not all “rs” are created equal - laboratory animal boards study …labsg.org/huerkamp.pdf ·...
TRANSCRIPT
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Not All “Rs” Are Created Equal
Michael J. Huerkamp, DVM Indiana Branch AALAS Meeting
May 11, 2012
What Russell and Burch Have To Teach D5 AALAS Members
53 Years Later
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Poll #1
Who has read the book?
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Poll #2 What is the most important “R” for AALAS members?
Replacement? Reduction? Refinement?
Working every minute of every working day in an animal research facility and/or
Managing an animal research facility.
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Who Were Russell and Burch?
To answer this we need to take a trip back in time
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Founded in 1926 By Major C. W. Hume
Charitable organization promoting humane treatment of animals Laboratory animal focus: after
WWII 1947:
UFAW Handbook on the Care & Management of Laboratory Animals, 1st ed.
Major Charles Hume (from UFAW)
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Aim Promote humane
behavior towards wild and domestic animals in Britain and beyond.
Reduce the sum total of pain and fear inflicted upon animals by man.
To do so using sound principles of science and scientific inquiry.
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Science informs, motivates and facilitates advances in animal welfare by: providing a strong evidence base for changing
attitudes and practices by creating practical and effective solutions to welfare
problems.
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UFAW Premise Scientists & animal care
personnel desire to treat animals as humanely as possible. Unanswered questions:
What is and is not humane? How can humanity be
promoted without confounding research aims?
1954: UFAW hired Russell & Burch Project on humane technique
in the lab.
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Signs o’ the times?
“There were animal housing problems, problems with vendors
who were selling animals of questionable quality, but most
challenging were problems posed by antivivisectionists.”
Dr. Nathan R. Brewer, Recollections In: 50 Years of Laboratory Animal
Science, AALAS, 1999.
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Russell and Burch Culmination
“The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique” Moral and ethical obligations
toward animals Appreciation of distress inherent
in procedures 1959 publication
1992 reprinted available in full text on the Altweb site at:
http://altweb.jhsph.edu/pubs/books/humane_exp/het-toc
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Who were Russell and Burch?
William.M.S. Russell, M.A., D.Phil Professor of Zoology & Comparative
Anatomy University College London University of Reading
1925-2006 R.L. Burch
Microbiologist 1926-1996
Scientists! Not vets; not professional animal
welfare activists. Russell (l) and Burch (r)
(From UFAW)
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The 3 R’s: In order of priority
1. Replacement • Substitution of conscious living higher animals with
insentient material. 2. Reduction
• Decrease in the number of animals used to obtain information of a given amount & precision.
3. Refinement • Any decrease in the incidence or severity of
“inhumane” procedures applied to those animals which still have to be used.
Russell & Burch, p. 64.
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Replacement
Absolute (“Insentient models”)
Computer simulation, mathematical model Immortal tissue culture Higher plants, microorganisms, parasites
Relative (“limited gains”)
Free-living invertebrates Insects, octopus, horseshoe crabs
Animal use in distress-free experiments Organ, tissue, cell harvest for in vitro use
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Why not “Replacement”?
Addressed at the lab and IACUC level Not a consideration when IACUC-approved
work starts in the animal facility
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Why the emphasis on “Reduction”?
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Alternatives: “3Rs”
1. Replacement: • inanimate models (computer simulation)
• +/- phylogenetically lower species (snails, fish)
2. Reduction: • minimize numbers (statistics)
• control variability
3. Refinement: • anesthesia/analgesia
• endpoints
It’s the Environment, Stupid!
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More Sign o’ the times?
“In the early days... the husbandry of the animals was totally makeshift. The
enclosures that held the animals varied from used shipping crates and glass jars to old
horse stalls. The bedding used was far from sterile and often was contaminated with insects. There were minimal attempts at
lighting and temperature control. In short, the conditions under which the research animals were kept often caused stress,
illness, and death of the animals, leading to questionably valid research results, not to
mention raising serious ethical issues...”
Dr. Nathan R. Brewer 1904-2009
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“Inhumanity” Categories
Direct Unavoidable consequence of the procedure
Contingent Incidental, accidental or inadvertent by-
product of the procedure Imperfections in care & use
Russell & Burch, p. 54.
“The worst sin toward our fellow creatures is not to hate them, but to be indifferent to them: that’s the essence of inhumanity.”
George Bernard Shaw (1901)
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Figure: Chernoff Thompson Arch.
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“We” are the “environment”
We provide the conditions where animals live & data is collected. Consistent & wholesome
We are the foundation for great science Minimize environmental variability animals
“Reduction” is the most ascendant “R”
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Indiana and the Environment
The Garner (Dr. Joseph P.) “..standardization…may
generate spurious results, accounting for poor reproducibility…” Nature Meth 7(3): 167, 2010.
The application of Dalton’s (Modified) Third Rule We control the environment
until it is time not to control the environment. PI & IACUC
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The Importance of “Good” Husbandry
Husbandry = “keeping the animals alive and healthy for long periods” an essential part of many experiments! Unforeseen losses d/t environment
Repetition of experiment + more animals
“This is why the contribution of animal technicians is so important for the progress of humane experimentation, even when they themselves do not carry out actual experimental procedures.”
Russell & Burch, p. 55.
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Our Role in Research
• Quality Control: Procure healthy
animals Maintain them in a
wholesome, consistent environment
• Quality Assurance Assess to verify no
deviation Intervene as
necessary
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Environmental Monitoring Responsible & Efficient Data Management
Automate or
(Remember the process is automated, not automatic!)
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Temperature Heat is one of the most important environmental factors
affecting living organisms. Environmental temperature influences Biol. Rev. 57, 487, 1982
General and broad metabolic processes 20 to 30% change in tissue and cellular function for each 1oC
rise or loss in ambient temperature. Food and water consumption Enzyme activity Disease resistance Absorption of parenterally or topically applied drugs Drug toxicity Innumerable other biologic processes.
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Excessive Heat (>30oC) Rodents
Testicular atrophy Lab Anim Sci 27: 76, 1977
Embryonic mortality J Reprod Fert 30: 71, 1972
Teratogenesis J Reprod Fert 35: 393, 1973
Altered maternal care Physiol Behav 64: 463, 1998
Impaired lactation J Reprod. Fertil 27: 369, 1971 ↑ phototoxicity Invest Ophth Vis Sci 36: 997, 1995
Immune dysfunction Exp. Anim. 48: 9, 1999
Death Lab Anim Sci 27: 76, 1977
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Chilling (5-20oC)
Rodents: Altered pup development Physiol Behav 64: 463, 1998
↓ antibody production J. Immunogenet 5: 197, 1978
Δ hepatic metabolism Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 151: 900, 1968.
Elevated HR & BP Am J Hyper 15: 85, 2002
Songbirds: gonadal regression Gen Comp Endocrinol 107: 44, 1997.
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Ambient Temperature Goals:
control temperature to a set point within a broad range of possibilities (59-85°F) to meet the needs of many species: Rodents: 68-79oF (20-26oC), “Guide” Rabbits: 61-72oF (16-22oC), “Guide” Tropical fish: > 80oF Xenopus: ~ 65oF Humans: 64-73oF
manage variability around the mean as tightly as possible (+/- 1-2°F) Reptiles may be the exception that may benefit from
temperature fluctuation (i.e. gradients within the primary enclosure) throughout the day.
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Is 18-26oC Best for Rodents?
Mice 28-29oC
Daylight Physiol Behav 65: 255-62, 1998
Cardiovascular performance optimum Am J Regul Integr Comp Physiol 287: R391, 2004
23-24oC: during the dark (active) period Physiol Behav 65: 255-62, 1998
Rats: 20-26oC Lab. Anim. Sci. 31: 251, 1981
20 26 Rats 26 20
Mouse 29 28 24 23 18 23 Human comfort
The Guide 18
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Monitoring Temperature Manual recording
High/low thermometers, sling psychrometers, infrared thermometer, thermohydrograph
Automated recording & alarming via sensor Edstrom Watchdog,
Rees Centron, Siemens Apogee, HOBOs, etc.
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Relative Humidity Biological Influences at Extremes (<10%
or >90%) Food and water consumption
Amer J Vet Res 42: 658, 1981 Activity Biol. Rev. 57, 487, 1982 Postnatal development
Dev Psychobiol 23: 63, 1990 Transmission of infectious agents
Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 140: 1437, 1972
Transcutaneous absorption of drugs Biol. Rev. 57, 487, 1982
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RH: Other Adverse Effects High RH (> 50-55%)
NH3 production Mold growth on feed Food mite hatch HVAC mold growth,
condensation
Low RH (< 20-30%) Dust, allergens Ringtail?
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Sterling Bar Graph http://www.natural-building.co.uk/images/nbt_images_tables/sterling_bar_graph_relative_humidity_and_health.gif
“GUIDE”
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Relative Humidity Controlled within a range of 30-70% (“Guide”, 2011)
Optimally within 10% of the set point on a year round basis.
30-50% in rodent housing rooms Ammonia production, mold retardation Ringtail prevention?
Human comfort: 20-70% Monitoring
Decentralized & manual Sling psychrometer Thermohygrometer Digital recorder
Centralized recording & alarming via sensor
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Illumination
Components: intensity, quality, photoperiodicity Photostressors: light intensity, spectral quality, or photoperiod
inconsistencies or failures. Optimal L:D ratio has not been determined
12:12 cycles have traditionally been used. 14:10 cycles may optimize breeding for long-day breeders
(seasonally polyestrous) Use caution with other ratios to not compromise science
30 foot-candles 1 m from the floor “Guide”, 2011
Importance: Not life-threatening Among the greatest perils for the ruination of experiments
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Illumination & Biological Effects
Myriad influences: Activity Growth Immunity Physiology Reproduction Vision
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Light Intensity Requirements
Rodents: Light period: ≥ 5-10 lux (0.5-1 foot-candle)
NASA Technical Manual TM-101077, 1998 Dark period: ≤ 0.15-0.2 lux (dim)
> 0.2 lux suppresses endogenous melatonin, alters circadian rhythms & enhance oncogenicity. Life Sci 15, 1791, 1974
0
20
40
60
80
100
340
380
420
460
500
540
580
620
660
700
740
Wavelength (nm)
% T
rans
mis
sion
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Effect of Light Contamination on Cancer In Rats
0
5
10
15
20
25
Day
s
Days to 6 gram tumor weight (hepatoma)
Normal 12:12 cycleLight ContaminationConstant Light
Adapted from: Dauchy, RT, et al. Lab Anim Sci 47(5): 511, 1997.
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0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0 5 10 15
Weeks Post-infection
Rel
ativ
e T
hym
ic M
uLV
Pro
vira
l DN
A
10:1424:0
Infection Suppression Under Altered Lighting Pharmacol Biochem Behav 51: 947, 1995
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Undetected Lighting Failures Continuous illumination from failed timers.
Lights remain on after operating hours when no one is around. Can go on for extended periods before detected
Manual activation during the dark period
Cascading (repeat) alarms Allows differentiation between transient (human-activated) &
continuous lighting malfunction.
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The Perception of Noise Sound recordings in a mouse room
Adapted from: Physiol Behav 53: 1067, 1993
Conversation
Living Room
Quiet garden
Watch ticking
Human
Hearing
Mouse Hearing
Barking dogs • 90 db
• 0.4-4 kHz
Marmosets •100 dB
•12.5-70 kHz
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Sources of Noise Problem: excessive +/- unpredictable
Personnel Loud conversations Overhead speakers Radios Husbandry & cleaning
procedures Mobile equipment
movement, collisions and operation
Vocalization and activity of animals Barking dogs, squealing
pigs, monkeys shaking cages
Ventilation systems Fixed or research
equipment Aquatic pumps Light fixtures and
computer terminals Security hardware Fire alarms
Construction or renovation/expansion projects
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Biological Effects of Adverse Noise
Hearing loss Hear Res 119: 27, 1998
Reproduction Lab Anim Sci 24: 469, 1974
Development Environ Res 73: 227, 1997
Behavior Brain Res 1009: 88, 2004
Cardiovascular Microsc. Res. Tech. 59: 136, 2002
Food consumption Appetite 26: 193, 1996
Immunity Scand J Immunol 44: 643, 1996
Neuroendocrine J Anat 200: 159, 2002
Wound healing Adv Wound Care 9: 35, 1996
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Noise As A Research Variable: Infant Tree Shrew Milk Consumption
02468
10121416
1 11 19 25 30
Day After Birth
Milk
(g)
From: Nature 251: 309, 1974
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Noise and Neurochemical Effects J Anat 200: 159-168, 2002
Rats Acoustical stress
100 dB “Automobile horn”
0 – 26 kHz Euthanasia immediate
After final exposure Adrenal gland assay Conclusion
“Brief” = stressful “prolonged” = distress
Glandular fatigue
Epin
ephr
ine
(nm
ol/m
g pr
otei
n)
6 hrs/day x 1 6 hrs/day x 21
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Goals for Noise
Goal: ≤ 55 db ambient
Consider the value of: White noise? Background music?
Monitoring?
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“Refinement” in the AV/IACUC Bailiwick? Anesthesia & analgesia Supportive and nursing care Dose fine tuning Non-invasive or less invasive data collection Microarray technology Humane endpoints Pathogen substitution or attenuation Skill proficiency of (some) research personnel
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Husbandry-related “Refinements” Standards of Care Modern Caging Regular Observation
Veterinary medical care Humane euthanasia Enrichment/exercise programs
Socialization Species-typical behaviors Science-based (IACUC?)
Fig. courtesy of CAAT Fig. courtesy of Techniplast
Fig. courtesy of WNPRC
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When we enrich the environment…
Brain development J Neuroendocrinol 16(5):423-31, 2004
Cocaine addiction PNAS 105:16829-30, 2008
Cognition in AD Neuroreport 15(11):1751-4, 2004
Neuroendocrine activity J Neuroendocrinol 16(5):423-31, 2004
Onset of HD motor disorders Nature 404:721-2, 2000
Tumorigenesis J Immunother 30:517-22, 2007
© Chris Collins/CORBIS
…we can add variability.
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The Prescient Russell & Burch
With a Warning Shot Across the Bow
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Benefits of Large Scale Operations
Affordability of automation Flexibility to experiment
with new or alternative technology
Specialization of talent Economy of scale
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Benefits of Automation Diminishing legal resident labor pool Concentrate precious human talent on things people do
best: • decision making in novel or dynamic situations • non-programmed activities • small force application & ultra fine precision • teamwork
Ergonomic advantages Programmable, high through-put, consistent, repetitious
+/- force work are best for machines. allergen exposure in cage wash rooms Cost containment Life time automation costs < human labor
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Automation: Many Applications
Cage handling, processing & cleaning
Cage routing (Tecniplast)
Environmental control Environmental monitoring Floor cleaning Drinking water supply Bottles The greatest hazard for physical injury.
Lab Animal 28(1): 38, 1999.
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The Benefits of Automation Disturbance of animals Omissions/errors in care e.g. failures to provide water if ordinarily done manually
Technical attention to: Specific animals in need of monitoring Researchers and their needs
Professionalism & status of technicians. Lauded AWS, but…
Russell & Burch, p. 165.
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…did not foresee the “drown” side.
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DAR Monthly “Preventable” Mouse Mortality January 1, 2011 – December 31, 2011 Average Daily Census: 65,607 mice
Bottle dehydration
Insufficient food
Fighting
Bottle flood
AWS dehydration
Entrapment
Premature weaning
AWS Flood
0 5 10 15 20 25
Losses per Month
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Benefits of Large Scale Operations
Flexibility to experiment with new or alternative technology AWS valves, different
caging types, etc. Specialization of talent
Business manager, customer service, maintenance, cage wash technician job titles, etc.
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Economy of scale principles costs
Reduction of overhead IACUC, veterinary, administrative expertise
Animal purchase, animal per diem, & associated research personnel involvement are often the greatest lab cost. Some scientists consider animal care costs to be a
greater threat to research than the ARM. "As long as artificially high prices for mouse care exist, [this
obstacle] not the right-to-life or animal-rights [movements], will be the major stumbling block for the transfer of molecular biology to humans." Dr. Irving Weissman: Science 288(5464): 254, 2000.
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Prescient Warnings from Russell & Burch
Risk of large scale/low cost operations: “Big Pharma” & “Big Academe”
Inherent contingent inhumanity By spreading staff too thin
Russell & Burch, p. 65
Overzealous cost cutting
AAALAC International
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Prologue (or what would R&B have us conclude?)
Research animals respond to many factors, or changes in their environment, in many ways. These responses may affect
experimental results.
Standardized conditions Permit subject response to
experimental manipulations w/o confounding variability.
Elementary charge of the animal resources program
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The Animal Facility The Foundation for Valid Animal Research
Consistent, wholesome conditions Minimizing the physiological variations
associated with environmental changes
Mindful of possible effects of husbandry upon science.
Planned significant environmental changes should not be made without prior consultation with the investigators to ensure that minimal impact occurs to research programs.
Monitoring is a key component of environmental control.
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To fully control the variance of physiological responses…
… control phenotype Breeding methods + Environmental stability
… understand behavior: “…work on learning in animals is vitiated by failure to
take into account the sort of social responses to the human experimenter which the circus trainer ignores at his peril.” Russell & Burch, p. 127
Conundrum of studying nocturnal animals during the illuminated part of the photoperiod. Russell & Burch, p. 131
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Continued “Reduction” Challenges
Behavioral management Maintain SPF colonies
Challenges of MPV, MNV, fur mites
Enzootic helicobacteriosis, pasteurellosis, etc.
Cage density standards Noise monitoring Ultrasound, infrasound
Drinking water quality Phototransition Ever ↑↑↑ scientist needs
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Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer.
Crabbe JC; Wahlsten D; Dudek BC. Genetics of mouse behavior: Interactions with laboratory environment. Science. 284(5420):1670-2, 1999.
Attempts to Standardize Remain Elusive
Group means (+/- SEM for n = 16 mice) for behavior videotaped for 5 min on elevated plus mazes having two open and two enclosed arms. (A) Total number of entries into any arm (defined as all four limbs in the arm). (B) Time (seconds) spent in the two open arms during the 300-s test. Smaller amounts of time indicate higher levels of anxiety.
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Animal Resources:
For Great Research
Providing the Environment: Photoperiod Temperature/RH Food/water Sanitation et cetera
The Foundation
SCIENCE
“Physiological uniformity is likely to be one of the great rewards of good husbandry.” W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch, 1959
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Russell and Burch
Champions of: The 3R’s
Advocates for: Animal Care
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Special thanks to…
…Dr. Gerry Smith …Deb Hickman