is between $15 and $20/kg.

Vietnam exports about 10 tonnes per year to France. The only otherexporter3 of benzoin is Indonesia, but the resin is of a lesser quality. Theresin is mainly used in the fragrance industry as a basis material for high-class perfumes and balms.

Damar. Dipterocarpus spp.

The Malay word 'damar' was adopted into European trade languageto signify 'resin', primarily the type produced by the dipterocarps ofSouthern Asia. In Indochina damar is produced by various dipterocarps,most importantly D. alatus, a very tall tree occurring in south and centralVietnam, and Shorea vulgaris, occurring in Cambodia, south Vietnam andLaos.

The oleoresin is used as raw material for the production of naturalpaints, varnish, printing ink and glue and for caulking boats. The annualproduction by the forestry sector' in Vietnam is (including yang oil) about500 tonnes.

In Laos the production of damar is estimated at between 500 and1000 tonnes a year, most of which is exported to Thailand. Some damarfrom Indochina enters the European market (Germany and France) viaThailand and Singapore. Although the price and volume traded are low(Singapore $ 1,000/tonne, export Singapore, 1989), the market for damar is

17

3 Thailand also exports a small quantity of benzoin, but this originates probably fromLaos.

4 Figures given for the 'forestry sector' are related to production volumes of stateenterprises and cooperatives under the responsability of the Ministry of Forestry.The private sector, but also production under other state institutions (e.g. Ministryof Health) are not included herein.

Benzoin. Styrax tonkinensis

The tree Styrax tonkinensis is found in the Northern provinces of Laos. It also grows exceptionally in north Vietnam. In the province of Oudarnxai and in the North of Luang Phabang the Styrax forests form part of a shifting cultivation cycle with long fallow. Only under specific circumstances the tree produces the very valuable benzoin resin.

Laos produces over 100 tonnes of benzoin annually, which is exported to France and China. Prices paid in provincial towns to the tappers in the producing areas in April 1991 were about 2000 kip ( US $ 3)/kg, down from 5000 kip/kg a few years earlier. The price for top quality benzoin paid in China in the beginning of 1991 was reportedly 119 Renminbi ($ 22)/kg. At present the price for top quality benzoin in Europe is between $15 and $20/kg.

Vietnam exports about 10 tonnes per year to France. The only other exporter3 of benzoin is Indonesia, but the resin is of a lesser quality. The resin is mainly used in the fragrance industry as a basis material for high­class perfumes and balms.

Damar. Dipterocarpus spp.

The Malay word 'damar' was adopted into European trade language to signify 'resin', primarily the type produced by the dipterocarps of Southern Asia. In Indochina damar is produced by various dipterocarps, most importantly D. alatus, a very tall tree occurring in south and central Vietnam, and Shorea vulgaris, occurring in Cambodia, south Vietnam and Laos.

The oleoresin is used as raw material for the production of natural paints, varnish, printing ink and ~lue and for caulking boats. The annual production by the forestry sector in Vietnam is (including yang oil) about 500 tonnes.

In Laos the production of damar is estimated at between 500 and 1000 tonnes a year, most of which is exported to Thailand. Some damar from Indochina enters the European market (Germany and France) via Thailand and Singapore. Although the price and volume traded are low (Singapore $ 1,000/tonne, export Singapore, 1989), the market for damar is

3 Thailand also exports a small quantity of benzoin, but this originates probably from Laos.

4 Figures given for the 'forestry sector' are related to production volumes of state enterprises and cooperatives under the responsability of the Ministry of Forestry. The private sector, but also production under other state institutions (e.g. Ministry of Health) are not included herein.

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stable.

Canarium copaliferum (cham resin)

The tree Canarium copaliferum, 12-15 m high, grows in the wild innorth Vietnam. Its resin is domestically used for caulking boats andbecause, of its fragrance, in the preparation of joss sticks. The annualproduction of cham resin by the forestry sector is between 60 and 150tonnes, some of which is exported.

18

stable.

Canarium copaliferum (cham resin)

The tree Canarium copaliferum, 12-15 m high, grows in the wild in north Vietnam. Its resin is domestically used for caulking boats and because, of its fragrance, in the preparation of joss sticks. The annual production of cham resin by the forestry sector is between 60 and 150 tonnes, some of which is exported.

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5.1.3 Industrial oil

Aleurites montana (Tung oil)

This large tree occurs naturally in north and central Vietnam, but isalso much cultivated. The seeds contain between 50 and 58 % of a quickdrying oil. There is one factory for the refilling of Tung oil at Cao Bang,with a capacity of 200 tonnes per annum, and numerous small-scale manualprocessing units at localities where tung seeds are available. The oil is usedfor varnishes and is mixed with lac.

Registered production of the forestry sector of Tung seed increasedbetween 1986 and 1988 from 1,378 to 4,082 tonnes. The oil is partly usedin the domestic lacquer industry, partly exported. Until recently the USSRwas an important customer, but Naforimex also ships 1000 tonnes of oilper annum to Japan, at US $ 1700 per tonne, whilst 500-1000 tonnes ofseeds are exported to China via private traders.

5.1.4 Tannins and Dyes

This group of products will only be shortly discussed. Tannins,extracted from several mangrove species (e.g. Rhizophora conjugata), isused in the domestic leather industry in Vietnam. There is a small factoryin Ca Mau town, where about 8 tonnes of mangrove tannin is produced.During the war natural mangrove forests were badly damaged by dioxinbombing. Over-harvesting of wood from mangrove forests for charcoalfurther has added to the destruction of these forests. Rhizophora conjugataand other species are now being planted for the production of tannin.

A many-splendoured variety of forest plant pigments lend colours topaints and dyes for commercial and home use. Particularly some of theethnic minorities in Laos and Vietnam still use natural dyes in theproduction of cloth. The export of high-quality woven textiles, painted orprinted with natural dyes, may profit from the revival of the interest innatural colours in up-market segments of the world market.

5.1.5 Insecticides

43 natural insecticides occurring in Indochina are listed by Petelot(1964: IV 31). Three promissing natural insecticides are discussed below(two of which, Cinnamomum parthenoxylon and Peuak Bong, are notmentioned in Petelot for its insecticidal/insect repellant proporties).

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5.1.3 Industrial oil

Aleurites montana (Tung oil)

This large tree occurs naturally in north and central Vietnam, but is also much cultivated. The seeds contain between 50 and 58 % of a quick drying oil. There is one factory for the refining of Tung oil at Cao Bang, with a capacity of 200 tonnes per annum, and numerous small-scale manual processing units at localities where tung seeds are available. The oil is used for varnishes and is mixed with lac.

Registered production of the forestry sector of Tung seed increased between 1986 and 1988 from 1,378 to 4,082 tonnes. The oil is partly used in the domestic lacquer industry, partly exported. Until recently the USSR was an important customer, but Naforimex also ships toOO tonnes of oil per annum to Japan, at US $ 1700 per tonne, whilst 500-toOO tonnes of seeds are exported to China via private traders.

5.1.4 Tannins and Dyes

This group of products will only be shortly discussed. Tannins, extracted from several mangrove species (e.g. Rhizophora conjugata), is used in the domestic leather industry in Vietnam. There is a small factory in Ca Mau town, where about 8 tonnes of mangrove tannin is produced. During the war natural mangrove forests were badly damaged by dioxin bombing. Over-harvesting of wood from mangrove forests for charcoal further has added to the destruction of these forests. Rhizophora conjugata and other species are now being planted for the production of tannin.

A many-splendoured variety of forest plant pigments lend colours to paints and dyes for commercial and home use. Particularly some of the ethnic minorities in Laos and Vietnam still use natural dyes in the production of cloth. The export of high-quality woven textiles, painted or printed with natural dyes, may profit from the revival of the interest in natural colours in up-market segments of the world market.

5.1.5 Insecticides

43 natural insecticides occurring in Indochina are listed by Petelot (1964: IV 31). Three promissing natural insecticides are discussed below (two of which, Cinnamomum parthenoxylon and Peuak Bong, are not mentioned in Petelot for its insecticidal/insect repellant proporties).

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Azadirachta indica. syn.: Antelea azadirachta (neem)

This tree is rather common in south Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.It is often cultivated as a shadow tree. The seeds and leaves are veryefficient as a store pest control. Both the cold pressed neem oil and theoil-free part of the seed kernel can be used for pest control. The leaves ofthe neem tree also contain insecticidal and repellent substances, althoughin much lower concentrations (Schmutterer and Ascher, 1987). In Indiaalso soap is made from neem oil.

Sassafras

Vietnam produces a small quantity (a few dozen tonnes per annum)of sassafras oil. The source of Vietnamese sassafras oil is Cinnamomumparthenoxylon, a small tree of 12-18 m, which grows naturally in theprovince of Quang-tri, in central Vietnam, and in the mountain range alongthe border with Laos and Cambodia, further to the south. The tree occurscommonly in these mountainous areas, in some places in pure stands. Theoil is derived from the roots and lower parts of the tnmk.

Natural safrol was traditionally used for heliotropine manufacture,but recently this application has been overshadowed by its importance as astarting material for the production of piperonal butoxide, a synergist fornatural pyrethrin insecticides. The major commercial sources for naturalsafrole are China and Brazil (resp. Cinnamomum camphora and Ocoteapretiosa). Chinese suppliers have been erratic of late5 while the source forBrazilian sassafras oil, exported until recently at levels of some 1,500tonnes per annum, has dried up as a result of a Brazilian government banon felling wild resources of Ocotea pretiosa in the province of SantaCaterina (Green and Home, 1991:11; ITC, 1986: 64).

With very tight supplies and a burgeoning demand in Japan, theUnited States, Italy, Spain, France and the UK, world market prices havegone up rapidly during the second half of 1991. The current world marketprice of sassafrass oil is about $ 7/kg. It is recommended that a survey ofexisting stocks of Cinnamomum parthenoxylon is carried out, that a planfor sustainable harvesting is made and that the possibilities for enrichmentplanting are investigated.

Peuak Bong

From the province of Oudom Xai in Laos, annually about 47 tonnesof Peuak Bong, the bark of an unidentified forest plant is exported toThailand, where it is used for insecticides. The price paid to the colllectorsis 140 kip/kg. The plant survives the harvesting of the bark.

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5 Because of increasingly domestic consumption and diminishing wild resources.

Azadirachta indica. syn.: Antelea azadirachta (neem)

This tree is rather common in south Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. It is often cultivated as a shadow tree. The seeds and leaves are very efficient as a store pest control. Both the cold pressed neem oil and the oil-free part of the seed kernel can be used for pest control. The leaves of the neem tree also contain insecticidal and repellent substances, although in much lower concentrations (Schmutterer and Ascher, 1987). In India also soap is made from neem oil.

Sassafras

Vietnam produces a small quantity (a few dozen tonnes per annum) of sassafras oil. The source of Vietnamese sassafras oil is Cinnamomum parthenoxylon. a small tree of 12-18 m, which grows naturally in the province of Quang-tri, in central Vietnam, and in the mountain range along the border with Laos and Cambodia, further to the south. The tree occurs commonly in these mountainous areas, in some places in pure stands. The oil is derived from the roots and lower parts of the trunk.

Natural safrol was traditionally used for heliotropine manufacture, but recently this application has been overshadowed by its importance as a starting material for the production of piperonal butoxide, a synergist for natural pyrethrin insecticides. The major commercial sources for natural safrole are China and Brazil (resp. Cinnamomum camphora and Ocotea pretiosa). Chinese suppliers have been erratic of lateS while the source for Brazilian sassafras oil, exported until recently at levels of some 1,500 tonnes per annum, has dried up as a result of a Brazilian government ban on felling wild resources of Ocotea pretiosa in the province of Santa Caterina (Green and Home, 1991:11; lTC, 1986: 64).

With very tight supplies and a burgeoning demand in Japan, the United States, Italy, Spain, France and the UK, world market prices have gone up rapidly during the second half of 1991. The current world market price of sassafrass oil is about $ 7/kg. It is recommended that a survey of existing stocks of Cinnamomum parthenoxylon is carried out, that a plan for sustainable harvesting is made and that the possibilities for enrichment planting are investigated.

Peuak Bong

From the province of Oudom Xai in Laos, annually about 47 tonnes of Peuak Bong, the bark of an unidentified forest plant is exported to Thailand, where it is used for insecticides. The price paid to the colllectors is 140 kip/kg. The plant survives the harvesting of the bark.

S Because of increasingly domestic consumption and diminishing wild resources.

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5.2 Medicinal plants

In the whole of Indochina, numerous forest plants are used inmedicinal formulas, prescribed by traditional healers. Other plants areprocessed by the domestic pharmaceutical industry in Vietnam and Laosfor the home market. A more limited number of medicinal plants iscollected or cultivated for the export market.

Medicinal plants still form a numerically large group ofeconomically important plants. Although worldwide several hundreddifferent genera are used medicinally, most are used in herbal remedies.Either the whole plant, a plant organ, or its extracts are used. There is amuch smaller number of plants from which individual constituents areisolated and used as medicines, either alone or in combination, or thatcontain constituents isolated and used as precursors for drug synthesis.

The world trade in medicinal plants and their derivatives hasdeclined in many industrialized countries owing to the growing volume ofcompetitive synthetic products currently marketed. On the other hand, arenewed interest in traditional medicine in Asia and the expanding marketfor homeopathic and phyto-therapeutical products in the industrializedcountries provide new outlets for a number of botanical products.

The major market for herbal medicines from Indochina lies howeverin Asia, i.e. Thailand, which has insufficient forest resources left to supplyits domestic pharmaceutical industry vvith raw materials, China, Hongkong,and in the future perhaps Indonesia, which booming Jamu industry has aserious lack of raw material from domestic resources. A few selectedmedicinal plants are discussed below.

Amomum aromaticum (tsao kwa)

This plant produces aromatic seeds, which are used in China asspice and in medicines. It is cultivated in the northern Vietnameseprovince of Lai Chau, under a relatively closed canopy in difficultaccessible areas. The official export went down from 153 tornes in 1986 to19 tonnes in 1988, which probably only means that the export is carried outincreasingly by small private traders. The price in the production area isbetween US $ 1 - 2,50 for one kilo of dried fruits containing the seeds (seefurther page 10).

Hibiscus sagittifolius (Sam nam)

This ginseng-like herb grows commonly in south Vietnam,particularly in the provinces of Vin Phu and Lam Dong. The roots arevvidely used in the Chinese pharmacopoeia.There is some export to Chinaand to Singapore.

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5.2 Medicinal plants

In the whole of Indochina, numerous forest plants are used in medicinal formulas, prescribed by traditional healers. Other plants are processed by the domestic pharmaceutical industry in Vietnam and Laos for the home market. A more limited number of medicinal plants is collected or cultivated for the export market.

Medicinal plants still form a numerically large group of economically important plants. Although worldwide several hundred different genera are used medicinally, most are used in herbal remedies. Either the whole plant, a plant organ, or its extracts are used. There is a much smaller number of plants from which individual constituents are isolated and used as medicines, either alone or in combination, or that contain constituents isolated and used as precursors for drug synthesis.

The world trade in medicinal plants and their derivatives has declined in many industrialized countries owing to the growing volume of competitive synthetic products currently marketed. On the other hand, a renewed interest in traditional medicine in Asia and the expanding market for homeopathic and phyto-therapeutical products in the industrialized countries provide new outlets for a number of botanical products.

The major market for herbal medicines from Indochina lies however in Asia, i.e. Thailand, which has insufficient forest resources left to supply its domestic pharmaceutical industry with raw materials, China, Hongkong, and in the future perhaps Indonesia, which booming Jamu industry has a serious lack of raw material from domestic resources. A few selected medicinal plants are discussed below.

Amomum aromaticum (tsao kwa)

This plant produces aromatic seeds, which are used in China as spice and in medicines. It is cultivated in the northern Vietnamese province of Lai Chau, under a relatively closed canopy in difficult accessible areas. The official export went down from 153 tonnes in 1986 to 19 tonnes in 1988, which probably only means that the export is carried out increasingly by small private traders. The price in the production area is between US $ 1 - 2,50 for one kilo of dried fruits containing the seeds (see further page 10).

Hibiscus sagittifolius (Sam nam)

This ginseng-like herb grows commonly in south Vietnam, particularly in the provinces of Vin Phu and Lam Dong. The roots are widely used in the Chinese pharmacopoeia.There is some export to China and to Singapore.

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Morinda spp.

These are rather common tree species, cultivated and growing in thevvild. The bark of different varieties of Morinda contains antiginone, asubstance with anti-bacterial and cytotoxic effects. It is widely used in thetraditional Vietnamese pharmacopoeia (cholera, tetanus). Aimualproduction of the forestry sector is between 30 and 114 tonnes.

Polygonum multiflorum

This perennial climbing plant is widely found in forests andsavannes in mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam. The root is muchused in Vietnam and in China, as a tonicum for longevity and as a choleramedicine. The annual registered production of the forestry sector inVietnam is about 20 tonnes.

Camphora officinarum (syn.: Cinnamomum camphora)

This 10-15 m high tree occurs in the wild6 in the central highlands.Camphor is used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry as a basischemical for a range of drugs. The estimated need for domestic use isabout 100 tonnes of camphor per year. At present the natural stands of fofficinarum can not supply the domestic demand. The import price wouldbe in the order of DM 10/kg for camphor crystalline (Hamburg price). Asboth the stem and the roots of the tree are used for the distillation ofcamphor crystalline, the whole tree is cut for the harvesting of camphor.

The Faculty of Pharmacology, University of Hanoi, has beencarrying out research on C. officinarum. From the results of this research itappears to be a very interesting tree for enrichment planting in existingforests or mixed planting on barren hills. The tree grows well on poor soils,its large foliage gives good coverage and, where the leaves in fact also canbe used for the distillation of camphor, the first harvest can already takeplace after two years. Particularly on higher altitudes the tree gives a highyield of the essential oil.

Artemisia spp.

Artemisia annua, an annual herb, common in northern Vietnamwhere it occurs naturally, is also easy to cultivate. In the traditionalVietnamese pharmacopoeia, the seed oil enters drugs against skin diseasesand jaundice and is used as an anti diarheticum. In the framework of aninternational research programme, this plant, together with other species of

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6 According to Petelot (1954: III 42), Cinnamomum camphora is not indigenous toVietnam. Possibly the natural stands mentioned are the remnants of plantationsestablished by the French in the early forties of this century.

Morinda spp.

These are rather common tree species, cultivated and growing in the wild. The bark of different varieties of Morinda contains antiginone, a substance with anti-bacterial and cytotoxic effects. It is widely used in the traditional Vietnamese pharmacopoeia (cholera, tetanus). Annual production of the forestry sector is between 30 and 114 tonnes.

Polygonum multiflorum

This perennial climbing plant is widely found in forests and savannes in mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam. The root is much used in Vietnam and in China, as a tonicum for longevity and as a cholera medicine. The annual registered production of the forestry sector in Vietnam is about 20 tonnes.

Camphora officinarum (syn.: Cinnamomum camphora)

This 10-15 m high tree occurs in the wild6 in the central highlands. Camphor is used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry as a basis chemical for a range of drugs. The estimated need for domestic use is about 100 tonnes of camphor per year. At present the natural stands of b officinarum can not supply the domestic demand. The import price would be in the order of DM 10/kg for camphor crystalline (Hamburg price). As both the stem and the roots of the tree are used for the distillation of camphor crystalline, the whole tree is cut for the harvesting of camphor.

The Faculty of Pharmacology, University of Hanoi, has been carrying out research on C. officinarum. From the results of this research it appears to be a very interesting tree for enrichment planting in existing forests or mixed planting on barren hills. The tree grows well on poor soils, its large foliage gives good coverage and, where the leaves in fact also can be used for the distillation of camphor, the first harvest can already take place after two years. Particularly on higher altitudes the tree gives a high yield of the essential oil.

Artemisia spp.

Artemisia annua, an annual herb, common in northern Vietnam where it occurs naturally, is also easy to cultivate. In the traditional Vietnamese pharmacopoeia, the seed oil enters drugs against skin diseases and jaundice and is used as an anti diarheticum. In the framework of an international research programme, this plant, together with other species of

6 According to Petelot (1954: III 42), Cinnamomum camphora is not indigenous to Vietnam. Possibly the natural stands mentioned are the remnants of plantations established by the French in the early forties of this century.

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Artemisia, is currently being developed into a new anti-malaria drug.

Strychnos nuxvomica

This 12-13 m high tree is characteristic for the forests of southVietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The nut is processed into poison, tonicums,is used as a bitter flavouring for medicinal purposes and as raw materialfor the synthesis of muscle relexant drugs. There is some export fromVietnam and Laos to Hongkong, Taiwan, Germany and France. The priceof the nuts (January 1992) is about US $ 600/tonne f.o.b. South-east Asianport. There is a stable market for this product with presently India and SriLanka as the main suppliers.

Momordica spp

M. conchinchinensis and M. charanta occur naturally and are alsowidely cultivated all over Indochina. The seeds of both species contain aglucoside. The seeds are used as bitter flavouring for medicinal purposes.The University of Hanoi has developed a drug, Gacavit, which hasMomordica seeds as a major constituent. The drug is said to reinforce theimmune system, to repair DNA and is being tested as a cancer medicine.

Smilax glabra. Smilax spp.

This climbing plant occurs naturally all over Indochina. From theprovinces of Oudom Xai and Luang Phabang in Laos there is some exportinto Thailand. The roots are used in traditional medicines against a wholerange of diseases. They also can be used as a raw material for theproduction of steroidsaponines.

Drosera rotundifolia

This is a wild herb, common in humid areas all over Vietnam. InEurope it is used in phytotherapeutic and homeopathic drugs againstwhooping cough and as an antispasmodicum. World demand is estimatedat over 100 tonnes per year. China is exporting this product. The salesprice in Hamburg is DM 27/kg7.

Dioscorea deltoidea

This tuber is grovving in the wild in the province of Son La, northVietnam. It is used for the production of diosgenin, a valuable rawmaterial for steroid dnigs. The rather small resources of D. deltoidea arewholly used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry.

7 This price is for 'Drosera petata' from China. Presumably this is the same plant.

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Artemisia, is currently being developed into a new anti-malaria drug.

Sttychnos nuxvomica

This 12-13 m high tree is characteristic for the forests of south Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The nut is processed into poison, tonicums, is used as a bitter flavouring for medicinal purposes and as raw material for the synthesis of muscle relexant drugs. There is some export from Vietnam and Laos to Hongkong, Taiwan, Germany and France. The price of the nuts (January 1992) is about US $ 600/tonne f.o.b. South-east Asian port. There is a stable market for this product with presently India and Sri Lanka as the main suppliers.

Momordica spp

M. conchinchinensis and M. charanta occur naturally and are also widely cultivated all over Indochina. The seeds of both species contain a glucoside. The seeds are used as bitter flavouring for medicinal purposes. The University of Hanoi has developed a drug, Gacavit, which has Momordica seeds as a major constituent. The drug is said to reinforce the immune system, to repair DNA and is being tested as a cancer medicine.

Smilax glabra. Smilax spp.

This climbing plant occurs naturally all over Indochina. From the provinces of Oudom Xai and Luang Phabang in Laos there is some export into Thailand. The roots are used in traditional medicines against a whole range of diseases. They also can be used as a raw material for the production of steroidsaponines.

Drosera rotundifolia

This is a wild herb, common in humid areas all over Vietnam. In Europe it is used in phytotherapeutic and homeopathic drugs against whooping cough and as an antispasmodicum. World demand is estimated at over 100 tonnes per year. China is exporting this product. The sales price in Hamburg is DM 27/kg7

•

Dioscorea deltoidea

This tuber is growing in the wild in the province of Son La, north Vietnam. It is used for the production of diosgenin, a valuable raw material for steroid drugs. The rather small resources of D. deltoidea are wholly used in the domestic pharmaceutical industry.

7 This price is for 'Drosera petata' from China. Presumably this is the same plant.

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Zanthoxylum rhetsa

This product derives from a small tree, quite common in southVietnam and South Laos. The bark contains two alkaloids, canthinone andberberine, which are highly effective antibacterial substances particularlyfor gastrointestinal disorders. The seeds are also used as a hot spice inChinese cuisine. Indonesia, among other countries, is exporting seeds toEurope. The price, if bought in Hamburg, is DM 3000/tonne.

Amorphophallus campanulatus (syn: Arum campanulatus)

This herb occurs naturally in Laos. The roots are exported to Japanwhere they are used as the main constituent of slimming pills.

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Zanthoxylum rhetsa

This product derives from a small tree, quite common in south Vietnam and South Laos. The bark contains two alkaloids, canthinone and berberine, which are highly effective antibacterial substances particularly for gastrointestinal disorders. The seeds are also used as a hot spice in Chinese cuisine. Indonesia, among other countries, is exporting seeds to Europe. The price, if bought in Hamburg, is DM 3000/tonne.

Amorphophallus campanulatus (syn: Arum campanulatus)

This herb occurs naturally in Laos. The roots are exported to Japan where they are used as the main constituent of slimming pills.

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53 Fibres: rattan and bamboo

Rattan are climbing palms (sub-family Calamoideae) which growthroughout the Southeast Asian region, forming a characteristic componentof many forest types. In Indochina more than 30 species of rattanbelonging to five genera are known to occur. At least 14 species are usedcommercially (Turbang 1989).

In Vietnam, rattan is important locally, but also as a raw materialfor the domestic industry. Unfortunately figures for total production anddomestic use can not be given, because the estimates that circulate are toodivergent. The export market for this product is very healthy. With strongdemand and short supplies, prices are very good.

400 tonnes of rattan are exported from the north of Vietnam,mainly to Taiwan, via state trade firms. Another 2000 tonnes is exported byprivate traders to China. The consultant did not come across export figuresfor south and central Vietnams, but these areas also must have aconsiderable export. 'There are numerous small cottage type industries thatproduce furniture, baskets, and other products, mainly for the homemarket, and a few larger factories in Quy Nhon, Hanoi and HCM-city,which operate as joint-ventures with Taiwanese and Thai capital andproduce for the export market.

The total export of rattan works for 1991 is estimated at 6 millionarticles, worth US $ 2,5 million (Van Tien, 1991: 8). Trade circles inBangkok estimate that on short term Vietnam could become a moreimportant supplier of rattan to the world market. However, with thecurrent 'free for all' exploitation of natural rattan resources, exhaustion ofthe resource must be feared in the future. FIPI has recently started a pilotproject for the cultivation of rattan in Lau Son.

In conclusion, it must be stated that reliable data are perhapsnowhere more painfully lacking as with such an important and valuableNWFP as rattan.

The present volume of various rattans harvested for the market inLaos is estimated at about 1,5 million pieces (4,5 m) per annum (Turbang1989: 4). There are still large reserves of rattan in the more inaccessibleareas across the country.

8 Some of the rattan harvested in Central Vietnam is also exported to China by smalltraders.

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5.3 Fibres: rattan and bamboo

Rattan are climbing palms (sub-family Calamoideae) which grow throughout the Southeast Asian region, forming a characteristic component of many forest types. In Indochina more than 30 species of rattan belonging to five genera are known to occur. At least 14 species are used commercially (Turbang 1989).

In Vietnam, rattan is important locally, but also as a raw material for the domestic industry. Unfortunately figures for total production and domestic use can not be given, because the estimates that circulate are too divergent. The export market for this product is very healthy. With strong demand and short supplies, prices are very good.

400 tonnes of rattan are exported from the north of Vietnam, mainly to Taiwan, via state trade firms. Another 2000 tonnes is exported by private traders to China. The consultant did not come across export figures for south and central Vietnam8

, but these areas also must have a considerable export. There are numerous small cottage type industries that produce furniture, baskets, and other products, mainly for the home market, and a few larger factories in Quy Nhon, Hanoi and HCM-city, which operate as joint-ventures with Taiwanese and Thai capital and produce for the export market.

The total export of rattan works for 1991 is estimated at 6 million articles, worth US $ 2,5 million (Van Tien, 1991: 8). Trade circles in Bangkok estimate that on short term Vietnam could become a more important supplier of rattan to the world market. However, with the current 'free for all' exploitation of natural rattan resources, exhaustion of the resource must be feared in the future. FIPI has recently started a pilot project for the cultivation of rattan in Lau Son.

In conclusion, it must be stated that reliable data are perhaps nowhere more painfully lacking as with such an important and valuable NWFP as rattan ..

The present volume of various rattans harvested for the market in Laos is estimated at about 1,5 million pieces (4,5 m) per annum (Turbang 1989: 4). There are still large reserves of rattan in the more inaccessible areas across the country.

8 Some of the rattan harvested in Central Vietnam is also exported to China by small traders.

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The rattan industry in Laos consists of nidimentary processing(cleaning and sorting of the raw material before export); handicraft, whichis almost exclusively produced for the domestic market; and half a dozensmall and medium sized furniture factories, which produce for the domesticand export market.

Bamboo

In Vietnam, bamboo is domestically vvidely used in construction.The quantity used for construction is estimated as in the order of 400million stems per annum. Bamboo also complements wood as a rawmaterial for paper pulp (Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic ofVietnam, 1991). Domestically, numerous other products are made frombamboo and bamboo shoots for consumption are widely traded on localmarkets. There is some export of bamboo toothpicks (36 tonnes permonth) from Lam Dong to Taiwan.

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The rattan industry in Laos consists of rudimentary processing (cleaning and sorting of the raw material before export); handicraft, which is almost exclusively produced for the domestic market; and half a dozen small and medium sized furniture factories, which produce for the domestic and export market.

Bamboo

In Vietnam, bamboo is domestically widely used in construction. The quantity used for construction is estimated as in the order of 400 million stems per annum. Bamboo also complements wood as a raw material for paper pulp (Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1991). Domestically, numerous other products are made from bamboo and bamboo shoots for consumption are widely traded on local markets. There is some export of bamboo toothpicks (36 tonnes per month) from Lam Dong to Taiwan.

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5.4 Edible plant products

5.4.1 Edible oils and nuts

Seeds and nuts from forest trees are consumed locally or processedinto edible oils for the home market, and as such they are very valuable.For certain varieties of nuts there is also a specialized export market withthe potential for a moderate expansion. Another reason to value thesignificance of these oil seeds is that, unlike cultivated oil seeds, manyforest species with oil bearing seeds do not place much demand on soilnutrients (see Gupta and Guleria, 1980:79).

Sterculia lychnophora (Malva nut)

This is a large tree which occurs naturally in south and centralVietnam, in the southern provinces of Laos and in the mountains ofCambodia. One tree gives about 40 kg of an excellent nut. The tree isparticularly valued by forest dwellers, who actively protect it.

The registered annual production in Vietnam is 235 tonnes of nuts.Laos exports malva nuts to France. The price of 1 kg of malva nuts isaround 1000 kip/kg (US $ 1,50) in Vientiane.

Sterculia foetid a

This is a large tree, which is quite common all over Indochina, andsometimes cultivated. One tree gives about 20 kg of seeds. Locally pressed,one kg of seeds results in 20 % of an excellent edible oil. The oil is locallyused for cooking.

At present there is no export of the oil. World demand formedicinal purposes is estimated at about 100 tonnes of oil. Thailand, whichexported the oil in the past, at present is not able to do so because ofdepletion of the resource (Mahidol University, 1980/1981).

Aesculus sinensis (Chestnut)

Chinese chestnuts occur naturally in north Vietnam and in theprovince of Luang Phabang and elsewhere in Laos. Boiled or roasted it is amuch appreciated delicious side dish in Laos and Vietnam. It is also usedas pig fodder. The registered production of the forestry sector in Vietnamis between 70 and 134 tonnes per anmim.

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5.4 Edible plant products

5.4.1 Edible oils and nuts

Seeds and nuts from forest trees are consumed locally or processed into edible oils for the home market, and as such they are very valuable. For certain varieties of nuts there is also a specialized export market with the potential for a moderate expansion. Another reason to value the significance of these oil seeds is that, unlike cultivated oil seeds, many forest species with oil bearing seeds do not place much demand on soil nutrients (see Gupta and Guleria, 1980:79).

Sterculia lychnophora (Malva nut)

This is a large tree which occurs naturally in south and central Vietnam, in the southern provinces of Laos and in the mountains of Cambodia. One tree gives about 40 kg of an excellent nut. The tree is particularly valued by forest dwellers, who actively protect it.

The registered annual production in Vietnam is 235 tonnes of nuts. Laos exports malva nuts to France. The price of 1 kg of malva nuts is around 1000 kip/kg (US $ 1,50) in Vientiane.

Sterculia foetida

This is a large tree, which is quite common all over Indochina, and sometimes cultivated. One tree gives about 20 kg of seeds. Locally pressed, one kg of seeds results in 20 % of an excellent edible oil. The oil is locally used for cooking.

At present there is no export of the oil. World demand for medicinal purposes is estimated at about 100 tonnes of oil. Thailand, which exported the oil in the past, at present is not able to do so because of depletion of the resource (Mahidol University, 1980/1981).

Aesculus sinensis (Chestnut)

Chinese chestnuts occur naturally in north Vietnam and in the province of Luang Phabang and elsewhere in Laos. Boiled or roasted it is a much appreciated delicious side dish in Laos and Vietnam. It is also used as pig fodder. The registered production of the forestry sector in Vietnam is between 70 and 134 tonnes per annum.

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Bassia pasquieri

This tall tree was formerly known as illipe de Tonkin. In the pastBassia pasquieri occupied a large area, growing in almost pure stands.Now, only about 300 ha is left in the province of Thanh Hoa, northVietnam. The fruits are maturing little by little over a long period of years.In practice it is not possible for people to collect the fruits in the forest.However, fruit bats which roost in caves in the area drop the seeds of thefruits they have eaten in those areas. The seeds are collected there andpressed into oil. Bassia is a very good edible and cooking oil, comparablewith olive oil. (Tran Van Nao 1986, Crevost & Lemarie, 1924)

Thea oleosa

This small tree occurs naturally in different areas of Vietnam andLaos and is also cultivated in Northern Vietnam. The seeds contain a fluidoil, which has a mild taste and a pleasant special smell, which differs perarea. It is used in Vietnam as a high quality cooking oil. It is also suitablefor the production of soap. In Qui Chau, where Thea oleosa is cultivated,yields vary from 20 kg of seed per tree per annum (4 kg of oil) for trees 5years old, up to 30-35 kg of seeds for trees 8 years and older.

The price on local markets is 30 Dong per liter, 1987 price (equalsabout 1100 Dong November 1991). According to Van Nao (1987) thiswould be an excellent tree for enrichment planting.

5.4.2 Spices

Numerous forest spices are consumed locally in Indochina. Many ofthese spices are also used in traditional herbal medicine. Some spices aretraded with neighbouring countries, whilst a few also enter internationaltrade. Two of the latter, cardamom and galanga, are discussed below.Cassia, together with cardamom the most important spice, has beendiscussed in the paragraph on essential oils.

Generally, prices for spices have reached an all time low on theworld market as a result of a structural oversupply by the producercountries. Although an important product as cardamom, or to a lesserextent cassia, is also affected by the general downfall of prices, this doesnot imply that the product would be less interesting from the primaryproducers point of view. Particularly where production costs are low and agood quality can be offered, certain spices are still well worth collecting orcultivating.

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Bassia pasquieri

This tall tree was formerly known as illipe de Tonkin. In the past Bassia pasquieri occupied a large area, growing in almost pure stands. Now, only about 300 ha is left in the province of Thanh Hoa, north Vietnani. The fruits are maturing little by little over a long period of years. In practice it is not possible for people to collect the fruits in the forest. However, fruit bats which roost in caves in the area drop the seeds of the fruits they have eaten in those areas. The seeds are collected there and pressed into oil. Bassia is a very good edible and cooking oil, comparable with olive oil. (Tran Van Nao 1986, Crevost & Lemarie, 1924)

Thea oleosa

This small tree occurs naturally in different areas of Vietnam and Laos and is also cultivated in Northern Vietnam. The seeds contain a fluid oil, which has a mild taste and a pleasant special smell, which differs per area. It is used in Vietnam as a high quality cooking oil. It is also suitable for the production of soap. In Qui Chau, where Thea oleosa is cultivated, yields vary from 20 kg of seed per tree per annum (4 kg of oil) for trees 5 years old, up to 30-35 kg of seeds for trees 8 years and older.

The price on local markets is 30 Dong per liter, 1987 price (equals about 1100 Dong November 1991). According to Van Nao (1987) this would be an excellent tree for enrichment planting.

5.4.2 Spices

Numerous forest spices are consumed locally in Indochina. Many of these spices are also used in traditional herbal medicine. Some spices are traded with neighbouring countries, whilst a few also enter international trade. Two of the latter, cardamom and galanga, are discussed below. Cassia, together with cardamom the most important spice, has been discussed in the paragraph on essential oils.

Generally, prices for spices have reached an all time low on the world market as a result of a structural oversupply by the producer countries. Although an important product as cardamom, or to a lesser extent cassia, is also affected by the general downfall of prices, this does not imply that the product would be less interesting from the primary producers point of view. Particularly where production costs are low and a good quality can be offered, certain spices are still well worth collecting or cultivating.

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Cardamom (Amomum spp.)

A herb, growing under forest cover, of which the seeds are used as aspice. In Laos it grows naturally and is cultivated on the Boloven plateau inthe south and in the province of Oudom Xai in the north. In Cambodia itoccurs in the Cardamom mountains. A small quantity of cardamom is alsoproduced from wild resources in north Vietnam (provinces of Son La andHoa Binh). Cardamom is used in the Middle East as a coffee flavouringand in northern Europe and the USA in bakery products. Elsewhere itenters meat seasonings. The world market price is at present US $ 7/kgc.i.f. Rotterdam for top grades of cardamom.

Laos exports 400 tonnes or more of cardamom per year viaThailand and China, Vietnam some 10 tonnes to Japan, Hongkong andSingapore. Cambodia used to be an important exporter in the past, but noknown quantities of the product enter the trade from this country today.The market price in Pakse, Laos, for top quality selected cardamom was2000 kip (US $3)/kg in October 1991.

Galanga (Alpinia officinarum)

This herb occurs naturally in Northern Vietnam and in Laos, but isalso much cultivated in home gardens. The root is commonly used inVietnamese and Lao cuisine as a ginger like spice. It is also used in localmedicine as an aromaticum , a stimulant and as an aphrodisiac. There is amarket for galanga in Asia, whilst a small quantity is imported into theNetherlands (about 30 tonnes annually at US $ 750-1000 per tonne). Atpresent, India is the main supplier for the Dutch market. In the pastgalanga was also imported from Vietnam and in principle there is aninterest in re-establishing the trade relation for this product with Vietnam(or Laos).

5.5 Animal products

5.5.1 Honey and Wax

Forest honey in Laos and Vietnam is mainly produced by Apisdorsata, a bee native to tropical Asia. A large part of the honey isconsumed locally at the household level. In Vietnam, about 200-400 tonnesof forest honey per annum are marketed. This is a small quantitycompared to the thousands of tonnes of honey produced on rubber- andcoffee plantations and elsewhere. However, pure forest honey makes amuch better price on the domestic market because of its good taste andthe medicinal qualities that are ascribed to it.

29

Cardamom (Amomum spp.)

A herb, growing under forest cover, of which the seeds are used as a spice. In Laos it grows naturally and is cultivated on the Boloven plateau in the south and in the province of Oudom Xai in the north. In Cambodia it occurs in the Cardamom mountains. A small quantity of cardamom is also produced from wild resources in north Vietnam (provinces of Son La and Hoa Binh). Cardamom is used in the Middle East as a coffee flavouring and in northern Europe and the USA in bakery products. Elsewhere it enters meat seasonings. The world market price is at present US $ 7/kg c.i.f. Rotterdam for top grades of cardamom.

Laos exports 400 tonnes or more of cardamom per year via Thailand and China, Vietnam some 10 tonnes to Japan, Hongkong and Singapore. Cambodia used to be an important exporter in the past, but no known quantities of the product enter the trade from this country today. The market price in Pakse, Laos, for top quality selected cardamom was 2000 kip (US $3)/kg in October 1991.

Galanga (Alpinia officinarum)

This herb occurs naturally in Northern Vietnam and in Laos, but is also much cultivated in home gardens. The root is commonly used in Vietnamese and Lao cuisine as a ginger like spice. It is also used in local medicine as an aromaticum , a stimulant and as an aphrodisiac. There is a market for galanga in Asia, whilst a small quantity is imported into the Netherlands (about 30 tonnes annually at US $ 750-1000 per tonne). At present, India is the main supplier for the Dutch market. In the past galanga was also imported from Vietnam and in principle there is an interest in re-establishing the trade relation for this product with Vietnam (or Laos).

5.5 Animal products

5.5.1 Honey and Wax

Forest honey in Laos and Vietnam is mainly produced by Apis dorsata, a bee native to tropical Asia. A large part of the honey is consumed locally at the household level. In Vietnam, about 200-400 tonnes of forest honey per annum are marketed. This is a small quantity compared to the thousands of tonnes of honey produced on rubber- and coffee plantations and elsewhere. However, pure forest honey makes a much better price on the domestic market because of its good taste and the medicinal qualities that are ascribed to it.

29

For instance, one litre of forest honey from the Mekong-delta costs10,000-40,000 Dong (1991 price at collector's village), whilst one litre ofordinary honey at the same time would get a maximum price of 6,000Dong.

The major area in Vietnam where forest honey is collected are theMelaleuca forests in the Mekong delta. It accounts for about half thequantity that is brought to the market in the country. According toconnoisseurs the honey is of the best quality.

As an export commodity Melaleuca honey doesn't have muchperspective,.because - with an average water content of 27 6. 28 %- itdoesn't fit the standards in most markets9. With a healthy domestic marketand a limited supply, there is certainly no need to explore foreign marketsfor this product. Unknovvn quantities of bees-wax are also sold on localmarkets, as a byproduct of honey collecting.

Several provinces of Laos produce very fine qualities of foresthoney. At present, most honey is traded on local markets. Small quantitiesare sold over the border with neighbouring countries. In the province ofSekong a small factory for the processing and package of forest honey forthe export to Bangkok and Europe vvill start to operate in March 1992.

5.5.2 Sticklac

Sticklacl° is the resinous secretion of a tiny insect, Laccifer lacca.Host trees, either wild or, more frequently, cultivated are inoculated withLaccifer lacca breed. In Laos (e.g. in the province of Sayaboury) the resinis also collected from the branches of trees in natural forests, without priorinoculation. Some of the more common host trees are: Samania saman,Albinia lucidior, Cajanus cajan, Acacia catechu and Albizzia odoratissima.

Sticklac is the crude product as it is harvested from the trees, whichis known as shellac once the resin has been extracted. Bleached lac issticklac after having been bleached with a hypo-chlorite solution.

Lac finds a wide variety of uses, including paints and varnish andelectrical insulation. In Vietnam the registered annual production by theforestry sector of sticklac in the second half of the 1980s varied between 89

9 With the exception of Japan and Taiwan.

Not to be confused with 'lac', which is an exudate vegetal liquid produced by Rhussuccedanea. This product is much used in lacquer works in Vietnam

30

For instance, one litre of forest honey from the Mekong-delta costs 10,000-40,000 Dong (1991 price at collector's village), whilst one litre of ordinary honey at the same time would get a maximum price of 6,000 Dong.

The major area in Vietnam where forest honey is collected are the Melaleuca forests in the Mekong delta. It accounts for about half the quantity that is brought to the market in the country. According to connoisseurs the honey is of the best quality.

As an export commodity Melaleuca honey doesn't have much perspective, . because - with an average water content of 27 a 28 %- it doesn't fit the standards in most markets9

• With a healthy domestic market and a limited supply, there is certainly no need to explore foreign markets for this product. Unknown quantities of bees-wax are also sold on local markets, as a byproduct of honey collecting.

Several provinces of Laos produce very fine qualities of forest honey. At present, most honey is traded on local markets. Small quantities are sold over the border with neighbouring countries. In the province of Sekong a small factory for the processing and package of forest honey for the export to Bangkok and Europe will start to operate in March 1992.

5.5.2 Sticklac

SticklaclO is the resinous secretion of a tiny insect, Laccifer lacca. Host trees, either wild or, more frequently, cultivated are inoculated with Laccifer lacca breed. In Laos (e.g. in the province of Sayaboury) the resin is also collected from the branches of trees in natural forests, without prior inoculation. Some of the more common host trees are: Samania saman, Albinia lucidior, Cajanus cajan, Acacia catechu and Albizzia odoratissima.

Sticklac is the crude product as it is harvested from the trees, which is known as shellac once the resin has been extracted. Bleached lac is sticklac after having been bleached with a hypo-chlorite solution.

Lac finds a wide variety of uses, including paints and varnish and electrical insulation. In Vietnam the registered annual production by the forestry sector of sticklac in the second half of the 1980s varied between 89

9 With the exception of Japan and Taiwan.

10 Not to be confused with 'lac', which is an exudate vegetal liquid produced by Rhus succedanea. This product is much used in lacquer works in Vietnam

30

and 143 tonnes per yearn. On top of this 15-22 tonnes of lac per annumwas produced for electrical insulation. Actual production (from cottageindustries) most certainly is substantially higher.

A few years ago, with foreign assistance, a lac processing plant witha capacity of 150 tonnes per annum was established at Ha Dong.Reportedly, the plant does not produce lac that meets the requiredstandards for the domestic industry. The latter industry is further suppliedby cottage lac processing units throughout the country, supplemented byimports from India and Laos.

In Laos, the provinces of Sayaboury, Luang Phabang andHouaphanh produce an unknown guantity of sticklac. In a good year totalproduction may well exceed 100 tonnes. Part of it is exported to Thailand,China and Vietnam.

Lac production can vary very much from year to year in relation to weatherconditions (see Subansenee, 1986:1).

31

and 143 tonnes per yearll. On top of this 15-22 tonnes of lac per annum was produced for electrical insulation. Actual production (from cottage industries) most certainly is substantially higher.

A few years ago, with foreign assistance, a lac processing plant with a capacity of 150 tonnes per annum was established at Ha Dong. Reportedly, the plant does not produce lac that meets the required standards for the domestic industry. The latter industry is further supplied by cottage lac processing units throughout the country, supplemented by imports from India and Laos.

In Laos, the provinces of Sayaboury, Luang Phabang and Houaphanh produce an unknown guantity of sticklac. In a good year total production may well exceed 100 tonnes. Part of it is exported to Thailand, China and Vietnam.

11 Lac production can vary very much from year to year in relation to weather conditions (see Subansenee, 1986:1).

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6 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN REFORESTATION INVIETNAM

Whilst active measures are needed in Vietnam to conserve natural forestswhere this is still possible, there is no doubt that in other areas forest rehabilitationprogrammes are urgently needed.

At the same time, for NWFPs for which a strong demand e)dsts, cultivation ofthe vvild species is the only sure way to relieve the pressure on and promote theactual conservation of natural forest stocks. A large reforestation programme is wellunder way in Vietnam. With more attention to the role which NWFPs can play in thisconnection, the programme can become much more successful than it presently is.

Taking the needs and aspirations of the people living in or near these areas asa point of departure for reforestation in barren areas and for enrichment planting indegraded forest, holds out the best promise. Examples from all over the world showthat when the people concerned are not convinced of the benefits of forestrehabilitation programmes, reforestation becomes a difficult and expensive venture.

Hence, one could proceed as follows: start by maldng an inventory of theNWFPs people use at the household level for food including game, fuel, medicine etc.Then include forest species relevant to these needs in the replanting scheme. Next,after a careful assessment of future domestic and foreign demand for commercialNWFPs, promote the trees and plants selected in the areas which are most suitablefor their cultivation. The use of species indigenous to an area, rather than exoticspecies, as cash crops has the advantages of genetic conservation, conservation ofextant biological diversity, and of ecological stability as well as cultural familiarity andvalue.

In this way a forest will regrow which is interesting from the point of view ofthe people living in the area; a forest that consists of mixed stands of multi-purposetrees and other trees and plants, some of which are more valuable for direct use inlocal households and others that are valuable commercially and sooner or later,depending on the species, will bring in cash income to the households involved.

True participation of local people in reforestation could so be achieved. Suchan approach requires a great deal of patience, as well as thorough basic scientificresearch. Research into indigenous forest management systems as well as intobiological and ecological aspects, extensive field trials and organized extension effortsto put research results into practice, are required.

32

6 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN REFORESTATION IN VIETNAM

Whilst active measures are needed in Vietnam to conserve natural forests where this is still possible, there is no doubt that in other areas forest rehabilitation programmes are urgently needed.

At the same time, for NWFPs for which a strong demand exists, cultivation of the wild species is the only sure way to relieve the pressure on and promote the actual conservation of natural forest stocks. A large reforestation programme is well under way in Vietnam. With more attention to the role which NWFPs can play in this connection, the programme can become much more successful than it presently is.

Taking the needs and aspirations of the people living in or near these areas as a point of departure for reforestation in barren areas and for enrichment planting in degraded forest, holds out the best promise. Examples from all over the world show that when the people concerned are not convinced of the benefits of forest rehabilitation programmes, reforestation becomes a difficult and expensive venture.

Hence, one could proceed as follows: start by making an inventory of the NWFPs people use at the household level for food including game, fuel, medicine etc. Then include forest species relevant to these needs in the replanting scheme. Next, after a careful assessment of future domestic and foreign demand for commercial NWFPs, promote the trees and plants selected in the areas which are most suitable for their cultivation. The use of species indigenous to an area, rather than exotic species, as cash crops has the advantages of genetic conservation, conservation of extant biological diversity, and of ecological stability as well as cultural familiarity and value.

In this way a forest will regrow which is interesting from the point of view of the people living in the area; a forest that consists of mixed stands of multi-purpose trees and other trees and plants, some of which are more valuable for direct use in local households and others that are valuable commercially and sooner or later, depending on the species, will bring in cash income to the households involved.

True participation of local people in reforestation could so be achieved. Such an approach requires a great deal of patience, as well as thorough basic scientific research. Research into indigenous forest management systems as well as into biological and ecological aspects, extensive field trials and organized extension efforts to put research results into practice, are required.

32

7 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

7.1 General

Indochina's forests are a very valuable source of a wide range ofNWFPs. However, active measures to conserve and restore the resourcebase are urgently needed.

Where large natural forests still do exist, conservation must takefirst priority. The conservation of these forests is important not onlybecause of the crucial environmental services they provide, such aswatershed protection, soil stabilization, and climate regulation, but in thefirst place because of their role as repositories of biological and geneticaldiversity. The forests of Indochina are the source of the wild ancestors ofmany important cultivated crops and hence of potentially genetic imputsrequired for the maintenance or improvement of their productivity. Theyalso harbour a host of plant and animal species whose benefits to humanityhave not even begun to be explored.

In barren and degraded areas large reforestation programmes arebeing carried out, particularly in Vietnam. Indigenous tree species andNWFPs could play a larger role in these programmes than they presentlydo. A specific focus on the needs of rural households is warranted becauseit is here that dependence on the materials and income provided byNWFPs is most direct.

In this context, it should be noted that both the degradation ofNWFPs and also their development can cause hardship for the groups mostdependent on the forest for their everyday lives.

It is therefore imperative that steps to enhance the role of NWFPsin forestry are accompanied by the formalization and enforcement oftraditional forest dwellers' rights and the participation of all ruralcommunities in the control and management of the local forest and itsNWF'P resources.

7.2 Market aspects and research: Vietnam

A wide range of NWFPs are collected or cultivated either for use inthe home market or for export. A large part of the trade goes unregistered.

Export

Several decades ago Vietnam, together with the other countries ofIndochina, enjoyed a special position in the world market as a supplier ofNWFPs. Now, Vietnam is re-establishing trade links with the world marketat large.

33

7 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

7.1 General

Indochina's forests are a very valuable source of a wide range of NWFPs. However, active measures to conserve and restore the resource base are urgently needed.

Where large natural forests still do exist, conservation must take first priority. The conservation of these forests is important not only because of the crucial environmental services they provide, such as watershed protection, soil stabilization, and climate regulation, but in the first place because of their role as repositories of biological and genetical diversity. The forests of Indochina are the source of the wild ancestors of many important cultivated crops and hence of potentially genetic imputs required for the maintenance or improvement of their productivity. They also harbour a host of plant and animal species whose benefits to humanity have not even begun to be explored.

In barren and degraded areas large reforestation programmes are being carried out, particularly in Vietnam. Indigenous tree species and NWFPs could playa larger role in these programmes than they presently do. A specific focus on the needs of rural households is warranted because it is here that dependence on the materials and income provided by NWFPs is most direct.

In this context, it should be noted that both the degradation of NWFPs and also their development can cause hardship for the groups most dependent on the forest for their everyday lives.

It is therefore imperative that steps to enhance the role of NWFPs in forestry are accompanied by the formalization and enforcement of traditional forest dwellers' rights and the participation of all rural communities in the control and management of the local forest and its NWFP resources.

7.2 Market aspects and research: Vietnam

A wide range of NWFPs are collected or cultivated either for use in the home market or for export. A large part of the trade goes unregistered.

Export

Several decades ago Vietnam, together with the other countries of Indochina, enjoyed a special position in the world market as a supplier" of NWFPs. Now, Vietnam is re-establishing trade links with the world market at large.

33

At present world market prices for raw materials, such as spices andessential oils, are generally low as a result of structural oversupply fromproducer countries and the current recession in North America andEurope.

On the other hand, the growing demand for natural products in theindustrialized countries has opened new markets for specific products.As regards labour intensive products for which world demand is strong,such as pine resin, Vietnam has the advantage of comparatively cheaplabour.

In general focusing on relatively small quantities of high-valueproducts is recommended rather than on large volumes of a small range ofproducts. In particular, it would be wise to try to avoid direct competitionwith (the giant) China.

There is considerable potential for marketing a wider range ofproducts already identified and for developing new commercial andindustrial uses as well as for finding new forests products. Traditionalforest-dwellers, with their vast repositories of knowledge which they haveaccumulated regarding the exploitation of their forest environment, can actas guides to identify 'new' products and their useful properties.

One of the most fruitful areas to which indigenous knowledge cancontribute, and indeed has already contributed, is the medicinal use offorest species. Pharmaceuticals is also a promising sector for furtherdevelopment, because Vietnam possesses very competent research units inthis field, notwithstanding a severe lack of equipment and literature, forinstance at the University of Hanoi. Other potential commodities based ontraditional products include pesticides and insect repellents.

In addition, new industrial uses are still being found for forestproducts originally exploited for other purposes. To be able to takeadvantage of new possibilities, the active gathering of market intelligence isneeded. Representatives of the trade in Vietnam should closely monitordevelopments in the major consumer markets and by bringing 'new' rawmaterials to the attention of manufacturers in the overseas market, explorethe chances to enlarge the basis of exports.

In a country short of foreign exchange earnings, finding exportmarkets is obviously an urgent need. Nevertheless the potential of thehome market of 65 million people should not be overlooked. Fornumerous NWFPs for which it would be hard to find export markets (e.g.edible oils, forest honey), a good market either already e)dsts or can beestablished within the country. In addition, the development of products forthe home market contributes to the national economy in terms of importsubstitution.

34

At present world market prices for raw materials, such as spices and essential oils, are generally low as a result of structural oversupply from producer countries and the current recession in North America and Europe.

On the other hand, the growing demand for natural products in the industrialized countries has opened new markets for specific products. As regards labour intensive products for which world demand is strong, such as pine resin, Vietnam has the advantage of comparatively cheap labour.

In general focusing on relatively small quantities of high-value products is recommended rather than on large volumes of a small range of products. In particular, it would be wise to try to avoid direct competition with (the giant) China.

There is considerable potential for marketing a wider range of products already identified and for developing new commercial and industrial uses as well as for finding new forests products. Traditional forest-dwellers, with their vast repositories of knowledge which they have accumulated regarding the exploitation of their forest environment, can act as guides to identify 'new' products and their useful properties.

One of the most fruitful areas to which indigenous knowledge can contribute, and indeed has already contributed, is the medicinal use of forest species. Pharmaceuticals is also a promising sector for further development, because Vietnam possesses very competent research units in this field, notwithstanding a severe lack of equipment and literature, for instance at the University of Hanoi. Other potential commodities based on traditional products include pesticides and insect repellents.

In addition, new industrial uses are still being found for forest products originally exploited for other purposes. To be able to take advantage of new possibilities, the active gathering of market intelligence is needed. Representatives of the trade in Vietnam should closely monitor developments in the major consumer markets and by bringing 'new' raw materials to the attention of manufacturers in the overseas market, explore the chances to enlarge the basis of exports.

In a country short of foreign exchange earnings, finding export markets is obviously an urgent need. Nevertheless the potential of the home market of 65 million people should not be overlooked. For numerous NWFPs for which it would be hard to find export markets (e.g. edible oils, forest honey), a good market either already exists or can be established within the country. In addition, the development of products for the home market contributes to the national economy in terms of import substitution.

34

Harvesting

Less wastage in the process of extraction and better regeneration ofmany NWFPs can be achieved by the development and application ofimproved harvesting techniques. Improved storage would result in lessspoilage of raw materials, before they reach the processing stage.

Processing and quality control

A very large part of primary processing of NWFPs - pressing,distillation, drying - is carried out by small cottage industries in thecountryside. Credit facilities to upgrade these production units are direlyneeded. Assistance given to small scale forest-based industries, as well asto the primary producers - collectors and cultivators - should also bedirected at achieving consistent grading which meets buyers specifications(the example of the Enteroil company has been given in paragraph 5.1 onessential oils).

Market development for small scale manufacturers would befurthered by government agencies and trade associations promoting theirproducts, supplying market information, and assisting in the developmentof products marketed to changing consumer preferences.

Research

Strengthening the NWFP-sector will demand considerable researcheffort. Vietnam possesses competent scientific institutes, such as the Centrefor Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (CRES), the Institute ofEcological Economy and several branches of the University of Hanoi.

It is recommended to reinforce these and other institutes and bringthem in to carry out research to the benefit of strengthening the NWFP-sector. A first step to reinforce these institutes might be to help themupgrade their libraries.

7.3 Market aspects and research: Laos

In Laos N'WFPs are much collected for the domestic market, but alltaken together they also form one of the major export commodities of thecountry. A very large part of the export goes unregistered. Much of whathas been said in paragraph 7.2 in relation to Vietnam also applies to Laos.

Laos has a disadvantage because, being landlocked, it hascomparatively high transport costs. However, it has a potentially strongposition for the export of those products, which grow in the wild or underlight forest management, because of its still relatively abundant naturalforest resources.

35

Harvesting

Less wastage in the process of extraction and better regeneration of many NWFPs can be achieved by the development and application of improved harvesting techniques. Improved storage would result in less spoilage of raw materials, before they reach the processing stage.

Processing and quality control

A very large part of primary processing of NWFPs - pressing, distillation, drying - is carried out by small cottage industries in the countryside. Credit facilities to upgrade these production units are direly needed. Assistance given to small scale forest-based industries, as well as to the primary producers - collectors and cultivators - should also be directed at achieving consistent grading which meets buyers specifications (the example of the Enteroil company has been given in paragraph 5.1 on essential oils).

Market development for small scale manufacturers would be furthered by government agencies and trade associations promoting their products, supplying market information, and assisting in the development of products marketed to changing consumer preferences.

Research

Strengthening the NWFP-sector will demand considerable research effort. Vietnam possesses competent scientific institutes, such as the Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (CRES), the Institute of Ecological Economy and several branches of the University of Hanoi.

It is recommended to reinforce these and other institutes and bring them in to carry out research to the benefit of strengthening the NWFP­sector. A first step to reinforce these institutes might be to help them upgrade their libraries.

7.3 Market aspects and research: Laos

In Laos NWFPs are much collected for the domestic market, but all taken together they also form one of the major export commodities of the country. A very large part of the export goes unregistered. Much of what has been said in paragraph 7.2 in relation to Vietnam also applies to Laos.

Laos has a disadvantage because, being landlocked, it has comparatively high transport costs. However, it has a potentially strong position for the export of those products, which grow in the wild or under light forest management, because of its still relatively abundant natural forest resources.

35

Processing

The present capacity for processing NWFPs is small in Laos. It isrecommended to stimulate the establishment of small-scale NWFPprocessing industries in the producing areas and assist existing operationswith achieving consistent grading. Also, in Vientiane a centre where qualitycontrol can be carried out is direly needed.

Research

In Laos much research also needs to be carried out before asuccessful attempt can be made to develop the economic potential of theNWFP-sector in the country.

In October 1991, a small NWFP-branch was established within theDepartment of Forestry in Vientiane. Strengthening the research capacityof this branch of the Department of Forestry, as well as the research andmonitoring capacity of other institutions, both on the national and theprovincial level, should be given first priority.

36

Processing

The present capacity for processing NWFPs is small in Laos. It is recommended to stimulate the establishment of small-scale NWFP processing industries in the producing areas and assist existing operations with achieving consistent grading. Also, in Vientiane a centre where quality control can be carried out is direly needed.

Research

In Laos much research also needs to be carried out before a successful attempt can be made to develop the economic potential of the NWFP-sector in the country.

In October 1991, a small NWFP-branch was established within the Department of Forestry in Vientiane. Strengthening the research capacity of this branch of the Department of Forestry, as well as the research and monitoring capacity of other institutions, both on the national and the provincial level, should be given first priority.

36

REFERENCES

Beer, J.H. de (1991). The non-timber forest products sector in Lao PDRand the Philippines (Palawan). Identification report for the Ministryof Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands/DGIS. AIDEnvironment,Amsterdam.

Beer, J.de & McDermott, M.(1989). The Economic Value of Non-timberForest Products in Southeast Asia, Netherlands Committee forI.U.C.N., Amsterdam.

Beresford, M. (1990). Vietnam. Politics. Economy and Society. PinterPublishers, London/New York.

CBI (1991). Essential oils and Oleoresins. a survey of the Netherlands andother major markets in the European Community. Rotterdam.

CBI (1991). Spices and Herbs, a survey of the Netherlands and other majormarkets in the European Community, Rotterdam.

CBI (1990). Raw materials for Pharmaceuticals. a survey of the Netherlandand other major markets in the European Community. Rotterdam.

Chagnaud, F.J. (1990). Valorisation et promotion des sous-produits agro-forestiers: étude exploratoire au Laos. Unpublished, Paris.

Chagnaud, F.J. & Inthavong, C. (1990). Alterntive au Développement del'économie marchande de Peuples de la fora. La Valorisation dessous-produits agro-forestiers. une opportunité pour le Laos.Communication présentée au 10-ème congrès forestier mondial,Paris.

Chazee, L. (1990). Les Mammifères du Laos et leur Chasse. Des MesuresUrgentes a prendre. I.U.C.N. Vientiane (Unpublished).

Collins, N.M., J.A. Sayer, T.C. Whitmore (eds.) (1991) The conservationatlas of tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific, MacMillan, London &Basingstoke.

Crane, E., Vu van Luyen, V. Mulder, Tran Cong Ta (1992). A traditionalmanagement system for Apis dorsata in submerged forests inCentral Kalimantan and Southern Vietnam. Unpublished, Hanoi.

Crevost, C. (1927). Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine . tome IVExsudats végétaux-sticklac. Hanoi.

37

REFERENCES

Beer, J.H. de (1991). The non-timber forest products sector in Lao PDR and the Philippines (Palawan). Identification report for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands/DGIS. AIDEnvironment, Amsterdam.

Beer, J.de & McDermott, M.(1989). The Economic Value of Non-timber Forest Products in Southeast Asia. Netherlands Committee for I.U.C.N., Amsterdam.

Beresford, M. (1990). Vietnam. Politics. Economy and Society. Pinter Publishers, London/New York.

CBI (1991). Essential oils and Oleoresins. a survey of the Netherlands and other major markets in the European Community. Rotterdam.

CBI (1991). Spices and Herbs. a survey of the Netherlands and other major markets in the European Community. Rotterdam.

CBI (1990). Raw materials for Pharmaceuticals. a survey of the Netherland and other major markets in the European Community. Rotterdam.

Chagnaud, F.J. (1990). Valorisation et promotion des sous-produits agro­forestiers: etude exploratoire au Laos. Unpublished, Paris.

Chagnaud, F.J. & Inthavong, C. (1990). Alterntive au Developpement de l'economie marchande de Peuples de la foret. La Valorisation des sous-produits agro-forestiers. une opportunite pour Ie Laos. Communication presentee au lO-eme congres fore stier mondial, Paris.

Chazee, L. (1990). Les Mammiferes du Laos et leur Chasse. Des Mesures Urgentes a prendre. I.U.C.N. Vientiane (Unpublished).

Collins, N.M., J.A. Sayer, T.C. Whitmore (eds.) (1991) The conservation atlas of tropical forests: Asia and the Pacific. MacMillan, London & Basingstoke.

Crane, E., Vu van Luyen, V. Mulder, Tran Cong Ta (1992). A traditional management system for Apis dorsata in submerged forests in Central Kalimantan and Southern Vietnam. Unpublished, Hanoi.

Crevost, C. (1927). Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine . tome IV Exsudats vegetaux-sticklac. Hanoi.

37

Crevost, C., C. Lemari6 (1924). Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine,tome III Matières grasses végétales. Hanoi.

Dorji, D.P. & Morisco, P. (1990), Lao P.D.R. Traditional medicineevaluation mission. CIDSE, Vientiane.

Frontou, G. (1927). La production de la Cannelle en Annam. Bulletinéconomique de l'Indochine, pp 307-325, Hanoi.

Gammelgaard, J. (1990). Ethnic minorities in Vietnam. Report on amission to Vietnam. Unpublished, UNDP Hanoi.

Green, C.L. & G.A. Hone (1991). Essential oil production in developingcountries. Paper presented at the 3rd International Meeting onAromatia and Medicinal Plants, Nyons, France, December 1991.

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Government of Lao PDR, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (1990). LaoPeople's Democratic Republic Tropical Forestry Action Plan (firstphase) Main Report,

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Green, C.L. & G.A. Hone (1991). Essential oil production in developing countries. Paper presented at the 3rd International Meeting on Aromatia and Medicinal Plants, Nyons, France, December 1991.

Greenhalgh, P. (1982). The production. marketing and utilisation of naval stores. Tropical Products Institute, London.

Government of Lao PDR, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (1990). Lao People's Democratic Republic Tropical Forest!)' Action Plan (first phase) Main Report.

Gupta, T. and A Guleria (1980). Non-wood forest products in India: Economic Potentials. CMA Monograph 87, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedbad.

Heide, van der (1990). Use of the Uplands in Lao People's Democratic Republic. Instituut voor Bodemvruchtbaarheid nota 224, Groningen.

Ireson, C. (1989). The Role of Women in Forest!)' in the Lao People's Democratic Republic. SilviNova Forestry Consultants, Vientiane.

lTC, UNCTAD/GATT (1986). Honey. a study of major markets. Geneva.

ITC (1982). Markets for medicinal plants and their derivates. Geneva.

lTC, UNCTAD/GATT (1986). Essential oils and oleoresins: a study of selected producers and major markets. Geneva.

Luong Van Tien (1991). Count!)' paper Vietnam. Contribution to the regional expert consultation on non-wood forest products in the Asia-Pacific region. RAP A 5-8 November 1991, Bangkok.

Mahidol University, faculty of Pharmacy (1980-1981). Development strategies for medicinal plants in Thailand. Bangkok.

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Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, UNDP, FAO (1991).Forestry Sector Review. Tropical Forestry Action Plan, Draft mainreport. Hanoi, June 1991.

Ministry of Trade (1991). Economy. Trade of Vietnam 1986-1990. Hanoi.

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Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, UNDP, FAO (1991). Forestry Sector Review. Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Draft main report. Hanoi, June 1991.

Ministry of Trade (1991). Economy. Trade of Vietnam 1986-1990. Hanoi.

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Sayer, J. (1989). Discussion Paper Conservation of Ecosystems. Unpublished.

Shiva, M.P. (1990). Report on non-wood forest products. Forestry sector review TF AP, Ministry of Forestry, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, UNDP IFAO, Hanoi.

Schmutterer, H., K.R.S. Ascher (1987). Natural pesticides from the neem treend other tropical plants. Proceedings of the 3rd International Neem Conference. Nairobi, Kenia. GTZ Eschborn.

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40

41

ANNEX I LIST OF CONTACTS

Vietnam

Hanoi

Pham Gia True, National Professional Officer, FAO RepresentativeTimo Lahtinen, Associate Professional Officer, FAO RepresentationLe Trong Vong, General Director, Essential Oils EnterpriseNguyen Nha Duc, Assistant Marketing Manager, EnteroilDr. Phan Tuy, Vice Director, College of PharmacyPham Quang Thinh, Asian Section, International RelationsDepartment Chamber of Commerce & Industry,Nguyen Ba Hung, Deputy Director, Forest & Native Products Dept.,NAFORIMEXPham Phuong Hoa, International Marketing Dept., NAFORIMEXLarry Maramis, Assistant Resident Representative, UNDPNguyen Huu Dong, Chief Forest Resources and EnvironmentCentre Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI), Ministry ofForestryNguyen Van Thuong, forest ecologist, FIPINguyen Huy Phon, Head Technical Section, FIPILe Sau, Eng. Deputy Director FIPIBùi Xudn Yên, Director of the International CooperationDepartment, Ministry of ForestryProf. Dr. Vo Quy, Director Centre for Natural Resources,Management and Environmental Studies (CRES), University ofHanoiDr. Le Trong Cuc, ecologist, Deputy Director CRESProf. Dr. Nguyen Van Truong, Director Institute of EcologicalEconomyProf. Ton That Chieu, Institute of Ecological EconomyProf. Nguyen Viet Pho, Institute of Ecological EconomyDr. Luong Van Tien, Director Special Forest Products ResearchCentre, NAFORIMEX IHans Warfvinge, Senior Consultant, ORGUT Consulting ABMr. Bonami, country representative UNIDOKarl Speth, foresterVincent Mulder, beekeeping advisor, Committee Science andTechnology for VietnamJacqueline Eeuwes, anthropologistDr. Tamang, acting coordinator TF'AP, Ministry of ForestryDr. Le Dien Duc, Senior Research Officer CRESDr. Phan Thy, Vice-director Faculty of Pharmacology, University ofHanoiDr. Van Nguyen, Faculty of Chemistry and Physics, foreign relationsdepartment

ANNEX I LIST OF CONTACTS

Vietnam

Hanoi

1. Pham Gia Truc, National Professional Officer, FAO Representative 2. Timo Lahtinen, Associate Professional Officer, FAO Representation 3. Le Trong Vong, General Director, Essential Oils Enterprise 4. Nguyen Nha Duc, Assistant Marketing Manager, Enteroil 5. Dr. Phan Tuy, Vice Director, College of Pharmacy 6. Pham Quang Thinh, Asian Section, International Relations

Department Chamber of Commerce & Industry, 7. Nguyen Ba Hung, Deputy Director, Forest & Native Products Dept.,

NAFORIMEX 8. Pham Phuong Hoa, International Marketing Dept., NAFORIMEX 9. Larry Maramis, Assistant Resident Representative, UNDP

10. Nguyen Huu Dong, Chief Forest Resources and Environment Centre Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI), Ministry of Forestry

11. Nguyen Van Thuong, forest ecologist, FIPI 12. Nguyen Huy Phon, Head Technical Section, FIPI 13. Le Sau, Eng. Deputy Director FIPI 14. Bui Xuan Yen, Director of the International Cooperation

Department, Ministry of Forestry 15. Prof. Dr. Vo Quy, Director Centre for Natural Resources,

Management and Environmental Studies (CRES), University of Hanoi

16. Dr. Le Trong Cuc, ecologist, Deputy Director CRES 17. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Truong, Director Institute of Ecological

Economy 18. Prof. Ton That Chieu, Institute of Ecological Economy 19. Prof. Nguyen Viet Pho, Institute of Ecological Economy 20. Dr. Luong Van Tien, Director Special Forest Products Research

Centre, NAFORIMEX I 21. Hans Warfvinge, Senior Consultant, ORGUT Consulting AB 22. Mr. Bonami, country representative UNIDO 23. Karl Speth, forester 24. Vincent Mulder, beekeeping advisor, Committee Science and

Technology for Vietnam 25. Jacqueline Eeuwes, anthropologist 26. Dr. Tamang, acting coordinator TFAP, Ministry of Forestry 27. Dr. Le Dien Duc, Senior Research Officer CRES 28. Dr. Phan Tuy, Vice-director Faculty of Pharmacology, University of

Hanoi 29. Dr. Van Nguyen, Faculty of Chemistry and Physics, foreign relations

department

41

Dr. Van Khien, Head of the Unit for Research on essential oilsProf. Hue, Director chemistry department

Ho Chi Minh City

Vo An Ha, Director NAFOBIRDNguyen Dinh Dien, Manager NAFOBIRDNguyen Phu Hoanh, Marketing Manager, Investment DevelopmentTourist and Import Export (IDC)Trinh Huu Hien, Liaison officer, FAO Focal PointNgo Ut, senior forester, forestry department, southern branch

Lam Dong

Lb' Ngoc H6a, Director Union Forest Industry and AgricultureCorporation, Bao LocNguyen Huu Chau, Manager, Song Than Processing wood exportfactory, 'Thuan An-Song BeNguyen Nam Kha, Director provincial Production-Trading ImportExport co., DalatNguyen Va Trunh, Vice-director provincial Production-TradingImport Export co., DalatMr. Ngan, Manager Forest Brigade no. 8Mr. Pho, Director Provincial Forestry Lam DongMr. Phong, Head of the forest control section, provincial ForestryDepartment

United Kingdom

David Crosthwaite, Fuerst Day Lawson Limited (FDL), LondonAngus Hone, Natural Resources Institute, ChathamNeil V. Shrimpton, managing director Vietnam TradingCorporation, Ascot, Berkshire

France

Dr. J. Vidal, Musée de l'histoire naturelle, Paris

42

30. Dr. Van Khien, Head of the Unit for Research on essential oils 31. Prof. Hue, Director chemistry department

Ho Chi Minh City

32. Vo An Ha, Director NAFOBIRD 33. Nguyen Dinh Dien, Manager NAFOBIRD 34. Nguyen Phu Hoanh, Marketing Manager, Investment Development

Tourist and Import Export (IDC) 35. Trinh Huu Hien, Liaison officer, FAO Focal Point 36. Ngo Ut, senior forester, forestry department, southern branch

Lam Don2

37. I.e Ngoc H6a, Director Union Forest Industry and Agriculture Corporation, Bao Lac

38. Nguyen Huu Chau, Manager, Song Than Processing wood export factory, Thuan An-Song Be

39. Nguyen Nam Kha, Director provincial Production-Trading Import Export co., Dalat

40. Nguyen Va Trunh, Vice-director provincial Production-Trading Import Export co., Dalat

41. Mr. Ngan, Manager Forest Brigade no. 8 42. Mr. Pho, Director Provincial Forestry Lam Dong 43. Mr. Phong, Head of the forest control section, provincial Forestry

Department

United Kingdom

45. David Crosthwaite, Fuerst Day Lawson Limited (FDL), Landon 46. Angus Hone, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham 47. Neil V. Shrimpton, managing director Vietnam Trading

Corporation, Ascot, Berkshire

France

48. Dr. J. Vidal, Musee de l'histoire naturelle, Paris

42