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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

In Malaysia, concerns in special education started as early as in the 1920s

with the opening of its very first national school catering for the blind in the state of

Malacca. In the following decades, more schools and centers in various states were

established to cater for the different needs of students’ with disabilities. To date,

special education has been the one of the dominant subjects in the Education

Ministries and departments in the Asia Pacific region. This is to further enhance the

educational programmes and services provided for students with special needs.

Despite this concerted effort to provide educational services, there are always some

segments of children with disabilities who are left out due to geographical and

socioeconomic factors. Evidence has shown that less than ten percent of children and

youth with disabilities in this region are getting some form of education (Biwako

Millennium Framework for Action, 2002).

Malaysia, being one of the State Parties to the Convention on the Rights of

the Child (1989, Article 23), should ensure that various resources and appropriate

assistance are provided to the children with disabilities as well as their families. The

Ministry involved should emphasize on social integration focusing on their education

facets, medical care, and rehabilitation services as well as in preparing students with

disabilities for employment. In this legislation, it is also stated that financial aid and

free education should be given to these children if their families cannot afford to send

them to school. Apart from that, it is highlighted in Article 29 that State Parties

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should also warrant that the education of the children is geared towards developing

their character, aptitude, and physical abilities to the fullest.

In the mid 1990s, the Ministry of Education of Malaysia decided to integrate

programmes for students with special needs into the national schools as part of a

reform initiative. The Education Minister, Datuk Hishammudin Hussein mentioned

in a local newspaper New Straits Times (2004), the needs for students with special

needs would be catered for as he declared that education is every citizen’s right and

he is determined to ensure everyone is given a fair share of educational prospects.

This is also in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) which

shows the Ministry’s effort to educate the community and inculcate positive attitudes

towards people with disabilities thus making social unity possible within the

community itself. It is also vital to increase public awareness on the rights of children

and youth with disabilities to education at all levels. As such, schools face greater

challenges to ensure that every child has an equal opportunity to education regardless

of their physical or mental disabilities and meeting the demands of subdivision

expectations (Jehl & Kirst, 1993; Hindlin, 2005).

Services for the special needs students in Malaysia are currently observed by

three different ministries, namely the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Women, Family

and Community Development and the Ministry of Education. Progressively, in

Malaysia children with disabilities are detected very early in their infancy when they

are screened by health personnel. This is in line with the agreement made in the

Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons (1993-2002) that by 2012, all children

from birth to four years old receive community-based early intervention services

including giving support and guidance to their families.

However, where education is concerned, according to the Development of

Education, National Report of Malaysia (2004), only the Ministry of Education is

involved in establishing school boards to ensure the provision of educational

programmes such as remedial programmes for students who are deemed as ‘at-risk’

in learning and students with special needs such as hearing or vision loss. The

categories of special needs being catered by the ministry include students with Down

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syndrome, mild autism, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), minimum

intellectual disability, and specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia.

It is compulsory for a follow up care to be planned for each child with

disabilities depending on the condition so that special assistance can be extended to

deal with any specific problems the family or child may encounter. The medical

officer who is responsible will then make the necessary referrals to other agencies

such as the social welfare, special institutions or to other departments such as speech

therapist based on the overall condition of the child. According to the Circular Letter

for Special Education (1992), special registration forms are provided by the Ministry

of Education. Parents as well as the medical officer should furnished details in the

given forms. It is then maintained at the health centre for management and follow up

purposes.

In Malaysia, an array of services are provided for parents to choose for their

children ranging from special schools and programmes run by Coalition of Societies

for Persons with Disabilities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or in inclusive

classes in normal schools. The government, acting in the best interest of the students

with special needs should give attention to the education needs of these students in all

states and in diverse economic conditions through both national and non profit

organization schools. As stated in the Education Act 1996 (Act 550) & the Selected

Regulations (2004) of Malaysia, teachers who are trained in this field can plan

appropriate instructional programmes, adapt existing curriculum as well as evaluate

students’ progress based on the developmental needs of the group. As such, the

Ministry of Education should ensure that special education teachers are trained and

qualified to teach in the special schools or the integrated inclusive schools for

students with special needs. It is recognized that educational needs are difficult to be

achieved unless individualized attention is given to these students.

According to a report in a local newspaper, Utusan Malaysia (9 May 2005),

the Ministry of Education has put priority on special needs education in appreciation

to the sacrifice and effort that teachers have put in to the special needs programmes.

As such, awards had been given to the special education teachers, recognizing their

efforts and giving them further encouragement to enhance their creativity and

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innovation. The reporter has also cited the Ministry’s intention to attract more

teachers to join the special education field. Actions have been taken to equip the

teachers with the skills required realizing that special education teachers’ needs are

different to that of regular education teachers.

Malaysia, being one of the state parties of the Asia Pacific Forum of National

Human Rights Institutions (2006), should also ensure that the potential of these

students will be developed to their fullest. Taking into account the vast individual

differences among students with special needs, Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

should be prepared to cater for individual learning needs which are vital in preparing

effective learning programmes. According to Gartin and Murdick (2005) as

mentioned in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 2004, apart

from exploring students’ potential, IEP should also consider the concerns of the

parents and to pool as much information from them about their children in order to

address every aspect of the students’ development and behavioral plans.

Welch and Sheridan (1995) believed that significant individuals at home are

the most underutilized resource in the educational environment. Hudson, Correa,

Morsink and Dykes (1987) added that when teachers and parents act as a team, more

can be achieved as compared to working alone. It should also be noted that education

administered for these students emphasizes on the physical, emotional, social,

spiritual and intellectual development in line with the country’s National Education

Philosophy.

1.2 Background of the Problem

Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is a programme that allows both teachers

and parents to monitor students’ progress and development. The Education for All

Handicapped Children Act of 1975; the Education of the Handicapped Act

Amendments of 1986, and the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) Amendments

of 1997, have executed a law concerning special education that recognizes family

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involvement and teacher-parent collaboration as an essential component in

developing IEP.

The impact teacher-parent partnership is stressed in Vygotsky’s sociocultural

theory. He believed that children’s learning outcome can be enhanced by interaction

with more able significant others (Parke & Locke, 2003). When students with

disabilities interact with their teachers and parents, they accumulate their basic

knowledge to solve problems that require higher cognitive thinking. Vygotsky (1978)

used the notion zone of proximal development (ZPD) to define the difference

between the developmental level the children have reached and the level they can

potentially achieve with the guidance of more skilled persons. Therefore, teachers

and parents are the closest persons to students with disabilities to teach and educate

them.

The basis behind IEP is the contract made between teachers and parents on

services to be provided for students based on their individual needs that have been

agreed upon by both parties. To determine the best way to facilitate learning, it is

vital for teachers and parents to work as a team in order to discover where each

student develops cognitively, socially and emotionally. Another form of instruction

suggested by Vygotsky is scaffolding in which teachers and parents need to fine-tune

the amount of guidance they give to children in order to give them the opportunity to

carry out the tasks independently (Parke & Gauvain, 2009). This approach can be

applied in IEP activities in which the ultimate aim in the programme is for students

with disabilities to be able to be skillful and independent.

Developing teacher-parent collaboration in IEP is an aspect to be taken

seriously as a cornerstone of assuring more beneficial achievements among the

students involved. It is a socialization process which takes various factors into

account to help teachers and parents to adjust more quickly to their responsibility,

reflect on their chosen roles and their behaviour within that professional

collaboration to continue to improve students’ developmental outcomes (Bateman &

Herr, 2006). Teacher-parent collaboration is bounded by law and thus should be a

fundamental component in educational reform (West, 1990; Welch & Sheridan,

1995). From the implementation of the Biwako Millennium Framework for Action

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(2002), it is being addressed that further attempts should be made in relation to

family matters as they are found to be rather defective and need step up measures.

Based on Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs

Education (1994), persons with disabilities should be given the right to clarify and

convey issues on their concerns that contributes to independent growth among the

society. Parents are active members who should combat for their civil rights and

needs until their children seek independence. However, as much as educators

accentuate on the needs for teacher-parent partnerships, such relationships often

failed to materialize (Epstein, 1995).

In dealing with policies such as in IEP, it is important that issues are guided

by considering schools as a living systems and taking into account the understanding

of individual, organizational, and community learning needs (McCombs, 2003). In a

study, Shriner and Destefano (2003) found that although students’ IEP should reflect

on students’ individualized needs, political and logistic factors do influence the

benefits of IEP and hinder its actual application.

As stated in the Biwako Millennium Framework for Action (2002),

governments, NGOs, training institutions and other social partners should work

together to provide and upgrade training of teachers to ensure that they are competent

to teach in this field and meet the necessary requirements. Studies had found that

existing teacher training had somehow neglected the importance of teacher-parent

collaboration and to equip teachers with the necessary skills needed to build

productive relationship (Reynolds & Clement, 2003).

Collaboration which is simply defined as a process in which two or more

parties work together to achieve common goals would not emerge if members

involved fail to put in effort towards similar direction. In IEP, teachers and parents

are significant people who should work hand-in-hand for the programme to work

effectively. This belief is in line with Bronfenbrenner’s mesosystem which

encompasses the interrelationships of home and school (Shaffer & Kipp, 2007) thus

involving the collaboration effort between teachers and parents in IEP. Collaboration

between teachers and parents is important especially in education programmes such

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as in IEP which, as stated by Welch (2000), emphasize on shared decision-making

and will have different impact in various countries due to diverse education reforms

and cultural influences.

Beyond the justification to the need for teachers and parents to collaborate are

several key concepts that determine the success of collaboration. According to Friend

and Cook (2000) these concepts include realizing that collaboration should be done

voluntarily and members not only share their resources as well as decision-making

but also their responsibilities. Apart from that, they emphasize that all members

should aim towards common goals, trust and respect each other in community

building, acknowledge each others’ roles, able to plan a formal programme process

as well as able to work together intuitively. However, as Gerber (2000) had noted,

much resistance to special education programmes was due to lack of resources and

understanding of the services and needs of students with special needs.

The rationale for a collaborative approach between teachers and parents to

decision making and service delivery lies in its efficiency and potential to produce

high quality outcome. Studies should be carried out to explore into the opportunities

and ways in which parents are able to participate and become productive team

members in working towards thriving IEP. The importance of parents’ involvement

has been acknowledged in various literatures. However, what takes place in team

meetings does not reflect that parents are included in the programme implementation

(Hinojosa, Sproat, Mankaaetwit, & Anderson, 2002; Lawson, 2003).

The effectiveness of IEP programme relies very much on the collaboration

between teachers and parents which varies from one school to another. Rainforth and

York-Barr (1997) had found that in at least half of the cases they studied, parents are

considered as having involved just by attending the meetings in which the IEP had

been prepared in advance and leaving parents with little understanding on the content

of the document. Although similar studies which examine IEP implementation and

teacher-parent collaboration are limited, Fleming and Monda-Amaya (2001) stated

that evidence does suggest that an understanding of the team process could bring an

impact to generating team effectiveness.

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One of the questions that arised from the discussion above was; what kind of

understanding did teachers and parents have on IEP implementation? It was

unjustifiable to say that all the teachers and parents had high understanding in IEP

within that period. Nonetheless, it would be interesting to find out if they share

common understandings on what IEP was about. Teachers and parents who were not

familiar with IEP should be identified so that schools could take further actions to

make sure that they were familiar to the contents of the programme. Looking at the

issues discussed above, it is important for teachers and parents to understand the

contents as well as the process involve in IEP in order to be able to collaborate

effectively. Understanding IEP implementation is crucial as teachers and parents

need to know the aims and objectives of the programme as well as knowledge in IEP

contents and guidelines in order to work as a team.

Apart from understanding IEP, teachers and parents also need to be able to

work hand in hand as they constantly need support and exchange feedback from each

other on students’ development. However, the challenge in working as an effective

team member in this scenario is even more demanding than having to work alone.

Thomas, Correa and Morsink (1995) believed that this is due to various reasons such

as team members expressing different views; speak varying “languages” and

exhibiting a range of behaviors that have great impact in the collaboration and

cooperation that is to be built.

Communication became a neccesary component in investigating how willing

teachers and parents were to discuss matters pertaining to students’ IEP. Through

effective communication, ideas and decision-making could be shared. They needed

to communicate in planning the programme as well as discussing on ways to improve

students’ progress. It should be recognized that communication between teachers and

parents is not one-dimensional but existed in a variety of forms and manner (Taylor,

Smiley & Richards, 2009). Therefore, teachers and parents should be willing to share

their concerns and exchange feedback on the progress of the students thus

materializing collaboration between them.

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The basis for teacher-parent collaboration relies highly upon beliefs in shared

responsibilities for sound educational outcomes (Christenson, 2002). According to

Cramer (2006), teachers play a vital role as executors of the educational plans

including giving support to parents and taking proactive actions through various

resources available within and outside the classrooms. Parents, on the other hand,

need to be encouraged to play their roles as facilitators of their children’s

development and school performance (Ames, 1993).

Teachers’ roles have become even more challenging as they have to cater not

only to the needs of students but also to meet up with parents’ expectations. The

initial training that teachers go through not only prepares teachers in applying their

skills in giving instructions and adapting curricula but also to be able to join forces

and become partners with the parents. Teacher-parent collaboration will make a vast

contribution if both parties aim that the same goal is to improve students’

achievement and excellence in education. In a study done by Harris (1998), it was

indicated that IEP should place students with special needs in the most appropriate

programme and the process acts as a mean to explain in an understandable manner to

parents on their children’s needs.

Examining the function of IEP in meeting the mandated goals and objectives,

it was found that the requirements are not clear, teachers lack the skills in

implementing programmes or teachers are not able to report correctly on the

students’ actual experience and development (Hasazi, Furney, & DeStefano, 1999;

Shearin, Roessler, & Schriner, 1999). Shea and Bauer (2003) stressed that teachers

could only develop appropriate activities in IEP after having a thorough

understanding of parents’ and their children’s needs. The National Council on

Disability (1996) also believes that it is important to enhance the ability of families

to collaborate not only with teachers in sharing decision-making authority for

students but also to the service system as a whole.

Teachers play an important role in IEP implementation and in determining

students’ learning. Teachers would face various problems if they failed to connect

school and home in enhancing students’ development. Although teachers have to

undertake various responsibilities in IEP implementation, parents should also be

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responsible in carrying out their roles in helping their children to succeed. Success

would come easy if teachers and parents recognized each others’ roles in IEP. The

impact of teacher-parent partnership in IEP can also include Erikson’s psychosocial

theory that looks at children’s development through a series of stages which require

them to interact with their social environment (Parke & Locke, 2003). It would be

fascinating to find out teachers’ and parents’ perceived roles in IEP as although they

differ, both should aim towards similar objectives and that should be in helping

students progress further in their learning thus become independent individuals in the

future. Collaboration effort would be improved when teachers’ and parents’

perceived roles could be highlighted and ensuring that they were heading towards

similar objectives in students’ learning.

There are various factors that can impede the effectiveness of IEP

implementations. These include lack of role definition, standardization in partnership

between team members and teachers’ conduct. Parents with positive attitudes will

cooperate with the school and promote social integration. According to a study done

in China by Yi Ding, Gerken, VanDyke, and Fei Xiao (2006), it was found that the

majority of the parents are concerned that teachers may not have sufficient relevant

training and resources to implement the individualized instruction effectively. For

collaboration to work successfully, it is important for teachers and parents to put

aside all preconceived ideas that they have on each others’ role and to focus as well

as discuss the specific needs that the students need as functional individuals in

society.

As increasing parents’ involvement is essential in successful education

programmes, schools need to include parents as decision-makers and remain

sensitive to the families’ needs (Villa, Thousand, Paolucci-Whitcomb, & Nevin,

1990). Teachers have to be tactful and portray confidence in their actions to naturally

encourage parents to cooperate (Smith, 1981). With such discernment, schools and

teachers will be able to take more responsive and proactive approaches in building

better relationships with parents.

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Another aspect of problem to be investigated was in teachers’ and parents’

expectations of each other. Both parties would not be able to collaborate effectively

if they did not know what was expected of them by the other party. They might be

pointing fingers at each other and blaming one another for failing to meet the

expectations without knowing exactly what these expectations were. It would be

easier to compromise and cooperate if both parties knew what were needed of them

in fulfilling each others’ expectations in making collaboration work between them.

In Malaysia, there has been more concern in the development of special

education, reflecting a high level of awareness and social responsibility. A number of

schools and centers in various states are established to meet the different needs of

students with special needs. Teachers who are trained in this field plan appropriate

instructional programmes, adapt existing curriculum, evaluate students’ progress

based on the developmental needs of the students as well as getting parents

collaboration. Noor Aziah (2004) in her study on the rights of children with

disabilities in Malaysia has identified that the lack of skilled and trained teachers in

special education field contributed to many unsuccessful planned education

objectives. IEP is seen as a process in which parents’ and students’ rights are

materialized. It is therefore important for schools to find ways to improve on their

education programmes and gain parents cooperation in avenues such as in the

implementation of IEP to increase students’ success.

A school was selected to carry out this case study. The school had

implemented IEP for around four years when the researcher started her study at the

centre. It was vital to identify the collaboration efforts between teachers and parents

in IEP in the context of special education at the school, as perceived by them; their

ideals and value systems, their beliefs and how they feel about the various factors

affecting the functions they play.

The school was chosen to get teachers’ and parents’ feedback on their

understanding in IEP implementation, their willingness to communicate with each

other on matters pertaining to IEP, their perceived roles as well as their expectations

from each other in their collaboration effort. By investigating and providing

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explanations for the above queries, the school involved in this case study could look

into ways in which they could improve further IEP implementation at the centre.

Couchenour and Chrisman (2004) stated that there are a lot of actions and

plans to be taken to promote effective partnership between teachers and parents.

They added that insights on factors that contribute positively in engaging teachers

and parents in both supportive as well as collaborative roles should be ironed out. For

special education programmes to be successfully implemented and catered to the

diverse disabilities, more effort should be given to look into the possibilities in

building constructive partnership between the two.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

The Individuals with Disabilities Educational Acts (IDEA) and other laws

(Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975; the Education of the

Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986, and the Individuals with Disabilities Act

Amendments of 1997) have stipulated on the need to provide appropriate education

for all students with disabilities and providing families support they need for their

children’s welfare. Studies that have been carried out in other countries have shown

affirmative connections between teacher-parent collaboration in IEP (Christenson &

Sheridan, 2001; Hendersen & Mapp, 2002). Such studies suggest that it is essential

for teachers to increase their attempts to consult, share information and join efforts to

provide efficient as well as meaningful IEP for the students. Although the law

specifies that parents (need to) be active, but usually equal participations in decision-

making on their children’s educational programme do not materialize (Brinckerhoff

& Vincent, 1986; Malen & Ogawa, 1988; Williams, 1989; Welch & Sheridan, 1995).

According to the guidelines given by the Ministry of Education, when a

student qualifies for special education services, an IEP should be designed and

written for the students to cater for their unique individual needs. Teachers and

parents are expected to work in partnership and collaborate to determine the goals as

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well as objectives that are appropriate to students’ development in all aspects

(Carlisle, Stanley, & Kemple, 2006; Epstein, 2001).

Based on the culture that differs between countries and schools, it would be

interesting to find out the fundamental nature of teacher-parent collaboration in

delivering IEP services with the support of the theories used in this study. Notion of

experiences and abilities could be augmented when teachers and parents are active

participants in students’ learning. In addition, teachers and parents acting as

supporters in students’ education play a vital role in determining the success of the

students in meaningful programmes such as IEP catering to their individual needs.

The lack of studies on teacher-parent collaboration in IEP to help students

improve in their development was deemed important thus need to be embarked on.

Thus, teacher-parent collaboration in IEP is one of the many areas that can be studied

in special education field in Malaysia to further improve the services provided to

students with special needs. Collaboration with families should be made as the

foundation of effective and successful education for students with special needs

(Cramer, 1998; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1997; Banks, 1993).

Looking into the local studies, research had been carried out in the areas of

teachers’ and parents’ perspectives on their involvement and support in special

education (Masitah, 2008; Aliza & Norshidah, 2004; Noraini, 2004; Zainal 2003). A

study on teacher-parent collaboration in special education (Norshidah, Zuria &

Zalizan, 2003), and teacher-parent collaboration for successful vocational

programme in special education (Norain, 2004) were also conducted. A study was

done in relation to IEP by Mohd Mokhtar, Mohd Hanafi, Aliza and Hasnah (2008) in

which they investigated on teachers’ knowledge and IEP implementation.

Vygotsky’s theory highlights the role of more able peers or adults in helping

children reach their zone of proximal development (ZPD) through scaffolding.

However, the collaboration between the more able peers or adults is not highlighted

in Vygotsky’s theory. In IEP, collaboration between parents and teachers is crucial in

helping children particularly those with special needs to develop or in other words, to

reach their ZPD. Therefore, this case study aims to investigate teachers’ and parents’

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understanding in IEP implementation, their willingness to communicate with each

other, their perceived roles as well as their expectations of each other in which these

elements were deemed vital in teacher-parent collaboration in IEP for special

education. Differences between teachers’ and parents’ understanding and willingness

to communicate on matters related to IEP were assessed quantitatively. However, the

differences between teachers’ and parents’ perceived roles and expectations were not

assessed because they did not carry out similar roles in IEP implementation and their

expectations differed in many ways thus making them impossible to be assessed in

similar manner.

1.4 Research Objectives

The main objective of this research was to investigate teacher-parent

collaboration aspects in the process of implementing IEP, a programme which should

be taken seriously as it was one of the crucial factors in the effort to improve the

services provided for students with special needs.

The specific objectives of this study were to identify:

1.4.1 Teachers’ and parents’ understanding of the IEP implementation.

1.4.2 Difference between teachers’ and parents’ understanding of the IEP

implementation.

1.4.3 Teachers’ and parents’ willingness to communicate on matters related to IEP.

1.4.4 Difference between teachers’ and parents’ willingness to communicate on

matters related to IEP.

1.4.5 Teachers’ and parents’ perceived roles in implementing IEP.

1.4.6 Teachers’ and parents’ expectations from each other in IEP.

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1.5 Research Questions

This study was designed to answer the following research questions;

Question 1:

What are teachers’ understanding in the implementation of IEP?

Question 2:

What are parents’ understanding in the implementation of IEP?

Question 3:

Is there any difference between teachers’ and parents’ understanding in the

implementation of IEP?

Question 4:

How willing are teachers to communicate with parents in matters related to

IEP?

Question 5:

How willing are parents to communicate with teachers in matters related to

IEP?

Question 6:

Is there any difference between teachers’ and parents’ willingness to

communicate in matters related to IEP?

Question 7:

What roles do teachers perceive they play in the implementation of IEP?

Question 8:

What roles do parents perceive they play in the implementation of IEP?

Question 9:

What do teachers expect from parents in the implementation of IEP?

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Question 10:

What do parents expect from teachers in the implementation of IEP?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study not only provide essential guidelines for effective

collaboration between teachers and parents, but also useful information in order for

them to establish positive relationships in IEP implementation. Significantly, the

students involved will benefit from such efforts made by teachers and parents that

will help to promote their potentials as well as abilities. Therefore, the philosophical

basis on IEP procedures should be supported as the process permits both teachers and

parents in sharing input to determine the goals and services to be provided for

students.

Policies such as IEP may not bring a major impact on the services provided

unless school leaders, teachers and parents have positive attitudes to work in

partnership and thus believe that such attempts will yield even greater returns. The

focus of teacher-parent collaboration in IEP should emphasize on the efforts they put

in materializing the goals that they aim to achieve for the students. Students’ learning

could be improved further and ties between school and home could be heightened.

Schools should reach out to all families regardless of their financial status, race or

religion. As in the following excerpt:

No matter how skilled professionals are, or how loving parents are,

each cannot achieve alone what two parties, working hand-in-hand,

can accomplish together.

(Peterson & Cooper, 1989: 229)

From a systematic literature search, the researcher found no report on teacher-

parent collaboration in IEP study in Malaysia. It is hoped that the findings of this

study may direct towards the scope where role changes are required to further

enhance the quality and progress of the students with special needs. The results may

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also be used as guidelines for other schools and centers teachers and parents to look

into in fostering effective collaboration in IEP.

1.7 Theoretical Framework

Students with special needs, similar to other students are social beings. They

develop within a social and cultural context within a society. The students’ families

and their teachers are normally the people involved in their immediate environment.

A substantial amount of theoretical and empirical evidence supports the linkage

between teachers’ and parents’ behaviors on the children’s learning outcomes

(Rutter, 1985; Scott-Jones, 1984; Stevenson & Baker 1987). Teachers prepare

suitable lesson plans that correspond to the needs and interests of students with

disabilities (Education Act 1996 (Act 550) & the Selected Regulations, 2004; Mohd

Salleh, 2000). Parents play a vital role in being their children’s lifetime educators as

well as to provide the foundational support for learning for their children. Therefore,

teachers and parents play crucial roles in influencing these students’ development in

various aspects.

In view of theoretical perspectives, it is believed that no single theory can

represent teacher-parent collaboration in IEP implementation for special education.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecology theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory as well as

Erikson’s psychosocial theory are the three theoretical eclectics (Shaffer &

Katherine, 2007) chosen to look at the issues involving teacher-parent collaboration

in IEP. In the context of the study, the researcher recognized that each theory

mentioned above has something to contribute to this study thus the need to put

forward the three theories to support the study. As emphasized by the theories,

students should be able to progress further and these achievements are the products

of dynamic relationships between teachers and parents in IEP.

Studies on the influence of teacher-parent collaboration on special education

and specifically in IEP are still evolving. The theoretical underpinnings of the

researcher’s approach to teacher-parent collaboration cut across ecological-systems

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principles as well as sociocultural and psychosocial theories thus she had related

three theories to support her study. Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecology theory, Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory will be discussed in detail in

the next chapter. Nevertheless, the researcher put forward the connections between

the theories in generating the theoretical framework of this study in this section.

Erikson’s psychosocial theory enlightens students’ development within a

social context over their life course. He focuses on the development of students with

disabilities as a whole. In his theory, he believes that significant others influence

students’ development at their developmental stage which can be applied to teacher-

parent collaboration in IEP. This aspect can also relate to Vygotsky’s sociocultural

theory in which students’ abilities and understanding can be improved further

through guidance provided by teachers and parents known as zone of proximal

development (ZPD). Vygotsky added that in the scaffolding process, students’

learning can be enhanced when teachers and parents provide appropriate support and

direction for students to master the task. As such, teachers and parents need to play

active roles in ensuring that the aims that have been decided in students’ IEP

activities can be accomplished.

In Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, direct relationships between students with

their parents and teachers bring impact in students’ life whereby each party provides

direct influence to students in the IEP process. This network of social environment

settings involves students’ interactions with their parents and teachers. In addition,

interrelationships between school and home are emphasized in Bronfenbrenner’s

mesosystem taking into account teacher-parent collaboration effort in determining

the success of IEP. Figure 1.1 shows the theoretical framework in line with this

study.

19

Figure 1.1: Theoretical Framework

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System theory and identification of relationships

between people in the student’s environment are used as the foundations as well as to

encapsulate two other theories used in this study. In his theory, he believes students’

are able to benefit in various ways when teachers and parents work together.

Connecting his theory together with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory as well as

Erikson’s psychosocial theory illustrate how teachers and parents can work as a team

to gain meaningful outcomes in IEP services. It is an idea on how teacher-parent

collaboration works on the basis of shared beliefs by means of integrating their

understanding, communication, perceived roles and expectations of each other in

collaboration efforts that occur based on the theories. Therefore, diverse theories

were brought forward to support the issue that was highlighted in this study.

Implementation and emphasis of IEP varies among the states and schools in

Malaysia. However, it should be realized that there is no escape for teachers and

parents from playing an important role in organizing children’s learning before they

are able to master and internalize their skills. New insights can be developed from

Understandin

g of IEPRoles played

ZPD

(Vygotsky)

ZPD

(Vygotsky)

Mesosystem

(Bronfenbrenner)

Psychosocial Development

(Erik Erikson)

Teachers Children Parents

Expectations Willingness to

communicate

20

these theories as the researcher explores on their implications to this study.

Therefore, it is vital that teacher-parent collaboration transpire in services such as in

the IEP to provide adequate guidance that meets the needs of the children in

developing their potential as well as abilities.

The theories that will be discussed in further detail in the next chapter are

related on ways in which these theorists view parents and teachers as active people in

the children’s development. It is hoped that by highlighting the interrelated contexts

of Bronfenbrenner’s theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Erikson’s

psychosocial theory, the researcher has provided a key to understanding the

processes that underlie teacher-parent collaboration theoretical framework that brings

impact on students’ development.

1.8 Conceptual Framework

Considering the nature of teacher-parent collaboration, different schools may

be looking at different factors contributing to the onset and the characteristics

associated with effective IEP implementation. According to Phillips and McCullough

(1990), the formulation of any successful teacher-parent collaboration strategy

should rely upon the views of teachers and parents involved in the IEP process. The

proposed strategies may include curriculum modification and acceleration, setting up

of monitoring teams, modification of learning and teaching methods, coping and

training skill for the teachers and home or school visits.

Several researchers have identified the qualities necessary for an effective

collaboration (Conoley, 1981; Cormier & Cormier 1985; West & Cannon; 1988;

Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Based on the readings done in various studies, the

researcher had chosen four independent variables commonly deemed important.

They include teachers’ and parents’ understanding of the programme, their

interactions, their perceived roles and expectations of each other roles.

21

Conceptually, schools and families can be considered as open systems

whereby each of them comprises a number of subsystems that are related and

dependent on each other (Conoley, 1987). Invaluable relationships that exist between

school and home settings should be examined in order to maximize the children’s

potential and development as well as in learning.

The focus of this case study is to explore teacher-parent collaboration on the

implementation of IEP in the special education school involved. The conceptual

framework is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Conceptual Framework: Teacher-parent Collaboration in IEP

Key players

in IEP are:

(i) Teachers

(ii) Parents

Willingness to

communicate

Understanding in

IEP

implementation

Expectations from

each other

Perceived roles

Difference between

teachers’ and parents’

understanding in IEP

Difference between

teachers’ and parents’

willingness to communicate

22

1.9 Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study evolves around a non profit organization school

selected in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. The school, built on 21 of May 1979, aims to

increase the society’s awareness toward the treatment, guidance, and training

services of children with special needs. The school was established with a vision to

provide quality services to students with special needs in order for them to lead

independent and meaningful life in the future. The association’s mission was to

instill awareness, understanding, acceptance and participation in collaboration with

the community to create a deserving environment for students with disabilities. The

school aims to meet the following objectives:

(i) To provide opportunities and quality facilities to cater to their special

needs.

(ii) To provide special guidance, training and therapy.

(iii) To provide opening for children with special needs to develop their potential

in life.

(iv) To increase professionalism among the teachers and staff in accordance

to the current Technology in Special Education.

In line with its vision and mission, the school is well equipped with various

facilities to enhance the services provided for the students. These include a computer

lab, music room, multi sensory room, speech therapy room, gross motor therapy

room, soft play room, gymnasium and hydro therapy pool.

The school is registered under the Education Act 1996 (Act 550) and Selected

Regulations (2004). All its teachers have also received Teaching Permit under the

same Act. There were 21 Malay female teachers teaching in the school. The school is

headed by a principal and a vice principal. Other supporting staff includes

administrators, cook, cleaners and transport drivers to ensure smooth daily operation

of the school.

23

Currently, there are 90 students of various races with special needs studying

in the school. The school caters to the needs of students with various disabilities. The

school accepts students based on these requirements:

(i) Malaysians

(ii) Aged between 6 to 17

(iii) Special needs confirmed by medical or clinical officer

(iv) Owns Special Needs Identification Card from the Welfare

Department

(v) Have undergone screening tests

(vi) Have undergone diagnostic test

(vii) Will be on trial session for three months

The school practices a small teacher student ratio of one teacher to five

students in a class. The classes are divided into five different levels namely the pre-

school level, primary level, secondary level, upper level and protection workshop

level. However, IEP is provided only for all students in the pre-school level and a

few of the primary level students. These students are believed to require

individualized attention in order to focus on certain aspects of their development that

require improvement and IEP is a mean in which all members involved can plan

appropriate programmes that caters to the students’ needs.

Teachers involved were expected to gather as much information as possible

on the strengths, weaknesses as well as the needs of the students that would aid them

in their learning process. This information comprised of students’ biodata, life

history including health aspects, developmental progress, diagnostic tests, and

observations made on the students’ physical, emotional, social and cognitive

development. The report gathered would then be analyzed, construed and recorded as

an initial data collection which acts as a guideline during teacher-parent meeting in

which decisions on objectives and instructions would then be decided for the

students’ IEP.

24

The conclusions gained from this study were subjected to a number of

limitations. Firstly, as a voluntary self-report survey method was used, the

respondents might only represent the teachers and parents (both fathers and mothers)

who were involved in this study in the selected school. Secondly, this study only

involved the teachers and parents as key players in the IEP process. Thirdly, the data

in this study may not be generalized to other centers whose programmes and services

vary in quality and quantity than the selected non profit organization special

education centre. Next, it is limited by the accuracy of the participants’ responses as

part of the study employs a self-reported questionnaire survey (Kerlinger & Lee,

2000).

The survey instrument is designed to suit the required context in Malaysia for

this doctoral study and thus, is limited to this study. As the participants will be asked

to complete the survey, it may have resulted in a change of their opinions when their

behaviors are being quantified. Last but not least, the data in this study are qualitative

and quantitative in nature. As such qualitative components explore on research

participants’ opinions in-depth while the quantitative components confines them to

specific choices in the questionnaires thus making inferential statistics not suitable to

be carried out.

1.10 Assumptions

1.10.1 The respondents are assumed to have answered the survey items

precisely and truthfully.

1.10.2 The instruments used are assumed to measure the roles of both parents

and teachers.

1.10.3 Information used in designing the survey is assumed to be current and

accurate.

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1.10.4 The respondents, both the teachers and parents, are assumed to have

the background necessary to complete the survey.

1.10.5 The research is done with the interest of the children with special

needs and researcher has done her best to be sensitive towards the culture, social and

economic status and the education system in Malaysia.

1.11 Definition of Terms

This section is divided into two categories; the conceptual definitions and

operational definitions.

1.11.1 Conceptual Definitions

The following are the conceptual definitions that provide an overview of

several terms frequently used throughout this research.

1.11.1.1 Special Education

Special education is defined by IDEA as specially designed instruction to

meet individual unique needs of a child with disabilities (Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2003). Special instruction involves

addressing special problems in teaching and learning that may have to do with a wide

variety of disabilities such as physical, social, emotional, sensory behavioral or

academic or even combinations of various disabilities. According to Salamanca

Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education (1994), the

challenge that schools and educators face would be in developing a child-centered

pedagogy that focuses on educating all children successfully regardless of their needs

and disabilities. It was also mentioned in the Statement that effort is needed to

26

establish schools that not only provide eminent service in education but able to

change discriminatory attitudes in the community.

According to Fuchs and Fuchs (1995), special education if practiced as it

should be, was unlike the general education along several vital aspects of

instructions. They added that the instructional differences among other things involve

the training teachers receive, class size, degree of individualized attention needed by

each child and the scope of the students’ assessment. Student with learning

disabilities need special instruction in specific or related services of their needs that

they will gain and benefit from the special education services provided for them.

Special education programme in Malaysia is an ongoing effort to encourage

optimum development among the students with special needs into becoming well

balanced and productive citizens in line with the National Education Philosophy of

Malaysia. The curriculum in special education classes does not differ very much to

the curriculum adheres to the normal students. Appropriate adjustments need to be

taken by the teachers based on the knowledge and skills that is to be developed

among students.

1.11.1.2 Special School

Special schools refers to centers that provide education needs for the students

with disabilities in which the programme is administered by a non profit organization

and many such centers in Malaysia are run by or financed by NGOs. However, the

non profit organization special schools in Malaysia continue to liaise with the Special

Education Unit of the Ministry of Education and are given support in terms of

guidance as well as other related matters.

1.11.1.3 Special Education Teacher (referred to as teachers in this study)

Harvey and Purnell (1995) suggested that in order to achieve high quality

service for students and their parents, teacher training should be on a continuous

basis as teachers need sustained development rather than short term training

programmes. Therefore, the school’s planning process in staff development

27

programmes should emphasize on training needs or needs assessment such as in IEP

services rendered.

Teacher training according to Epstein (1993) significantly predicts program

quality which in turn yields to better program quality which children benefit from.

However, teacher training alone seems to be insufficient to produce successful

education programme. As such according to Heward (2003), a professional

infrastructure that included support services in consultation, supervision, curriculum

and instructional materials is required to further improve teaching practice among the

special education teachers.

1.11.1.4 Teacher-parent Collaboration

Bauer and Shea (2003) defined collaboration as the existence of shared power

among people aimed towards a common goal that could not be achieved otherwise

by a single individual or organization independently. It is important to share common

beliefs and values for building strong teacher-parent partnership that will contribute

to the enhancement in learning among the children with special needs.

Dettmer, Dyck and Thurston (1996) reiterated that collaboration not only

involved the development but more importantly the preservation of positive and

respectful relationship which include mutual problem-solving and shared decision-

making. Apart from the above statement, Cook and Friend (1990) added that it is

important for the parties involved in the partnership to work towards common goals.

Nonetheless, Cramer (1998) believed that the responsibility for collaborating can

either be accountable to individuals who aim to improve professional affiliation or a

joint commitment of two or more people who wish to enhance working relationships.

Welch and Sheridan (1995) believed that increased communication enhances

understanding of roles and further encourages cooperation between teachers and

parents. Couchenour and Chrisman (2004) also shared the same view and added that

as child-related issues are being focused, coordination of support and services such

as in IEP can be improved further.

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1.11.1.5 Individualized Education Plan

Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is designed by team members consisting

of parents, teachers, administrators and other related personnel when appropriate. It

is a contract or written document between teachers and parents which takes into

account students’ needs and other related services that will be provided. However,

IEP service delivery is usually managed or coordinated by the special education

teachers (Welch & Sheridan, 1995).

Based on IDEA Amendments 1997, the potential of the students and the

concerns of the parents on their education development are the necessary

consideration. Apart from that, the result of the most recent evaluation of the student

should also be made known. In recent years, changes are made in the IDEA

Improvement Act 2003 when the academic, developmental and functional needs of

students are also included in developing successful IEP.

1.11.1.6 Students with Special Needs

Students with special needs refer to individual students who need specialized

attention and instructions necessary to help them to succeed in their own ways. They

will be instructed based on the written IEP agreed between the teachers and parents

in the least restrictive environment. According to Education Act: All amendments up

to March, 1996 (1996), students with special needs refer to the visually impaired,

hearing impaired or with various learning disabilities.

1.11.1.7 Parents

In IDEA: Parent guide (2006), parent also refers to the natural or adoptive

parent, individual acting in place of a natural or adoptive parent (such as

grandparent) a foster parent, a guardian or a surrogate parent.

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1.11.2 Operational Definitions

The operational definitions provide the specific functions of the terms used

this study.

1.11.2.1 Special Education

The school involved in this study only provides special education programme

namely for students with Down syndrome, autism, or mild to moderate intellectual

disability. The school will assess students’ performance before admission. This is to

ensure that these students are able to follow the school’s curriculum and are trainable

to become independent as well as productive individuals in the future.

The school provides excellent facilities for quality special education

programme focusing on students’ needs in their development. This will give students

more opportunity to develop their talent and potential. The school also aims to

continuously improve teaching quality in line with the current technology and

community demand.

1.11.2.2 Special School

The school involved in this study is a private non profit organization that is

located in the town of Johor Bahru, Malaysia. It was built with the aim to instill

awareness among the community on their responsibility to provide education and

training services for students with disabilities. The organization hopes that with

community involvement, the services provided by the school can be enhanced thus

enabling these students to lead better prospects. Apart from raising its own fund to

run the centre, it is also financially supported by the government as well as the state

of Johor.

1.11.2.3 Special Education Teacher (referred to as teachers in this study)

They were described in this study as teachers who taught in the special

education school where this study was conducted. These teachers received training

30

that not only equipped them with the necessary teaching pedagogy in this field but

also in understanding the characteristics of the disabilities of their students (Hallahan

et al., 2005).

All teachers at the centre received specialized training in special education

either at certificate or diploma level. The school also promotes a climate of

professional growth, providing teachers with in-service staff development activities

to improve on their skills and experience. Training and staff development

programmes contribute to the quality of teaching and increases their professional

satisfaction. Formal and informal training approaches such as participation in

seminars, workshops as well as on-the-job training are also part of on-going training

programmes.

1.11.2.4 Teacher-parent Collaboration

Collaboration in this study was seen as a mechanism where teachers and

parents should work together thus achieving the mutually agreed objectives in IEP.

Consistent with the scope of this study, teachers and parents were considered as

significant people or key players involved in IEP process with their own rights and

responsibilities but equal opportunities in decision-making. Collaboration required

cooperation and close relationship between them which include having to interact

and communicate with each other constantly. The components required by teachers

and parents in order to collaborate effectively could be better understood in order to

generate beneficial outcomes in the students’ progress.

Collaboration in IEP among teachers and parents arise from their

understanding, willingness to communicate, their roles as well as expectations of

each other. Collaboration in the four aspects mentioned provides opportunities for

teachers and parents to support and motivate one another. Such collaborative moves

would generate positive influence on both parties, encouraging them to reflect and

explore on ways to work together to further improve students’ learning. More

importantly, these variables encouraged collaboration amongst teachers and parents

in order for them to cope with the responsibilities that they have to uphold and carry

out in IEP implementation.

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In view of the IEP program, teachers should not consider themselves as

working in isolation from parents. They should focus on developing a professional

community of collaborative teachers and parents involved in this study. They should

embrace the concepts of collaboration and take responsibility for their individual

understanding, willingness to communicate, roles as well as expectations of each

other in IEP implementation. These factors place the onus for proactive interaction

between teachers and parents in IEP implementation thus simultaneously put them in

a teacher-parent collaboration ‘arena’.

The researcher believed that teacher-parent collaboration could be created by

the policies that have been legislated in IEP. These policies provided the school with

the required guidelines to carry out the IEP program. In IEP implementation process,

teachers and parents acquired skills and knowledge as well as feedback on the

students’ development through meeting sessions so that they were able to collaborate

and achieve the desired goals for the students.

1.11.2.5 Individualized Education Plan

In this study, focus was put only on IEP program provided at the school as an

avenue to explore teacher-parent collaboration. IEP implementation required teachers

and parents to work together, establishing collaborative efforts to carry out the plan

effectively. The program focused on catering to the individual needs of the students

thus making it essential for teachers to work hand-in-hand with individual students’

parents. Teachers and parents, as key players in the development of IEP for the

students, should decide together the area the students need to focus on to further

improve on their skills and knowledge. These areas included academic, physical and

social skills as well as in behavioral aspects.

1.11.2.6 Students with Special Needs

The school caters to various types of students with special needs namely

those who are autistic, with Down syndrome, or are intellectually disabled. The

school believes that students with special needs are teachable if they are able to

manage themselves and not dependent on others. These students are evaluated by the

32

special school to determine their eligibility for the services being offered at the

centre.

1.11.2.7 Parents

Parents in this study refer to the persons who raise and show care for their

children. They refer to both the mothers and fathers of the students. Parents should

have the knowledge about the welfare and their children’s needs. In writing students’

IEP, parents are expected to be involved actively and cooperate with the teachers to

bring forward their ideas and expectations on their children’s educational goals.

1.12 Summary

In this chapter, the researcher discussed the importance of teachers’ and

parents’ collaborative efforts in determining the effectiveness and quality teaching in

Individualized Education Plan (IEP). As team members in the implementation of

IEP, teachers and parents should collaborate in creating the best education that

contribute productively to students’ total development. Therefore, research looking

into teachers’ and parents’ functionality in special education programmes should

continue to be encouraged and developed.

The Ministry of Education of Malaysia aims to improve the teaching

profession by providing quality teacher training programmes to keep up with global

current changes in education. In order to find out teachers’ and parents’ collaboration

efforts on students’ development, it was vital to explore their views in their

understanding, roles, willingness to communicate and expectations of each other in

IEP implementation. Hence, it was important to look at these variables in exploring

teacher-parent collaboration that was established in the school involved in this study.

The research objectives were constructed to determine the research questions.

Conceptual as well as operational definitions of various terms were also discussed in

this chapter.