NUFS 283: Food Engineering

Pasta ProductionGroup 3: Mandy Chan, Ryan Johnson, Darby Roufosse, Angela Hofstra,

Kaila Hauck, Danyang Xu, & Jessica Cahyadi

INTRODUCTION

Pasta products are popular household foods in North America with an excellent

nutritional profile. Durum wheat semolina and water are mixed, extruded and dried, to produce

pasta, which contributes to a large portion of carbohydrates in the diet and protein, yet low in fat

[1]. Pastas are also a moderate source of vitamins, such as the B vitamins and folic acid. Because

of this nutritional profile, pasta can be included as part of a healthy diet, especially in diabetics

due low glycemic index.

There is a trend toward buying easy to prepare and ready to serve convenient foods in

today’s industrialized world. The convenience of dried pasta products are very desirable to

consumers because it can be easily prepared in boiling water, and shortly after, is ready to eat.

Pasta has a very long shelf life and could last for years with appropriate packaging and handling

[1]. This has desirable implications for consumers because it stores easily and reduces money loss

from spoiling. Pasta also has good consumer value because there are virtually no changes in sales

during high and low economic times [1].

Among the various pasta shapes and sizes, there is spaghetti. Spaghetti is a popular type

of pasta products among consumers. The processing of dried spaghetti is reviewed in this paper.

There are many different brands of spaghetti on the market and the quality is important to ensure

the product sells to consumers. The processes of mixing, extrusion, drying, and packaging are all

important steps in the development of a shelf-stable, high quality product. The objective of the

process is to produce a quality product by using equipments and technique to ensure

homogeneous mixing and uniformed drying. This protects the pasta’s gluten network to ensure

cooking quality and helps produce a uniformed strong product. The quality of the end product

will reflect the process by storing well, rehydrating uniformly, maintaining its shape and

producing a tasty cooked product that is desirable to the consumer [1].

References [1]

MARCHYLO, B.A. and DEXTER J.E. (2001) Pasta production, chapter 6: Cereal Processing

Technology.

DISCUSSION INPUTS

Various Pasta Ingredients

Pasta is a mixture of semolina, made from grinding the endosperm of high-quality, hard

durum wheat, water, eggs, and salt. Durum wheat helps pasta retain its structure and shape when

cooked. Other grains, such as corn, rice, quinoa, spelt, and kamut, can also be used to produce a

softer, sticky texture. Whole grain wheat, non-grain flour, and soy-bean flour can make darker

and more nutritious pasta. A blend of semolina and durum wheat farina or flour can also be used;

however, the product is less desirable in color and appearance compared to 100% durum wheat

semolina. Eggs color the pasta yellow and make the dough elastic, soft and resistant to strains. A

variety of ingredients, like spinach, tomato purees, chilli, and mushrooms, can also be used to add

colour and flavours to pasta.

The spaghetti process being reviewed in this paper only has two input materials, water

and semolina, that are typically combined in a ratio of 25-30 kg of water for every 100kg of dry

semolina [1]. Stiff dough is produced after the mixture. The water content would be adjusted if

eggs are included in the ingredients.

Selection of Semolina

Several considerations are required in the selection of semolina for pasta processing. One

is the how certain semolina particles undertake homogenous hydration during mixing. Small

semolina particles hydrate more rapidly than coarse ones. This may cause uneven hydration and

white specks or streaks to appear due to some unmoistened parts. Processing plants reduces this

outcome by narrowing the input particle size distribution to filter for uniform, fine semolina

particles during the high-speed mixing processes. [1]

The protein content is another important component when choosing quality semolina for

processing. Most consumers have preference for pastas with higher protein content because it

cooks to become more firm and less sticky than lower protein content pastas [1]. Semolina is

usually chosen for pasta production because it has a high protein content of 13-14% on a dry

matter basis, mainly due to a wheat protein called gluten [1]. Gluten can form strong protein

networks to acquire less sticky dough with better extrusion properties and a more desirable

texture in the end product. [1]

PROCESSES

Mixing

There are three processes involved in combining the ingredients of pasta: mixing,

kneading, and extruding. The flow of the inputs into the mixer is regulated by either a volumetric

or gravimetric doser because these devices have precise and constant outputs.

Semolina flour and water are combined in a pre-mixer until the dough is adequately

hydrated and forms a homogenous mixture [5]. Alternatively, yellow pastas can be made if whole

eggs are also added during this step [3]. The flour is sifted to ensure that the water is evenly

absorbed, often by passing it through a 0.180mm mesh sieve. This limits the rate at which flour is

added so that only a maximum of 25% of the particles can pass into the mixture at a given time.

Again, homogeneity is important to avoid imperfections in the final dried product.

The mixture is then passed into the mixer in the next step. Initially, the mixer removes air

bubbles from the dough [5]. Because air bubbles at this stage can result in pale and weaken pasta

structures, press technology is used by applying a vacuum to remove the small air bubbles within

the dough [4]. Another way to remove air bubbles are the use of conventional dual shaft mixers

by mixing in various magnitudes and durations [4]. Afterward, warm water is then added to the

dough to bring the moisture content of the dough to 28-32% [5]. Generally, 45-60°C water is

used depending on the type of the pasta and its shape.

For long pastas, like spaghetti, the dough is mixed in a twin shaft mixing chamber for 16-

18 minutes. Each of the shafts will turn in opposite directions, a non-centric movement, to ensure

that the dough does not clump into a ball. Many modern pasta mixture plants, however, have

chosen to replace the traditional dual shaft mixers with the newer continuous pasta-press

technology, engineered by the Bühler Brothers in 1934 [2]. Using a press reduces the mixing time

from 16-18 minutes to about 2-3 minutes, which reflects the other durations of the pre-drying and

drying pasta production cycles. The continuous pasta press is capable of producing 3500kg/h of

spaghetti and up to 8000 kg/h of macaroni [5].

After the mixing stage, the pasta is fed to the extruder. In some cases however, the dough

is given time to rest on a “stabilization belt” and then into the extruder [4]. At the extrusion stage

of the production, adequate hydration in the dough helps the gluten matrix develop within the

pasta because this does not occur during the mixing stage [5].

Mixing Calculations

It is important to determine an adequate speed that ensures particle suspension in the

mixture before mixing to heighten efficiency [6]. Equation 1 helps define this variable

mathematically. “S” is a dimensionless value for the shape factor that accounts for the shape of

mixer, type of paddle, distance from paddle to outside of mixer, and paddle to tank ratio. “v”

refers to the liquid kinematic viscosity, “dp” refers to particle diameter, “g” is the constant for

gravitational acceleration, “∆p” is the solid-liquid density difference, “D” is a value for the

paddle diameter, “pL” refers to liquid density, and “X” is the solid concentration by percentage of

weight [6].

Njs = Sv0.1 dp0.2 (g∆p/pL)0.45 D-0.85 X0.13 (1)

Another important aspect to consider is the energy balance around the mixer. All energy

from the energy inputs, to determining the final temperature of the pasta dough, can be

determined and adjusted by using the energy balance in equation 2 [7]. In equation 2, “Mi” is the

mass of the ingredients and “∆hi” is the change in enthalpy of the ingredients. “Mflour” is the mass

of the flour, ∆hw is the heat of flour wetting, “M” is the mass of the dough, “Em” is the energy

input per unit mass and “Oj” is the heat transferred through the mixers exterior [7].

⋅Δhi =Mflour ⋅Δhw +M⋅Em − Qj ∆hw = 15.1 kJ/kg (2)

Extrusion

The pasta is kneaded and shaped in a machine called an extruder. There are several zones

in the extruder which are involved in conveying, compacting, kneading, relaxing, and extruding

the dough. Upon entering the extruder, the hydrated semolina mixture contacts the extrusion

screw first (refer to Figure 1). The screw is exposed so that the semolina mixture can be dropped

directly from the mixer onto the screw as it turns.

The hydrated semolina is conveyed from the screw into the extrusion barrel to be

compacted. Pressure increases from approximately 0 to 2 MPa to help transform the hydrated

granular semolina into a compacted dough. During compaction, temperature also increases due to

friction between the dough, screw, and walls of the barrel. The friction is necessary to compress

the dough and move it down the channel. The excess heat is removed by a warm water jacket that

engulfs the extrusion barrel, which keeps the temperature of the dough and barrel at

approximately 45°C. The ideal temperature for pasta extrusion is between 45°C and 50°C, as

anything above 50°C will denature the proteins and impede in gluten matrix formation. As a

result, a soft sticky product is produced. Using a cold water jacket, as opposed to a warm one,

will cool the dough and barrel too quickly and result in undesirable dough viscosity.

After the dough has been compacted it continues to move along the extrusion screw,

where it kneads by flowing forward and getting pushed back by pressure forces. The gluten

molecules in the dough are stretched and aligned with the directional movement of the screw.

However, the flow rate of the dough is not uniform as it moves down the extrusion screw, and

consequently, causes irregular dough development. To increase homogeneity of the dough, a

kneading plate is attached to the end of the screw. This stainless steel plate has many small holes,

used to split the dough into many small strands to be remixed on the other side of the plate. This

helps aligns the protein matrix and starch granules in the pasta.

Afterwards, the dough enters the extension tube, which is used only when extruding long

pasta, such as spaghetti. The dough is allowed a brief rest before entering the die in the extension

tube. By the time the dough has reached the end of the extension tube, it is considered fully

developed.

The die is composed of a rectangular support and multiple inserts. The production output

is determined by the number of inserts in the die, therefore the supports and inserts must be

balanced with the pasta press. Too many inserts could cause the die to weaken and bend under

the 10 MPa of pressure. This can decrease the density of the pasta product and cause strands to

overlap during extrusion. Too few can cause excessive back pressure which could damage the die

and/or the extruder and subsequently reduce production output (refer to figure 3 for inserts).

The shape of the opening in the insert determines the shape of the pasta - for spaghetti it is

circular. The inserts are also coated with Teflon which helps decrease the coefficient of friction

and increase the rate of extrusion. The Teflon also helps yield a pasta product with a smooth

surface, which decreases its surface area and prevents it from absorbing water or pasta sauce too

quickly when being cooked. Extruder output is described by the following equation 3.

Extruder output = drag flow - pressure flow - leakage flow (3)

Drag flow is the forward movement of the dough due to the relative motion between the

screw and the barrel. Pressure flow is the backward flow of dough in the screw channel due to a

pressure gradient across the screw length. Leakage flow is the backward flow between the flights

and the extruder barrel due to a pressure gradient. Further information regarding the details to this

equation is beyond the scope of this course.

Lastly, the long spaghetti stands are deposited onto a spreader, which spreads the strands

on sticks and cuts them into a uniform length as the product comes out of the die. There are some

trims that results from the uneven flow from out of the die. The trim is simply collected and

brought back into the mixer through the trim return system. The pastas attached to the sticks are

transferred to the dryer.

Frictional Heating Calculations

Calculating the frictional heat can help determine the amount of heat the system needs to

lose in order for the pasta to exits the extruder at the desired temperature of 45°C. (For example,

if the dough enters the extrusion screw at 35°C and frictional heating contributes an additional

33°C to the dough, the dough will leave the extruder at (35°C + 33°C =) 68°C. This means that

water jacket needs to removed approximately one-third (68°C – 45°C = 23°C) of the heat.)

Tremove = (TFrictional + TExtrusion screw)°C – 45°C (4)

One variable involved in determining the frictional heat is the specific mechanical energy

(SME). The SME is the amount of energy transferred to the pasta product during the extrusion

process and is calculated as the mechanical energy (kJ/s) to extrude pasta divided by the pasta

production flow rate (kg/s) (see equation 4). Elevated dough moisture or temperature can result in

decreased dough viscosity, and therefore, decreased SME. Under normal operating conditions for

pasta extrusion the SME is typically 70 KJ/Kg.

SME = (5)

To determine the frictional heating of the dough: first calculate the heat capacity of the

dough using equation (5), where Cp (kJ/kg°C) is heat capacity and Xw is moisture content. For

example, if the moisture content is 30%: Cp = 1.44 + 2.74 (0.30) = 2.26 kJ/kg°C

Cp = 1.44 + 2.74Xw (6)

The next step is to divide the SME (kJ/kg) by the Cp value to get the temperature (°C). If

the estimated SME = 75 kJ/kg, then the frictional heat = (75 kJ/kg)/(2.26 kJ/kg°C) = 33°C

(7)

Drying

The next step of pasta processing is drying. The goal of drying process is to reduce the

dough’s moisture content to extended shelf-life of the product. Removing water secures the

food’s safety by limiting microbial growth [1]. It also highly impacts texture of the final product

due to the high temperature used. Careful measure must be taken to prevent the final product

from becoming brittle and to maintain its consumer’s expectation. Aside from preserving a good

appearance and quality, one must also limit the loss of nutrients during this process [2].

The dough’s initial moisture content of approximately 30% [3] is maintained through the

extruder, as there is limited water loss. The ideal moisture content of the final pasta product is

12% [1]. One can determine the amount of water required to be evaporated by finding the wet

basis moisture content (MCwb%) and mass balance using Equation 8 and Equation 9.

MCwb % = (8)

Solid Mass Balance: msolid input = msolid output (9)

There are four factors that affect the drying process: humidity, temperature, time, and air

flow rate. Air flow rate and time are the basic factors that can significantly affect the two other

factors, humidity and temperature [2]. In terms of air flow rate, drying occurs most efficiently

when air has direct contact with the product because of the increased product surface area

exposed. The humidity of the air needs to be controlled to meet the final moisture content

requirement [2]. Wet hot air, which composes 40-70% (w/w) of the humidity, is used to dry the

pasta by direct contact [2]. This helps to prevent the product from cracking in the high

temperature dryer. Exposure time of the product to heat influences the temperature because when

the product is heated for a longer time, the temperature needs to be lower, and vice versa. The

temperature is regulated in multiple steps because high temperatures are required to dry the pasta,

but at a level too high can damage the product and destroy the nutrients [3]. Depending on the

processing steps, the drying temperature can vary from 32-110°C [5]. For example, the drying

temperature for spaghetti is ranged from 30º to 72º C for 12 hours [6].

Pastas are broadly categorized as short or long pasta and have variation in how they are

pre-dried and dried. Short pasta requires a shaking pre-dryer and less time in the drying step

because of the lower surface area. Long pasta is pre-dried by a blast of air, and due to the larger

surface area, it needs longer time and multiple steps during the drying stage [5]. The three steps

of drying are pre-drying, drying, and cooling [3]. In the first step, pre-drying, hot air is applied

for 30-60 minutes. The type of pastas varies the temperature required, but the range is usually

between 55-82 °C [3].

Two important properties are derived from the pre-drying step. The first one is to prevent

the pasta from sticking together [4]. When the moisture content is reduced by at least 17%, the

surface of the pasta is dried, while the inside is still wet [5]. The dry surface will limit the pasta

from sticking together. The final product must also not to crack [3]. The pre-dryer helps gradually

increase the product’s temperature prior entering the dryer, drying the pasta slowly from the

surface inwards. This is creates something called a moisture gradient [4]. By having moisture

gradient, we can make the dryer function more efficiently by lowering the energy, temperature,

and time that are required.

The pasta achieves its desired moisture content in the next step is drying. As in the

aforementioned paragraph, the air that we used in the dryer is wet hot air with the temperature

around 70-104 °C for 15-120 minutes [2]. The energy transfer that is required for this step is

caluculated using Equations 10 and 11.

Q = m·Cp·ΔT (10)

Q = m·λ (11)

Considerations about the consequences must be made when determining the amount of

time the product is involved in the drying step. Mould may develop within the product if dried

too slowly, especially in the inner parts because of the higher water activity. If the product is

dried too quickly, the dough will crack and result in bad appearance of the final product. Pre-

drying can reduce the occurrence of these problems due to the moisture gradient created [4].

Drying can also enhance the yellow color of the pasta. High temperatures increase Minolta b, the

compound responsible for the yellow colour in pasta. This occurs because heat deactivates

lipoxygenase, a bleaching enzyme that is found in the dough [5]. Lastly, the product is sterilized

as a result of high temperature [1].

Cooling is the last step in pasta processing and will prevent the loss of nutrients due to the

high temperature of the dryer [3]. Water indirectly cools the product at 28-32 °C for about 1.5

hours [5]. There is an energy exchanged from the product to the air in cooling chamber. We can

calculate the energy by using the energy transfer Equations 10 and 11. The product’s temperature

is returned to room temperature and packaged right away [1]. Reactions between the package and

the product may take place if improperly cooled and may result in the damaged package or

contaminated product.

PRODUCT

Affect of Processing on Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Pasta

Pasta is a nutritious food because of its carbohydrate, protein, B vitamins, iron, and folic

acid compositions. Pasta alone is not a fattening food, unless the accompanying sauce is calorie

dense. Typically a 2 oz. portion of dry pasta contains 210 Calories, with 75% of the energy

coming from carbohydrate, 13% from protein and 1.5% from fat.

Spaghetti is an ideal grain product for diabetics because the carbohydrates are slowly

digested, maintaining steady blood glucose levels and levelled insulin release. Also, pasta has a

slower rate of gastric emptying, thereby prolongs satiety. These benefits are attributed to the

processing of the pasta noodles. The extrusion process forms a dense, firm texture that takes

longer to digest. The dense noodle has a tight protein structure, limiting porosity, and therefore,

reduces the surface area for alpha-amylase interaction. The density of the spaghetti is also related

to the protein content and gluten strength of the durum wheat. Mixing can improve the

associative forces of gluten structures by altering thiol and disulphide groups. Particle size is also

an important aspect of digestibility. Having a large particle size is another method to decrease

alpha-amylase interaction and gastric emptying. Grinding is not a step in production because it

would decrease the particle size and increase the glycemic index of the product. During cooking,

the swelling of the noodles is restricted by the protein matrix and oligosaccharides content by

trapping some of the gelatinized starch granules, reducing susceptibility to the alpha-amylase

enzyme (Fardet, A., Hoebler, C., Baldwint, P.M., Bouchet, B., Gallant, D.J., Barry, J.L. (1998).

Involvement of the protein network in the in vitro degradation of starch from spaghetti and

lasagne: a microscopic and enzymic study. Journal of Cereal Science 27 p.133-145. American

Academic Press Limited).

The yellow colour of spaghetti made without eggs can be attributed to the quality of the

semolina, determined by the amount of carotenoid pigments, levels of protein and ash, and

lipoxygenase (LOX) activity (Borrelli, G.M., Troccoli, A., Di Fonzo, N., Fares, C. (1999).

Durum wheat lipoxygenase activity and other quality parameters that affect pasta colour.

Cereal Chemistry. 76(3):335-340. American Association of Cereal Chemists Inc). More

commonly known as a vitamin A precursors, carotenoids are essential in the human diet because

we are unable to synthesize them. They exhibit antioxidant properties important for the

prevention of many diseases, immune function, and vision. Isomers of carotenoids have different

melting points, solubility and stability. However, they are all sensitive to oxidation by light and

oxygen. In plants, carotenoids become bioavailable when the food matrix is disturbed, such as

during processing (Venugopal, V. (2009). Carotenoids. In Venugopal, V. Marine Products for

healthcare: Functional and Bioactive Nutraceuticals Taylor and Francis Group Boca Raton, FL).

Borrelli et al (1999) explain how processing combined with LOX-2, LOX-3 enzyme activity

plays a vital role in pasta colour and nutritional value by reducing carotenoid content by 16.3%.

A dough pH of 4.8 is preferred over pH 6.6 to maintain carotenoid by reducing enzyme activity.

High temperatures for drying the dough may can also inactivating the LOX-2 and LOX-3

enzymes. However, Marchylo and Dexter (2001) note the temperature should not exceed 50°C to

prevent damage to the gluten network. Furthermore, high temperature and ultra high temperature

processing can result in loss of lysine, vitamins and form furosine. Mixing and extrusion under

vacuum pressure can decrease carotenoid oxidation. It should be noted that many other quality

parameters of the semolina may also have an effect pasta colour (Marchylo, B.A., Dexter, J.E.

(2001) Ch.6 Pasta Production In Ed. Gavin Owens Cereals Processing Technology. Woodhead

Publishing Canadian Grain Production, Winnipeg).

Mineral content is minimally affected by processing. However, water used for dough

production can slightly increase calcium and copper, and the equipment used can release low

levels of iron and copper into the product (Cubadda, F., Aureli, F., Raggi, A., Carcea, M. (2008).

Effect of milling, pasta making and cooking on minerals in durum wheat. Journal of Cereal

Science 49 p. 92-97). (http://www.greatfood.ie/item_display.asp?cde=3&id=1113)

(http://www.food-info.net/uk/qa/qa-fp145.htm)

CONCLUSION

The production of dried spaghetti pasta is carefully controlled throughout the process to

ensure a quality product, desirable to consumers. The quality of the pasta begins with the input

particle size of the durum wheat and is further developed with mixing, extruding and drying.

Formation of the gluten network is a critical process in quality because it dictates the

development of a strong product, good extrusion properties, and a product that maintains it

structure when cooked. Gluten network formation is controlled through the extrusion process

and maximized through maintained hydration, stretching and alignment through directional

movement of the screw, flow rate control, and temperature control.

Drying occurs in the last phase of the process and is perhaps the most critical stage to

maintain quality of the spaghetti product. This is an important step because it preserves the

product structure and texture, shelf life, nutritional quality, and consumer acceptability. Drying is

carefully managed to remove water uniformly. Humidity, temperature, time, and air flow rate are

the four main factors involved in drying control. All three steps of drying are important in

development of the final product and any errors that occurs prior on will be detrimental to the

product. Perhaps the most important control is temperature. Nutritional quality is maintained

through temperature control and a moisture gradient is formed to enhance natural moisture

diffusion and preserve structure by preventing cracking. The moisture gradient formed is also

important because it lowers the energy, temperature, and time required for processing. Given

adequate attention to the important parts of temperature control in the drying process, the end

product will be acceptable to consumers based on color, strength, cooking quality, and long shelf

life.

The drying process received the most technological advances. The application of ultra-

high temperature (UHT) drying is now common as it has shorten the drying time of long pastas,

like spaghetti, from 12 hours to 4-5 hours. The UHT processes is thought to produce pasta

products with cooking quality and color equal to or better than high temperature drying. A more

intense yellow color can also be seen with HT and UHT drying and is attributed to lipoxygenase

inactivation. A concern with UHT is the potential for development of brown colors because of

non-enzymatic browning, known as the Maillard reaction. Losses of lysine and vitamins may

also occur with HT and UHT, however, losses are not generally a concern because pasta is not

consumed as a source of essential amino acids or B vitamins. Benefits of HT and UHT outweigh

the costs because of greater capacity, color improvements and cooking quality. [1]

Overall, the processing of durum wheat semolina into a dried pasta produces a

nutritionally sound and consumer acceptable product. Nutritional quality is conserved through

temperature control and the gluten-protein matrix formed as a result of the extrusion process,

which makes it a valuable food for many people including diabetics. There are several areas of

control to maintain a quality product, in both the selection of semolina and extrusion, as well as

the temperature and time control in the drying process. Much of the focus is on the drying

process because it conserves the quality produced through extrusion and makes the pasta product

acceptable to consumers because of its aesthetic properties and shelf life. Much of the

advancement in technology reflects the important aspects of drying. Future research into the

addition of dietary fibre to pasta is an emerging field, with more potential nutritional benefits for

consumers, but need to be investigated for their impact on the processing pathway.

[1] Marchylo, B. A. and Dexter, J. E. (1989) Pasta Production, chapter 6: Cereals Processing

Technology, pp. 109-130.

FIGURES

Figure 1: Extrusion screw (a) and kneading

plates (b)

Figure 3: Die support (a) and inserts (b)

Figure 2: Extrusion head (a) and Die (b)

Figure 4: Example of spaghetti inserts

REFERENCE THIS DARBY:

http://www.freshpastamachines.co.uk/lillo_due_pasta_machine.html

btw - you didn’t incorporate figure 2 and figure 4 into your writing

REFERENCES

References for drying

[1] Food-Info.net. (2010) the Industrial Production of Pasta.

http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/pasta/production.htm

[2] Migliori, Massimo, et al. (2005) Modelling of High Quality Pasta Drying: Mathematical

Model and Validation, J. Food Engineering, 69: 387–397.

[3] Kent, N. L. and Evers, A. D. (2001) Pasta and Whole Grain Foods, chapter 10: Technology

of Cereals, 4th Edition, pp. 233–243.

[4] United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1995) Food and Agricultural Industries,

chapter 9: AP 42, 5th edition, volume 1, pp. 9.9.5-1 to 9.9.5-3.

[5] Marchylo, B. A. and Dexter, J. E. (1989) Pasta Production, chapter 6: Cereals Processing

Technology, pp. 109-130.

[6] Grant, L. A., J. W. Dick, and D. R. Shelton. (1993) Effects of Drying Temperature, Starch

Damage, Sprouting, and Additives on Spaghetti Quality Characteristics, Cereal Chemistry,

70(6): 676-684.