Observational Methods of Research

Observational Methods of Research

Observation is the most primitive and basic of all research approaches

It involves the careful noting and recording of events as they occur, with no attempt to manipulate the variables operating in the events under study

Observational Methods of Research

Unrestricted Observation – an attempt is made to observe and record as much of the organism’s behavior as possible with no preconceptions about what behaviors might be important.

Objectives: Behavioral Catalog

Nomenclature

Taxonomy

Consummatory Behaviors

Instrumental Behaviors

Exploratory Behaviors

Imitative Behaviors

Restricted Observation – observations are restricted to only those behaviors that are deemed relevant for understanding a phenomenon.

Objectives: Quantification (Prevelance)

Sequential Dependencies

The Personal Equation

The personal equation refers to the fact that every individual observer has an idiosyncratic bias which distorts his/her ability to accurately record data.  To some extent, what we observe is influenced by what we expect, what we hope or fear might occur.  Later in the semester we will incorporate this concept into the larger issue of Experimenter Bias effects (how the psychological makeup of the Experimenter might taint behavioral data collected).

The term "Personal Equation" originated in astronomy, when it was discovered that numerous observers making simultaneous observations would record slightly different values (for example, in recording the exact time at which a star crossed a wire in a telescope view-finder), some of which were of a significant enough difference to afford for problems in larger calculations.

In response to this realization, astronomers became increasingly suspicious of the results of other astronomers and their own assistants, and began systematic programs to attempt to find ways to remove or lessen the effects. The best solutions involve automation of observations (since machines are unbiased).  Where automation is not feasible, the averaging the observations of multiple observers produces a composite which is more reliable than any one individual's observations (perhaps because biases in different directions tend to cancel each other out). 

Reactive vs. Nonreactive ObservationsA Reactive Observation is said to occur when the subject knows or suspects that their behavior is under scrutiny. To some degree, the behavior of the subject is in reaction to the observer’s presence and hence is distorted from natural.

Nonreactive measures are behavioral observations we obtain without our subject’s aware-ness. Generally these measures would be preferable because they insure the naturalness of behavior. However, nonreactive measures have two drawbacks. Most importantly, if our subjects are humans, it might be a violation of their rights to privacy if we observe their actions without their awareness. Also reactive measures are sometimes preferred because we may gain the cooperation of the subject. Often the most efficient means of obtaining information (e.g., self reports, opinions, etc.) is to ask our subjects to provide it.

Nonreactive Observations are sometimes referred to as Unobtrusive Measures. This would include information obtained through:

Physical Traces – Every behavior changes the environment where the behavior has occurred. By examining the traces evidence left in the environment, we can draw conclusions about the behaviors that must have happened there. There are two general types of trace measures: Erosion – where the environment is worn away by behavioral actions and Accretion – where the environment is added to by our subject’s behavior (e.g., a cigarette butt with lipstick on it left in an ashtray).

Archival Records – We can learn much about behavior by examining the written records of society. As our information technology advances, more and more information about what people do is obtained and stored in computer databases.

Surreptitious Observation – observing our subject’s actions from a concealed position or through technological means. With human observation, ethical considerations arise.

Naturalistic Observation vs. Laboratory Observation

Naturalistic Observation refers to the observation of behaviors in the natural environment where they would ordinarily occur. This is a situation where behavior in its genuine form would be most likely to be observed. However, naturalistic observation is more difficult and costly for the observer. Travelling to and remaining at the observation site can create hardships (heat, cold, rain, exertion, danger, etc.)

A further drawback would be possible misinterpretation of relationships. Because we have no control over circumstances in the observational setting, the true factors that control a particular behavior could be ones we are not immediately aware of.

Laboratory Observation takes place in the artificial environment of the laboratory. Because the laboratory is an unnatural environment, we have concerns about whether the behaviors we observe there are as we would see in the “real world”.

Since the laboratory is a highly controlled environment we can adjust it to our comfort. Since behavior can only occur in this contained area, we are sure that we will be present and vigilant when it is time to observe and record. In the naturalistic environment, behaviors of interest often occur out of the range of our observations or instruments.

Certain behaviors (e.g., internal physiological events) could never be observed in the natural environment.

Common Rating Errors

Rating Scales

Common Rating Errors

Error of Leniency

Error of Central Tendency

Halo Effect

Contrast Effect

Hawthorne Effect

Common Rating Errors

Error of Leniency – occurs when the evaluator disproportionately judges people higher than they should be (toward the favorable end of the scale)

Common Rating Errors

Error of Leniency – occurs when the evaluator disproportionately judges people higher than they should be (toward the favorable end of the scale)

Common Rating Errors

Error of Leniency – occurs when the evaluator disproportionately judges people higher than they should be (toward the favorable end of the scale)

Common Rating Errors

Error of Central Tendency – rating error where extreme ratings are avoided and central score are used disproportionately

Common Rating Errors

Error of Central Tendency – rating error where extreme ratings are avoided and central scores are used disproportionately

Common Rating Errors

Halo Effect – where the rater’s knowledge of one characteristic of the subject influences his rating of other unrelated characteristics

Common Rating Errors

Contrast Effect – where subjects are rated lower than they should be if they are unlike the rater (prejudice).

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect got its name due to the location of its discovery - The Hawthorne Electric Plant (a telephone manufacturing facility outside of Chicago).

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect got its name due to the location of its discovery - The Hawthorne Electric Plant (a telephone manufacturing facility outside of Chicago).

The Hawthorne facility (in 1924-1932) had commissioned a number of different studies to see what changes in the work place might lead to improved productivity.

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect got its name due to the location of its discovery - The Hawthorne Electric Plant (a telephone manufacturing facility outside of Chicago).

The Hawthorne facility (in 1924-1932) had commissioned a number of different studies to see what changes in the work place might lead to improved productivity.

“Time-Motion Experts” were called in to identify what alterations in the work environment would be most beneficial. (Birth of Industrial Psychology)

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect got its name due to the location of its discovery - The Hawthorne Electric Plant (a telephone manufacturing facility outside of Chicago).

The Hawthorne facility (in 1924-1932) had commissioned a number of different studies to see what changes in the work place might lead to improved productivity.

“Time-Motion Experts” were called in to identify what alterations in the work environment would be most beneficial. (Birth of Industrial Psychology)

Frank Gilbreth reduced all actions of workers he observed into some combination of 18 basic motions. These motions included visual search, find, grasp, transport, position, hold, and others. Gilbreth developed a system of notation for the actions he analyzed where each motions was represented as a “therblig”.

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne Effect got its name due to the location of its discovery - The Hawthorne Electric Plant (a telephone manufacturing facility outside of Chicago).

The Hawthorne facility (in 1924-1932) had commissioned a number of different studies to see what changes in the work place might lead to improved productivity.

“Time-Motion Experts” were called in to identify what alterations in the work environment would be most beneficial. (Birth of Industrial Psychology)

Frank Gilbreth reduced all actions of workers he observed into some combination of 18 basic motions. These motions included visual search, find, grasp, transport, position, hold, and others. Gilbreth developed a system of notation for the actions he analyzed where each motions was represented as a “therblig”.

“Cheaper by the Dozen” was written by Gilbreth’s daughter.

Common Rating Errors

Illumination Studies

Common Rating Errors

The Hawthorne effect is a form of Reactiveness whereby subjects improve aspects of their behavior simply in response to the fact that they are being studied.

Case Histories

Extensive set of observations made on a specific individual (Prototype vs Rare).

Unsystematic Construction (Eclectic Data Selection)

Reliance on Nonprimary Data

•Reports from Non-Scientists

•Reports from individuals with personal involvement with the subject of the case history (bias)

•Self-Reports

•Reports distorted by passage of time (Memorial Data)

Representativeness?