oer.unn.edu.ng file · web viewchapter one. introduction. background of the study
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
A child is a member of the society and as well a citizen of a nation who
has every right for survival, growth and development. A child as described by
Bernard (2001) is every human being below 18 years of age. According to United
Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2007), childhood
stage covers the crèche, the nursery or early childhood (0-5) years, primary
school (6-12) years and secondary school (12 -18) years. The childhood period is
a sensitive stage in the life of every individual requiring special care and
attention. For instance, Anyakoha and Eluwa (2008) noted that, a child is a young
person who depends on others for the provision of daily food, clothing and
shelter. In the concept of this study, a child is a young person at early childhood
stage of 0-5 years in pre-primary schools under the careful and consistent
attention of the care-givers.
Evans, Myers and Ilford (2000) affirmed that a child with consistent
caring attention is generally better nourished, less likely to be sick and learn
better than a child who does not receive such care. The care, attention and respect
to be given to the child are specified by the rights of the child. Evans, et al (2000)
reported further that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child
specified among others that:
all children without distinction of gender, race, language, religion or of
any other kind should have the opportunity to develop to full potential.
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children, by reason of their physical and mental vulnerability, need special
safeguards and care.
children living in difficult circumstances need special consideration.
Parent, families, men as well as women, have the primary responsibility
for the upbringing, development and education of their children.
government should establish a policy environment that ensures families
and communities fulfil their responsibilities of child caring and protection.
The report of NERDC/UNICEF (2013) showed that rights of Nigerian
child are clustered into four main domains which include: survival rights,
protection rights, participation rights and development rights. For the child to
survive and steadily develop, someone has to care for him to reach his full
potential and development. This is because, the child’s physical and
psychological needs must be met by one or more people who understand what
children, in general need, and what the particular child under his/her care needs.
Thus, the child’s growth and development in all aspects (health, cognition,
perception, personhood, response to the environment among others) depends on
the capacity of adults in whose care the child rests for assistance and support.
Anuna (2005) reported that the child as the hope of further human existence
needs love, attention and care for meaningful growth and development.
Development of every human person is a continuous process which starts
from conception. Development is a product of interaction of inherited
potentialities and the environment, maturation and learning. Izuwa (2002) viewed
development as the systematic, qualitative and quantitative changes which are
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progressive, orderly and coherent. According to the author, the development of a
child is always more rapid and dramatic than at any other stage in the
development process of the human person. At early childhood stage, nature and
nurture have major roles to play in child development. Nature according to
Berger (2005) refers to the influence of the genes that each person inherits from
his or her parents at the moment of conception while nurture refers to all the
environmental influences that come into play after conception, beginning with
the mother’s health during pregnancy and including all the individual’s
experiences in the outside environment. Speaking on the effect of nurture on
child development, Olaitan and Akpan (2003) stated that the experience gained
may make or mar the child permanently due to rapid brain development and
character formation of the child. This implies that the child learns a lot, and what
he/she learns at the childhood stage of development in addition to other
environmental factors affect all other stages of the child’s life as an adult. This
makes the roles of care-givers of the child more important at early childhood
stage.
The care-givers are those who take care of the child. Evans, et al (2000)
described a care-giver as someone who cares for a child whether on a long term
or short-term basis. According to Bernard (2001) care-giver is called legal or
periodic guardian that has the primary responsibility for upbringing and
development of the child. Parents, foster parents, family members, baby sitters
and child-care workers are considered care-givers who provide the necessary care
services to the child (Brisbane, 2000). Child-care services are provisions made to
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improve optimal growth and development in childhood through disease
prevention, good health, food and nutrition. Child-care service is therefore the
right of every child and must not be denied for any reason (Turman, 2003). Child
care services at home are offered by the parents, siblings of the child, other
relatives and non-relative care-givers employed to offer such services. Child
care-givers in the context of this study are trained individuals employed by
administrators of pre-primary schools and charged with the sole responsibilities
of providing the necessary care giving services towards supporting the normal
physical, social, psychological and educational growth and development of the
child in a formal school setting.
Child-care services in day care centers, nursery and pre-primary schools
are more formalized than those at home. Pre-primary education is the type of
formal education given to children of school age outside the home prior to their
entering primary school. According to Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) the
National Policy on Education stipulated that the purposes of pre-primary
education are to:
effect a smooth transition from the home to the school;
prepare the child for the primary level of education;
provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents
are at work;
inculcate social norms;
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inculcate in the child the spirit of inquiry and creativity through the
exploration of nature, the environment, art, music and playing with toys,
etc;
develop a sense of co-operation and team spirit;
learn good habits, especially good health habits, and
teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes, forms, etc,
through play.
There are five types of pre-primary school arrangements. These according
to Burchinal and Cryer (2003) include: (1) child-care center; (2) child-care home
(care in someone else’s home by a non-relative or relative other than the child’s
grandparents); (3) care at home by someone other than parents or grandparents;
(4) grandparent care, or (5) father care”. For the care-giver irrespective of the
type of pre-school arrangement to be successful in carrying out her expected
child-caring services for the actualization of the pre-primary education, certain
child-care skills must be possessed by the care-givers.
Skill according to Okorie (2000) is a habit of acting, thinking and
behaving in a specific activity in such a way that the process becomes natural to
the individual through practice. In the view of Osinem and Nwoji (2005), skill is
the ability to perform an activity expertly. The authors further added that skill is a
well established habit of doing things and involves the acquisition of
performance capability through repetitive performance of an operation. Skill as
described by Hull (1991) is the habit of doing something well; especially skill
gained through training or experience. Okorie and Ezeji (1988) classified skills
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into technical and human skills. Technical skills are those skills that call for
proficiency in specific activities, particularly those involving methods, processes,
procedures or techniques for their effective performance. Human skill on the
other hand deals with skills acquire through years of experience or training for
proficiency on the job (Sedaei, 2003). In this study, both the technical and human
skills are basic skills that are required by the care-givers for child upbringing in
pre-primary schools.
There are basic skills inherent in the performance of the tasks of care-
giving in pre-primary schools. According to Clayton (2000), these skills are:
feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet-training skills, interacting skills, safety skills,
and hygiene skills. Feeding skills of care-givers and parents are careful
meal/menu planning for combining the required food items to ensure that the
desired expectation in the nutritional, physical growth and development of the
child are met (Kaiser, 2000). The Federal Ministry of Health (2004) reported that
poor nutrition among the children results not only from a lack of food but also
from inappropriate feeding practices by care-givers. Appropriate clothing skills
need to be possessed by care-givers to safeguard the child against harsh
environmental condition and diseases. Toileting and interacting skills are
psychosocial development skills that are concerned with areas such as cognition,
temperament/personality, motivation, self-perception and interpersonal
development of the child (Kimbon and Roskett, 2003). Interacting skills of the
care-givers for instance can be exhibited through educative child playing,
storytelling and songs among others. Safety and hygiene skills are very sensitive
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and need the efforts of the care-giver to safeguard the child against injury and
any form of danger. Bupa (2008) maintained that high levels of personal hygiene
are important and effective ways to stop diseases from spreading among children.
In his own view, Clayton (2000) noted that child care-giving skills, like
other skills, are learned and not inborn traits. Generally, child care-caring skills
are learnt through early life experience with other care-givers and acquiring the
skills is a lifelong learning process. In addition, the skills a care-giver needs can
change as children grow up. For this reason, Brisbane (1994) stated that effective
care-givers need to continue to develop child-care skills all their lives. In support
of this submission, Growth and McCall (2003) stated that in order to provide
more warmth to the child, sensitive and responsive care-givers require constant
and timely training.
Nursery and pre-primary schools are located in various places across the
length and breadth of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Some of the pre-primary
schools are owned by the government, while some others are owned and
managed by private individuals for the purpose of providing physical,
psychological, social and educational needs of the child. It is imperative to state
that most of the care-givers in pre-primary schools in Nigeria and Abuja in
particular are not careful in handling children in the schools. This may be
because majority of the pre-primary school care-givers in FCT Abuja are not
very skilled in the art of childcare practices. In order to verify the above claim,
the skills needed by care-givers for quality care-giving of the pre-primary school
child need to be identified. Hence, this study was conducted to identify childcare
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skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools in Federal Capital Territory
(FCT), Abuja.
Statement of the Problem
The future of any country depends on how well the present generation of
her children are looked after. The fact is that, children easily get bonded and
affectionately attached to significant adults around them in their early years. This
has continued to make care-givers and their care important in the child’s survival,
growth, and development. The whole process of child-caring also implies that
characteristic values and behaviours of care-givers can also be learnt by the child
through modelling and imitation.
At early childhood stage of foundation and basic skill learning, the child
needs good care. For the pre-school child, the care-givers have a lot of influence
on his/her growth and development. However, it is not clear whether the child
care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Nigeria have adequate skills
that are needed for them to be able to provide the type of care, attention and good
foundation needed by the children they are caring for. If they do not posses these
skills, then, the pre-primary school child under their care will not be properly fed,
toilet-trained, clothed, interacted with, safe guarded and hygienically cared for.
Thus, lack of the skills needed to do all the above may result in the child having
poor social and emotional development. This, of course will have a great
negative effect on the child’s all-round maturation, development and well being.
Based on the above ideas, it is understandable why Action for Child
Protection Inc (2008) emphasized that all people who care for children need
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specific child-care skills to be able to do their job very efficiently. These are
skills that unfortunately, no one is born with, but that fortunately, everyone can
learn. Data and information available to the researcher consistently point to the
fact that majority of the child care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)
(and in so many other parts of Nigeria) are not really aware of the specific skills
they need to be able to assist the children to develop well. Besides, available
information show that very little, to almost no work, has been carried out to
determine the specific skills needed by child care-givers in the Federal Capital
Territory (FCT). Thus, the problem that warranted this study is that it is
important to identify the child-care skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary
schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria.
Purpose of the Study
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the child-care skills
needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory
(FCT), Abuja. Specifically, the study determined:
1. child feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja;
2. child clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;
3. child toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;
4. child interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;
5. child safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;
6. child hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.
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Significance of the Study
Through quality child-care, the child’s basic needs are met through
appropriate feeding, clothing, love, protection, and socialization into an
acceptable adulthood. Therefore, the findings of this study will be of immense
benefit to parents, care-givers, curriculum planners, education policy making
bodies such as Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC), State Universal
Basic Education Board (SUBEB), United Nations Children’s Education Fund
(UNICEF), Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC),
National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), Colleges of Education
(COE), Ministry of Education (MOE), proprietors/individuals who are employers
of care-givers in pre-primary schools and researcher with special research interest
in quality assurance in pre-primary education in Nigeria and other countries.
Through the research findings that will be provided by this study,
education policy making stakeholders will be furnished with information for pre-
primary school programme review and update to meet societal needs for
improved early childhood education system in the country. It is expected that the
findings of this study if brought to the awareness of all stakeholders who are
involved in care about the future of Nigerian child, it will enable them to carry
out their tasks efficiently for the good of the Nigerian child. In this way, the
findings of this study, by producing more knowledge about child care-giving
skills will lead to more effective child-care services and enable parents have full
value of the fees they pay for their children’s care.
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The findings of this study will benefit care-givers because the study will
provide useful information that will assist care-givers in pre-primary schools to
make desirable changes for the growth and development of the children under
their care. In this way, children will be properly fed, clothed, protected and
socialized. It will also be useful to care-givers by furnishing them with the skills
they will adopt to improve their child-care practices. A care-giver with adequate
skills will be able to execute his/her responsibility expertly and this will reduce
adverse practices.
The findings of the study will also bring to the knowledge of proprietors
of child-care centers the skills they should look out for in their present and future
staff for effective care-giving in pre-primary schools.
Curriculum planners of pre-primary school programmes will also benefit
from the findings of this study. This is because the findings of this study will
help the planners of programmes such as Early Childhood Care and Education
(ECCE) in developing course contents useful for instructors on care-giving skills.
The findings will also be relevant to ECCD, UBEC/SUBEB, NERDC/UNICEF,
NCCE/COEs, MOE, and other educational institutions that offer courses in child-
care education. This is because these findings will guide those in charge of these
institutions in choosing which skills they need to emphasize while training care-
givers.
The findings will also provide insights for educationists to formulate
theories that can enrich the pre-primary school care-giving, teaching, and
training. This is because the findings of this study will validate the relevance of
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socio-cognitive theories of child development and John Bowlby’s attachment
theory which are the theoretical frameworks for this study. Thus, it is also hoped
that this study will serve as a basis for further research work in related areas of
child care.
All these areas of significance of this study would be achieved if the
findings are further discussed in seminars, workshops and other sensitization
workshops. Fellow researchers and academics with research interest on issues
bothering on pre-primary education and early child care education will be
provided with information that will help to sharpen the focus of their studies.
The theoretical significance of this study is based on the premise that care-
givers need to possess care-giving skills to be able to support/care for the pre-
primary school children under their care. Thus, the study sees care-givers as a set
of people that contribute in structuring/determining the future of the Nigerian
child. In addition, this provides more understanding for the expectation that the
skills possessed by care-givers have impacts on the development of the child and
the future of the society.
Research Questions
This study provided answers to the following research questions:
1. What child feeding skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
in FCT, Abuja?
2. What child clothing skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools?
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3. What child toilet training skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools?
4. What child interacting skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools?
5. What child safety skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools?
6. What child hygiene skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
1. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on the feeding skills needed by the care-givers
in Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
2. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on the clothing skills needed by the care-
givers.
3. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on the toileting skills needed by the care-
givers.
4. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
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child care experts and nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-
givers.
5. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on the safety skills needed by the care-givers.
6. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on the hygiene skills needed by the care-
givers.
Scope of the Study
This study focused on the care-giving skills needed by care-givers in pre-
primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory, FCT, Abuja, Nigeria. The study
was limited to the following: feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet-training skills,
interacting skills, safety skills, and hygiene skills.
The geographical scope of this study is the Federal Capital Territory,
Abuja. Data for the study were collected from care-givers in pre-primary schools,
Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and Nurses in the study area.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discussed the related literature for the study and are presented
under the following sub-headings:
1. Conceptual Framework
Concept of child and child right
Concept of child care-givers
Concept of skill
Child care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers
2. Theoretical Framework
Social-cognitive development theory,
Evolution and ethology theories,
3. Review of Related Empirical Studies
4. Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework for research purposes is a schematic description
and illustration of the causative mechanisms and relationship deducible from the
research problems (Eboh, 2009). Conceptual framework depicts a schema
providing structural meaning and linkages among major concepts or variables in
a phenomena being investigated, their interdependence and relationship with
each other. The conceptual framework of this study addressed such concepts as
the child, need of the child, concept of child care, concept of child care-givers,
concept of skill and child-care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers
which include: feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet training skills, interacting
skills, safety skills and hygiene skills.
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Concept of child and child right
A child is a human being within the vulnerable ages of 0-18. He/she is in
dare need of others for his/her feeding, clothing, support, security, protection,
guide, and so on. According to the United Nations Convention on the rights of
the child, a child is any human being under the age of eighteen (UNICEF, 1989).
In the view of Anyakoha and Eluwa (2008), a child is a young person who
depends on others for the provision of daily food, clothing and shelter. For this
reason, the child is helpless, hence the use of the term ‘vulnerable’ in the first
definition above. Kimbell (2003) stated that the child’s helplessness is significant
because he cannot provide his own basic needs. For the child to survive and
develop, someone has to nurture him. He depends on others for development.
Yet, being a human being, he has rights to be assisted in the process of
development.
According to Evans, Myers and Ilfeld (2000) children have a right to love
and to develop to their full potential. Besides the above, UNICEF (2000)
identifies four broadly recognized rights of every child as follows: survival,
development, protection, and participation. Still, it is the adults around the child
whose duties/responsibilities it is to help the child survive and develop. They can
do these by protecting the child and making him/her participate in his/her
environment.
Needs of the Child
Need in the view of Chutta (1992) is what one requires in order to meet a
target standard. Olaitan, Nwachukwu, Igbo, Onyemachi and Ekong (1999)
explained that need is a requirement deemed necessary for effectiveness. In the
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context of this study, need is the basic educational, nutritional, social and health
requirement of a child for adequate growth and development of pre-primary
school children.
Children, just like any human being, have physical, emotional, social, and
mental needs that must be met. While one is caring for, playing with, and
teaching children, it is up to the person to fulfill these needs. According to
Clayton (1994), all children have basic, physical needs. They need healthy food,
appropriate clothing and safe and stimulating environment. Children need to be
reassured that someone cares. They are very sensitive to feelings about them.
Care-givers should be warm and friendly with them. Children need to be spoken
kindly to because they can tell by the way one touches, holds, or talks to them
that they are loved. An outline of some of the ways care-givers can respond to the
needs of children include: guiding children, communicating positively to children
and encouraging children (Clayton, 1994).
Guiding Children: It is important to give children guidance or direction.
Children need to learn basic rules for behavior. These rules will help them to stay
safe, learn self-control, and learn to get along with others. According to Clayton
(1994), these rules are usually set by the children’s parents. Care-givers and
several others can help reinforce the limits and set good examples.
In guiding children, there is the need to be consistent. Being consistent
means doing what one says he/she will do and avoiding saying things he/she
doesn’t mean. When the care-giver is consistent, he/she reacts the same way to
the same situation each time it occurs. For example, if he/she explains to children
that they shouldn’t hit their brother or other children, but he/she laughs when
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they do it, the care-giver in such a situation is not consistent (UNICEF, 2000).
Children become confused when their care-giver is not consistent. This is
because consistency in guiding children helps them know what to expect.
Communicating Positively: Children need positive forms of
communication. They listen better when positive statements are used in
addressing them. To be able to respond to this particular need, care-givers should
use simple and positive sentences that are easy to understand. Children need to be
told what they should do rather than what they should not do (Draper and Draper,
1975). Another aspect of positive communication as a response to children’s
need is praising them for what they do well. This is why care-givers should be
encouraging in their comments (Clayton, 1994).
Encouraging Independence: Children need to gradually develop into
being independent. They want to be able to do things for themselves. As they try
to do new things on their own, they will probably make mistakes at first. It takes
practices to learn skills like using a fork, brushing teeth, or tying their shoes. Just
like adults, children learn from their mistakes. If one always helps children with
something they could do themselves, they won’t think they can do it alone, or
they may feel like crying, if they make mistakes. This is again where care-givers
can respond to children’s needs. If children make mistakes, the proper response is
to encourage them to keep trying, praise their efforts, even when the results are
not exactly right (Ashiabi, 2000).
From the above outline of needs and examples of the proper response to
them, it is clear how care-givers can respond to children’s needs and help them
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feel secure. Their encouragement and consistent guidance are meant to help
children grow to be healthy, secure individuals. Care-givers are so important that
in guiding and communicating with children, they model, coach, and respond to
or do not respond to their distress signals and needs (Clayton, 1994).
The roles of modeling, coaching, and responding to the needs of children,
influence the emotional development of the children. With regard to modeling,
children’s expressiveness reflects their care-givers’ total emotional
expressiveness. For instance, Ashiabi (2000) noted that care-givers who often
exhibit anger are, more likely to have children who show anger, because through
modeling, care-givers give children information about the nature of emotions,
their expressions, and how to cope with their own emotions and those of others.
This means that by modeling various emotions, care-givers implicitly teach
children those emotions that are acceptable for specific types of situations, and
the common behaviours associated with their expression. In all, “modeling by
care-givers provides an overall environment to which the child is exposed”, and
why care-givers “respond in a consistent manner, they help children develop
alternative views of the world and relationships.
The knowledge, skills, and practices of early childhood educators and
care-givers are important factors in responding to the needs of children. In the
case of pre-primary school children, Sheridan, Edwards, Marvin and Knoche
(2009) stated that the proper responses to their needs help in determining how
much a young child learns and how prepared that child is for entry into school.
The report of UNICEF (2000) established that early childhood educators are
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being asked to have deeper understandings of child development and early
education issues; provide richer educational experiences for all children,
including those who are vulnerable and disadvantaged; engage children of
varying abilities and backgrounds; connect with a diverse array of families; and
do so with greater demands for accountability and in some cases, fewer
resources, than ever before.
It is important also to note that to be able to respond to children’s needs,
there has to be good care-giver-child relationship. When the relationship is good,
children’s needs are better met and on time. However, when the care-giver-child
relationship is not cordial, the child’s needs for development are not likely to be
suitably provided. Hence, Cohen, Onunaku, Clothier, and Poppe (2005) noted
that relationships with the primary care-giver are especially important for
development in the first years of life because the child’s primary care-givers
structure the experiences and shape the environments within which early
development unfolds. Babies and young children need to have the opportunity to
develop a close, trusting relationship or secure attachment with at least one
special person. Those who develop a secure attachment with a primary care-giver
during the early years of life are more likely to later have positive relationships
with peers, be liked by their teachers, perform better in school, and respond with
resilience in the face of adversity as they grow and become preschoolers and
older students (Hildebrand, 1997). Those who do not have an opportunity to form
a secure attachment with a trusted adult are at risk of experiencing distrust or
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uncertainty with their care-givers, negative self-image, and difficulties in coping
adaptively with stress.
To make sure the best care-givers are gotten who can respond to
children’s needs, presented what he called parents checklist. Figure 1 below
shows different age brackets of the child and their specific needs according to the
age range.
Age range What children need1 to 2 years Support to acquiring new motor, language, thinking skills; a chance to
develop some independence; help in learning how to control their own behavior; opportunities to begin to learn to care for themselves; opportunities for play and exploration; play with other children; read to/tell stories daily; health care must also include deworming if required.
2 to 3 1/2 years
Make choices; engage in dramatic play; sing favorite songs; work simple puzzles.
3 1/2 to 5 years
Opportunities to develop fine motor skills; encouragement of language through talking, reading, singing; activities which will develop a positive sense of mastery; opportunities to learn cooperation, helping, sharing; experimentation with pre-writing and pre-reading skills; hands-on exploration for learning through action; opportunities for taking responsibility and making choices; encouragement to develop self-control, cooperation, persistence in completing projects; support for their sense of self-worth and pride in accomplishments; opportunities for self-expression (drawing, painting, work with clay or mud; encouragement of creativity; rhythmic movement; listening to music of all kinds.
Figure 1: Pre-Primary School Children’s needs according to age rangeSource: Adapted from Evans, et al (2000)
The figure shows that getting to the age range of 3-5 children are already
in need of things that can best be provided in the context of the school. This is
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why children within this age range are referred to as pre-primary school children
(Cohen, et al 2005). The proper response to their needs is meant to prepare them
to further acquire more cognitive skills, social skills, motor skills, creativity
skills, and several others indicated above.
Concept of Child Care
Care as a concept involves the provision of support, attention, warmth,
and so on to someone. Evans, et al (2000) noted that in 1990s, UNICEF began
using the term Care in relation to nutrition programs. The reason was because
UNICEF had observed that good nutrition was more than simply providing
children with food. Care was identified by Anuna (2005) as a key element in an
active feeding process that promotes healthy growth and development. Children
with consistent, caring attention are generally better nourished, are less apt to be
sick, and learn better than children who do not receive such care. Conversely,
neglected children are prone to sickness and malnutrition and are less equipped
and motivated to learn.
Beyond this, the concept has evolved further such that it is now being
defined as a process that results in the creation of an enabling environment,
which can support the child’s optimal development. Evans et al (2000) presented
what they regarded as a summary on the concept. In summary, care is the
integrated set of actions that ensure for children the synergy of protection and
supports for their health, nutrition, psycho-social, and cognitive aspects of
development. Therefore Care is one of the key factors in the promotion of
children’s optimal development.
23
Care can also be defined as the behaviours and practices meant to provide
food, health care, psychosocial stimulation and emotional support necessary for
children’s healthy survival, growth and development (Anuna 2005). Caring for
the child means providing the child’s basic needs. However, while Evans, et al
(2000) referred to care as one of the key factors, the concept care is regarded in
this study as the key factor in the promotion of children’s optimal development.
In the context of this study, child care refers to all the supports a child
receives in order to survive, thrive and/or develop. It is the ability to handle
children, a process that results in the creation of an enabling environment meant
to support the child’s optimal development. Child care includes such supports
like appropriate: nutrition, health, active feeding, stimulation, safety,
communication, protection, affection, and modeling (Clayton, 1994). Care is a
key element in any active effort to help the child in the development process. It
includes what adults and significant others in the child’s life are able to provide
for the child. Hence, there could be child care at home, in pre-primary schools,
nursery schools, and so on.
In another view, the report of UNICEF (1996) described child care as all
those things we do to make sure the child stays alive and well, grows and
develops. Lamb (1998) preferred to define child care simply as non-maternal
care. According to Lamb, some of the examples of non-maternal care are: day
care, institutional-care and care by relatives. For this reason, the term Child care
is often used for describing non-maternal care of different settings. According to
24
Philip and McCartney in Anuna (2005), child care settings vary in their
objectives and structure. Baby-sitting children in one’s own home, nursery, day
care center, play group, family-based care center, and institutional care, are
different Child care arrangements. Each has peculiar services it provides. Draper
and Draper (1975) noted that some families make use of child care service
providers outside the home (Child care centers). They can do this for one or more
of the following reasons: (a) parents who work; (b) illness or death of one or both
of parents; (c) mental or physical handicaps of the mother or father; (d)
emotional disturbances of the mother or father; (e) poor family relationships; (f)
slum living conditions and so on. Draper and Draper (1975) also added that:
many families seek child care services “not because mothers work outside of the
home, not because of poverty, and not because of crises. Their interest is simply
to add enriching experiences to their children’s daily living. According to
Victoria (2001) child care practices are meant to:
guarantee the child’s physical well-being keeping the child safe and
free from harm, providing shelter and clothing, preventing and attending
to illness, thereby promoting the child’s psycho-social well-being;
provide emotional security, socialization, nurturing and giving
affection;
support the child’s physical development – feeding, bathing, providing
safe places to play and explore and thus to promote the child’s mental
development – interaction, stimulation and play;
25
facilitate the child’s interaction with others outside the home – within
the community, at health clinics and at school(Child care is manifested
in the ways a child is fed, nurtured, taught and guided.
It is the expression by individuals and families of the domestic and
cultural values that guide them (Anuna, 2005). As stated in the report of UNICEF
(1998), care practices translate food security and health care resources into a
child’s well being. Not only the practices themselves, but also the ways they are
performed in terms of affection and responsiveness to the child are critical to a
child’s survival, growth and development. There are two major forms of
conceiving child care: (a) as the right of the child, and (b) as a need of the child.
In this regard, Evans, et al (2000) noted that children have a right to love and to
develop to their full potential. This right, according to them, is set forth in the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); it is also guaranteed by the
Declaration of the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) (1990), the
World Summit of Children (2000), the UNESCO Salamanca Statement (1994),
the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW) (1979), and others. Evans, et al (2000) stated that the
following statements emerged for these world conventions and conferences:
All children, without distinction of gender, race, language, religion or of
any other kind, should have the opportunity to develop to their full
potential.
26
Children, by reason of their physical and mental vulnerability, need
special safeguards and care.
Children living in especially difficult circumstances need special
consideration.
Parents and families (however defined) – men as well as women – have
the primary responsibility for the upbringing, development, and
education of their children.
Governments should establish a policy environment that enables
families and communities to fulfill their responsibilities of childrearing
and protection.
Importance of child care
There are several reasons why child care is important. Some of these
reasons are: it helps children to receive support and protection so that they do not
die; it enables children to be gradually made part of their culture and society; it
helps children transit smoothly from one stage of their development to another,
and so on. Evans and Myers (1994) stated that children are more than the object
of their parents’ attention and love; they are also a biological and social
necessity. The human species perpetuates itself through children, cultural,
religious and national groups transmit their values and traditions through
children; families maintain their lineage through children, and individuals pass
on their genetic and social heritage through children. The ultimate value of
children is the continuity of humanity.
27
It needs to be emphasized that child care is important not only for the
children being taken care of, but in a special way also for the entire society. This
is because when a child is well cared for and he/she grows/develops in an
environment of love and support, he/she turns out to be a good citizen who puts
back to the society what he/she had learnt from his/her care-givers. Evans, et al
(2000) presented the importance of child care in a table based on three items: (a)
who benefits from the care; (b) what changes result; and (c) nature of the
changes. Burchinal and Cryer (2003) also noted that other measures of the
importance of child care include the fact that, children, by being properly cared
for, are initiated into the culture of their society – thus they perpetuate the values
of the culture. The authors noted further that child care giving promotes equality
by providing a fair start to all children and child care giving is a vehicle for social
participation.
Patterns of Child care
Child care involves a set of practices/activities. In different cultures, these
practices are derived from cultural patterns, ideas of what should be done, and
ideas of what constitute the accepted practices or norms. The patterns and norms
themselves are based on beliefs about why one or another practice is better than
another (Lamb, 1998). The practices, patterns and beliefs affect the style and
quality of care-giving. For instance, the practice of constantly carrying a child
has a different effect on the development of that child than the practice of placing
the child in a cradle or playpen (UNICEF, 2000). Further, social and parental
beliefs that children are given by God, and therefore should be treated in a
28
particular way, have effects that are different from the belief that children are just
human creations.
The child-care patterns of a culture constitute the child care norms. They
include the generally accepted styles and types of care expected of care-givers in
responding to the needs of children in their early months and years (Clayton,
1994). The patterns define child care in a way that assures the survival,
maintenance and development of the group or culture as well as of the child.
There are patterns of behaviour surrounding specific times in a child’s life. For
example, there are expectations in terms of parental and community behaviour in
relation to a child’s birth. There are norms in relation to how a child is named.
There are expectations in terms of how an infant’s death is handled. There are
expectations in terms of how the child will learn to become a responsible
member of the society (UNICEF, 2000).
According to Burchinal and Cryer (2003), expectations are based on what
is believed as possible and workable. The authors report further that
communities, families, and child care-givers implement specific child care
practices which they believe will:
Ensure the survival and health of the child, including the development of
the child’s reproductive capacity to continue the lineage and society.
Develop the child’s capacity for economic self-maintenance at maturity, to
provide security for the elders and younger members of the society.
Ensure the survival of the social group by assuring that children
assimilate, embody and transmit appropriate social and cultural values to
their children.
29
As already indicated, there are various expectations of child care practices
in various cultures and based on income levels – what was termed “patterns of
child care”.
Quality child care
It is important to consider whether there are universally valid measures of
assessing what should pass as quality Child care. According to Burchinal and
Cryer (2003), child care quality is of “concern to parents and policy makers
because infants and preschoolers need responsive and stimulating interactions
with adults to enhance social, cognitive, and language development in early
childhood”. Burchinal and Cryer (2003) explained further that the practices, more
than quality, appear to be deeply embedded within value and belief systems that
rooted in ethnicity, community, and social class. The key element of practice
include in which activities the child engages, who participates, how the activities
are organized, and what are the goals. Very different types of practices can be
judged as high quality if those reflect sensitive and stimulating care giving.
There are three separate schools regarding child care quality and ethnic
and economic diversity: (a) those who see high quality care center-based child
care as a means to enhance development among children experiencing risk
factors such as low parental education, single parent homes, and poverty (Lamb,
1998); (b) those who question whether mainstream measures of quality are
relevant for children from diverse backgrounds; and (c) those who take a middle
ground: the dimensions assessed by child care quality measures are important for
all children, but those dimensions can be expressed very differently depending on
the child’s culture (Burchinal and Cryer, 2003).
30
Because of the interest of this study on child care-givers’ skills, it prefers
the last of the three schools above. This is because the care-givers’ skills are
supposed to lead to the same outcomes no matter the culture, ethnic group, or
income levels of the parents of the children. Another reason for preferring this
school is because, as earlier stated, this study sees child care not only from the
needs perspective, but from the perspective that the provision of care is the right
of children.
Rights of the Child
The convention on the rights of the child stands out as the most widely
ratified human rights instrument. Rights according to UNICEF (1995) have been
defined as natural dues, moral claims and legal entitlements of an individual. In
the view of Dorsen and Lieberman (2009), rights are used to imply that the state
has a positive role in ensuring all citizens have equal protection under law and
equal opportunity to exercise the privileges of citizenship regardless of race,
religion, sex, age and other characteristics of the individual. Rights are by their
nature universal and indivisible, they are applicable to all including children.
Child right is important because, children by nature are vulnerable, they depend
on adults for survival, growth and development and as long as they are children,
they need to be protected for steady growth development. Therefore, parents,
care-givers and all other stakeholders that are related to the child have
responsibility of upholding and respecting the rights of the child.
31
The child’s rights in Nigeria are clustered into four main domains namely:
survival rights, development rights, protection rights and participation rights
(NERDC/UNICEF, 2013).
1. Survival rights: These rights are very fundamental to all other rights. It
has positive obligations to ensure the child’s survival. There are other
relevant rights to the survival rights e.g right to health etc. It is the sole
responsibility of the care-givers to ensure that the rights of the child to a
good health is upheld and respected.
2. Development rights: Development rights of the child include providing
opportunities for the child to develop his/her potentials optimally. The
early stage of child development is a critical period wherein children
rapidly develop physically. Therefore, to ensure proper growth and
development of the child through obeying child development right, the
child need adequate care, nutrition, health and stimulation.
3. Protection rights: These rights protect the child from discrimination,
abuse and exploitation. It is imperative to note that some children suffer
abuse and neglects at home such as female genital mutilation, children
been used as hawkers, beggers, pushed to early marriage among others. If
the child right to protection is upheld and respected by al the stakeholders,
the conditions of the children will not remain the same.
4. Participation rights: These rights are grounded in the idea that every
human being has the right to share in the making of decisions which
affects his or her life. If adult want children to grow to be responsible
adult, then the opportunity to be involved in decision making should be
provided at very early stage of development.
32
Concept of Child Care-givers
Care-giving has evolved as jargon in the professional gerontological
literature, reflective of the fact that care-giver is a job title. The term is generally
used as a succinct description of the full range of the ways people attend to each
other. Applying the term and the above definition to children, Richter (2004) held
that the concept child care-giver denotes the people who look after infants and
young children. There is considerable controversy about the most accurate and
appropriate term by which to denote the wide variety of people involved in
regular child care. Some advocate the term parent or parenting to denote long-
term family care (UNICEF, 2000). The reasons for such position are that while
parenting embodies past and future perspectives and deep emotional involvement
in the rearing and socialization of a young child, the motives and activities of
people involved in professional care of children are short term.
Families vary in their needs and expectations. From time to time parents’
major concern about the choice of who to care for their children may be subject
to the parents’ consideration of several issues (religious, social, economic and
child development) that may affect them and their children in a setting. The
essence of these considerations, according to Anuna (2005), is that that the
pattern of child care provides the basis for adult personality and therefore has a
vital influence on public events and world history. Lamb (1999) noted three
dimensions of the aspects of care-giver’s behaviour that are especially influential.
These are: the warmth or hostility of the care-giver-child relationship
(acceptance-rejection, the control or autonomy of the disciplinary approach
33
(restrictiveness permissiveness) and the consistency that care-givers show in
using discipline. These behaviours are regarded as influential because they are
the best ways to respond to the needs of children effectively.
Concept of Skill
A skill is ability, coming from one’s knowledge, practice and aptitude to
do something well. It is a potential acquired by individuals through training
which is meant to ensure proficiency and competency in the performance of
occupational tasks. According to Molyneux (2012), the word skill is used in the
following ways:
(1) it can be used when talking about an activity; for example, swimming
and tennis;
(2) it is more frequently used to describe the actions or techniques used
within the activities; examples are: a chest pass and a handstand; and
(3) it is used to indicate the quality of a performance.
Skills are a well established habit of doing things by people. In the opinion
of Okorie (2000) to possess a skill is to demonstrate, acting, thinking and
behaving in a specific activity in such a way that the process becomes natural to
the individual through repetition or practice. Skill in the context of this study is
an organized sequence of actions and proficiency required by technician in
plastics production. Osuala (2004) see skills as ability to put into use acquired
competencies, attitudes and behaviours after an exposure to theories and
practices inherent in a field of study. In Nigeria, what is required today and
tomorrow are workers with good technological skill background, rugged enough
34
to transform this country into a positive technological breakthrough with the
ability to meet its immediate demand as opined by Uwaifo (2009).
Obanya (2003) defined skill as versatility in knowledge, the capacity to
communicate and appreciate the views and feelings of others, ability to adopt to
novel situations, creatively, team spirit, literacy in its comprehensive dimension,
fluency in information and communication technology and the capacity to
embrace learning as a way of life.
Based on the third classification, an action performed well results from
some skills possessed by the performer. In this context the performer may be
referred to as ‘skilled’ or ‘skilful’. Knapp in Molyneux (2012) defined skill as the
learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with the maximum certainty
often with minimum outlay of time or energy or both. This means that a skilful
performer is someone who has the ability to make an accurate analysis of the
demands of a situation and decide the most appropriate way to deal with it. The
action will be carried out at the right moment (timing) and will be well controlled
with the performer being fully aware of the intended outcome of the selected
skill. A skilful performance in any activity is characterised by the following:
The performer appears to be in complete control of their actions
Actions are refined and precise
The actions seem effortless energy is not wasted
Even complicated actions appear simple
The performer has a large repertoire of skills
Skills can be linked into complex combinations
35
The correct action is always selected for the situation
The action is applied at the correct time
Actions are adapted with flair and creativity
The performer always seems to have a lot of time to execute the action
The performer can carry out skills automatically without having to think
them through
There is a high success rate of the outcome of their actions (Molyneux
2012)
According to CareersPortal (2010), there are three groups of skills,
namely: (a) people skills, (b) task skills, and (c) personal skills. People skills
include skills like: sensitivity to others, insight into others, openness to others,
respect, active listening, and so on. Task skills include skills like:
planning/organizing, time management, practical skills, problem solving (with
subsets like-showing interest in finding the cause of problems, looking for and
choosing effective solutions and taking the necessary action to resolve them), and
customer focus, among others. Personal skills include skills like: learning skills,
adaptability, goal setting, initiative, independence, motivation, dependability and
professionalism (CareersPortal, 2010).
Child Care Skill Needs of Pre-primary School Care-givers
Child care skills are societies’ way of shaping children into the kinds of
adults the society wants. It is the art of caring for the child that differs from
culture to culture. Generally, it refers to the interaction between the care-givers
36
and their children which involves the care-giver’s expression of attitudes, values,
interest, beliefs as well as the care taking and training behaviour. It involves
numerous skills and is of immense importance to every individual family that
aims at raising healthy children.
Thus, child care skills are different potentialities and abilities which child
care-givers need to possess, through training, to ensure proficiency and
competency in the performance of their task of caring for children as they grow
and develop. Since there are several things required to be done in the process of
caring for the child as he develops, it means that child care-givers need various
child care skills to be able to be proficient, competent, and achieve the best they
desire in the children they care for. Hence, Clayton (1994) stated that while
playing with children and encouraging them to learn can be a rewarding
experience, yet, it can be more enjoyable if the care-giver has good care giving
skills.
Care-giving skills can be learned informally by watching parents, taking
children’s development class and reading other books on the topic. According to
Clayton (1994), the more one knows about children, the more comfortable he/she
would be with them. One will find that the way the children are handled affects
the way they behave and their friendliness toward the care-giver and indeed other
people. Care-givers who handle children well to be able to meet their needs are
said to possess some skills. They are regarded as skilled care-givers. They are
regarded as capable in their tasks. Ashiabi (2000) noted that child care-givers can
achieve better outcomes in caring for children and promoting their emotional
37
development by using such strategies as: (a) acknowledgment of time; (b)
feelings time; (c) affection activities; emotional management techniques; and (d)
social problem-solving.
Creating acknowledgement time, care-givers enable children to learn to
show their appreciation and regard for others. By means of feelings time care-
givers enable children to develop emotionally by talking about the causes of their
emotions, what they do when they experience those emotions, how they think
they can make those feelings go away, and what they think another child might
do (Ashiabi, 2000). These are examples of how a care-giver can apply skills to
get the best out of the process of responding to the needs of children, enhance
their development, and plan the future of the society. Based on the details above
and for the purpose of this study, the following are the skills useful for child care-
givers: (a) Feeding skills, (b) Clothing skills, (c) Toileting skills, (d) Interacting
skills, (e) Safety skills, and (f) Hygiene skills.
(a) Feeding skills needed by Child care-givers
Proper feeding of children under care is both necessary and difficult. It is
necessary for their continuous growth. It is however difficult because the children
cannot communicate verbally, it requires a lot of skills on the part of the care-
giver to know what each child needs each time. Because of this, Idaho (2009)
noted that healthy feeding of the child can be challenging. For this reason, it
requires a set of skills which the care-givers need to possess. Part of these skills
include: proper positioning of the child to enable them get food to their mouths,
38
swallow and/or chew. For instance, a child in the proper eating position might
look like this:
Head is upright and slightly forward.
Body is upright.
Arms are forward (resting comfortably on a high chair tray or table, if
applicable).
Hips and knees are bent to a sitting position (with the aid of a seat belt or
non-slip seating material, as needed).
Feet are resting flat on a firm surface.
The person offering the food is facing the child at the child's eye level
(Idaho, 2009).
Choice of food types and texture: Providing young children with foods
they can chew and swallow will help them achieve that success. Most foods can
be altered in texture to support a child's abilities. Foods first can be offered in
pureed form, then mashed, ground or chopped, and finally cut in bite-size pieces
when a child is able to eat regular table foods. However, while it is important to
adapt foods to the child's abilities, children also need to be challenged (UNICEF,
2000). Children learn new skills by practicing them. If a child can chew foods but
is only given pureed or mashed foods, he or she cannot learn new feeding skills.
Changing Nutrition needs: Most dieticians and pediatricians recommend
starting solid foods between four and six months of age, when infants are
showing signs of developmental readiness (e.g., good head control, reduced
tongue thrusting) and are consuming up to 26 or more ounces of breastmilk or
39
formula per day. Clayton (2000) stated that there should be gradual shifts
between grains, vegetables, fruits (for vitamins, calcium and iron) and other
foods that provide protein. It is a mark of a skilled care-giver to know also that
babies need fats and in fact to know the dietary need of children of different ages
under his/her care.
Knowing how much is enough: This depends on each child’s appetite
which is determined by health, activity level, and rate of growth. However, a
skilled care-giver needs to know that on average, a child should consume enough
food to maintain a normal rate of weight gain. This attention to each child’s
appetite is necessary to avoid over-feeding or under-feeding (UNICEF, 2000). It
is therefore required of a good child care-giver to know for instance what a child
means when he/she removes his face away from food.
Teaching the children self-feeding skills: The knowledge of when to
begin to teach the children how to feed themselves is also a very important aspect
of skills needed by care-givers. According to Idaho (2009), helping them develop
good feeding skills and obtain adequate nutrition is very important for their
quality of life. Feeding skills for most children progress through several
developmental steps, from sucking through being spoon-fed soft foods, to
chewing solid foods they feed themselves. This process depends on a number of
factors, including natural reflexes, development of oral, fine and gross motor
skills, and the foods and environment in which foods are presented.
For care-givers to help children learn good feeding skills, it is important to
understand and in fact possess the knowledge that each child develops at a
40
different pace and children with special needs are no exception. Idaho (2009)
observed that the rate of development may differ from other children at the same
chronological age. That is, a two-year-old with oral motor skills may not be
ready for the same kinds of food as another two-year-old. Care-givers that
understand a child's developmental stage will be able to match the child's food
needs with their feeding skills.
(a) Clothing skills needed by Child care-givers
Clothing and dressing play important roles in children’s learning and
development. The clothing children wear while in care influences the quality of
their experiences as clothes can affect their health, safety, comfort, play and
learning. According to Stonehouse (2008), strategies to support positive
outcomes for children include:
Discuss clothing with children: Talk about tastes and preferences in
clothing and fashion with children. Even very young children can have a keen
interest in what they and others wear. As children become older they often also
become interested in clothing that shows favourite characters. Many school aged
children, and even some younger children, are conscious of labels and fashions
(Clayton, 2000). When discussing clothing with children, adults should avoid
sending children the message that they are being ‘judged’ either positively or
negatively by what they wear.
Model appropriate dress: For example, adults should wear hats and sun
safe clothing while outside. They should wear clothes and shoes that are safe, and
that allow them to comfortably and easily interact with and care for children.
41
Make the selection of clothes and dressing a pleasant experience: When
children become interested in dressing and undressing themselves, care-givers
should give as little help as is needed for the child to continue. For younger
children, this may mean using strategies such as pulling a sock partially off and
asking the child to take it off the rest of the way (Stonehouse, 2008). Meanwhile,
some issues that child care professionals need to consider with regard to clothing
skills include:
Temperature: It is important that children are not over or under dressed,
and that clothing suits the temperature. The smaller the child the more easily they
can become chilled or overheated. Natural fibers such as cotton are generally
cooler than acrylic fabrics (Carruth and Skinner, 2002). Babies and younger
toddlers should be dressed warmly for sleep, and children should be checked
regularly to see that they are covered if they are not dressed warmly enough to
sleep comfortably without covers.
Footwear: Safe, comfortable footwear that fits well is essential. Shoes
must provide support as well as protection for the feet. Shoes that give little
protection or support or that have raised heels or soles can cause accidents.
Sun protection: Children need protection from the sun. Tightly woven
fabrics such as t-shirt material, long sleeves and long trousers offer good
protection (Carruth and Skinner, 2002).
Clothing types and accessories: It is important that the design and fit of
clothes and accessories, including those for dressing up play, are safe. For
example, long hems can put children at risk of tripping. The younger the child,
42
the more carefully clothing safety hazards need to be considered (Stonehouse,
2008).
Clothing fabrics: Children can be very sensitive to scratchy fabrics, and
some may have an allergic reaction to some treatments on clothes, including
particular detergents. All clothes that children wear, especially those for sleeping,
must be low fire danger.
Dressing children to support their play and learning: Clothes that fit
properly, without being too loose or tight, allow children to move freely and
comfortably and participate freely in experiences. For girls, dresses and skirts
may interfere with their participation in physical activities. According Cobb
(2001) wearing trousers or shorts may allow for free movement and reduce
children’s self-consciousness, particularly for older children.
The clothes children wear can significantly affect the development of their
self-help skills. For example, trousers that fit loosely and have an elastic waist
are easier for young children to pull down and up than ones with zips and studs.
Child care professionals can encourage and support families to provide children
with clothes that will help them to manage some dressing and toileting tasks
independently (Ejieh, 2006). Besides, children often pick up adults’ messages
that certain clothes, shoes or accessories are ‘special’ and must be taken very
good care of. A child who comes to Child care wearing something special may
be reluctant to take part in experiences for fear of damaging their clothing.
Respect for children: All practices in Child care, including clothing
policies and procedures, need to convey respect for children and an appreciation
43
of their individuality. Clayton (2000) observed that the younger the child, the
more control adults usually have over their clothing. However, even very young
children should have opportunities to make choices. To give children these
opportunities, adults need to decide what genuinely matters. For example, issues
related to health, safety and the child’s play and learning are important, whereas
fashion, aesthetics, and sometimes even convention are usually not of great
importance to what young children wear (Ejieh, 2006).
Respect for families: Respect is important in addressing issues about
clothing with families. Sometimes there are differences in the views of child care
professionals and families about appropriate clothing for children in care, and
being respectful and understanding of families’ choices is essential. Stonehouse
(2008) noted that children often come to child care in clothes that may be
considered to be ‘too good’ for care, and these children may be reluctant to
participate in experiences because of what they are wearing, or their clothes may
interfere with their play. Some services may feel that the best solution is to
change the child into spare clothes from the service, and to change the child into
his or her own clothes before they are collected (UNICEF, 2000).
If the child is worried that his or her clothes will be soiled or damaged, try
to work out a solution that respects the precious item, respects the family’s
choice of clothing and allows the child to participate in a range of experiences. It
requires skill on the part of the care-givers to avoid criticizing or judging families
(Evans and Myers, 1994). They may dress their child in their ‘good’ clothes to
demonstrate to you or to other families that they care about their child or that
44
they are doing well financially. They may send the child in good clothes out of
respect for the service, much in the same way that people dress up for a special
occasion.
Alternatively, some families may not have the resources for their child to
have a variety of suitable clothes, or they may not always have access to a
washing machine. Ejieh (2006) observed that children who are dressed in too
many or too few clothes may come from families who are adjusting to a new
climate, or from families who have particular cultural traditions regarding
clothing. There may be a range of cultural and religious issues related to dress
that Child care professionals need to be aware of, although it is important that
Child care professionals avoid making assumptions about families based on
cultural background or religion.
Communicating with families: Effective communication with families is
central to promoting positive outcomes for children. Anuna (2005) stated that
services should ensure that families are provided with information about the
service’s clothing policy and procedures, using strategies such as enrolment and
orientation processes, notice boards, notes and newsletters, e-mails and the
service handbook. Services may find it helpful to provide families with gentle
reminders as the seasons change about appropriate clothing for children. The
report of UNICEF (2000) showed that when differences arise between families
and child care professionals about any aspect of a child’s care, there needs to be
discussion with families. Honest, respectful, two-way communication can help
families and child care professionals learn about each other’s perspective, and
45
can increase the knowledge and understanding of each party. Stonehouse (2008)
stated that as with all communication with families, whether written or verbal,
aim to ensure that it: is friendly and non-judgmental; conveys a sense of shared
responsibility and working together; and is clear.
(b) Toileting skills needed by Child care-givers
With regard to toilet skills needed by care-givers, it is not in doubt that
this affects the cleanliness and eventual healthy living of both the care-giver and
the children in the pre-school. Potty Training Concepts (2008), refers to toileting
as ‘potty’. It was observed that many pre-schools require that children be potty
trained before entering their programs. In child-care centres, some children are
not allowed to move into a classroom for preschool-aged children until they are
using the toilet by themselves. Schools cite health concerns regarding wiping
children. They may say that teachers are not trained or do not have the time to
change diapers. They may even say that a child who is not toilet trained is not
mature enough for their program. In fact, private schools can accept or refuse any
child based on how well the school thinks the child will do there, and how well
the school can provide for that child's needs.
In cases where children who have not learnt to use the toilet are admitted
to the school, the care-givers need to possess some toileting skills to be able to be
of good help to the children. In such cases as one may expect in pre-primary
schools in a country like ours, St. Peters Childcare (2010) suggests that one of the
major skills a care-giver needs to possess is the knowledge of what to expect
from each child depending on the children’s ages. However, a child care-giver
46
should have the skill to know when to change nappies and pull-ups, and to do
these regularly at least four times a day) according to the daily schedule.
If a child has soiled him or herself, the nappy will be changed immediately
using wet wipes or if extremely soiled will be washed in tub; no child is to be left
unattended on the changing table; they should know how to use disposable
gloves for each soiled nappy that is changed; the soiled nappies should be
neatly/carefully put in the designated nappy bin; the surface of the changing mat
on the changing table should be skillfully disinfected with diluted bleach after
each use, and nappy change routines should involve positive interactions with the
child (Anuna, 2005). This will help create happy nappy times. It implies also that
patience and love are skills required of a care-giver. Besides, children need to be
supervised during toileting times.
Children still in toilet training need to be encouraged to wear pull-ups and
be provided with changes of clothing in case of accident. They need to be taught
appropriate hygiene skills; be encouraged to develop independent toileting skills,
and finally, they need to be treated with dignity and respect at all times. Still on
the question of age as a skill needed by child care-givers, Pennsylvania State
University (2010) noted that the expectations of the care-giver from the children
determine his attitude towards the children doing toileting.
It is therefore a skill needed by care-givers to be knowledgeable about the
difference between what toilet skills children can develop at different ages. It
recommends that the following age descriptions show care-givers should expect
from the children at each age: 15 - 24 months: child learns to unzip large
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zippers. 24 - 30 months: can pull pants down with assistance; is beginning to
unbutton large buttons; anticipates the need to use the toilet; still needs help
getting pullover shirts over head and pants up over bottom. 30 - 36 months: puts
on items such as shoes, socks, pants, shirts, and jackets; pulls pants up; undresses
and dresses with adult help. 3 - 4 years: uses toilet with adult help; has daytime
toilet control; still needs adult help with dressing; buttons large buttons. 4 years:
buckles shoes and belts and 5 years: put shirts on correctly and puts belt in loops.
Oswalt (2008) adds to this by noting that in theory, children could be ready for
toilet training as early as age 2, because most babies of this age recognize the
urge to urinate or defecate and can control the sphincter muscles that facilitate
waste elimination. Before this point, infants are simply unable to physiologically
monitor and to control waste removal from their bodies. In other words, very
young babies and toddlers can't tell that they have to "go" before it's too late
(they already went), and they are unable to control whether or not they "go". She
emphasized that practicing patience is important on the part of care-givers.
(d) Interacting Skills needed by Child care-givers
The basic thing about interaction is that it involves the communication
among those in the interactive process. Interaction is the sharing of feelings and
ideas. This process may be effective or ineffective. Only those who are skilled
can succeed in making their interaction with others to be effective. According to
DeLuca (2008), effective communication involves four major things: (1) dealing
with feelings, (2) active listening, (3) assertive communication, and (4)
acceptance.
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DeLuca (2008) explained that those who are skillful in human interactions
understand the basics of such interactions. It is the understanding and skillful
application of these basics or major features of communication, that make
interactions to be effective. Those who are skilled in their interaction with others
have realized that their feelings are forms of energy, and that these feelings are
not to be suppressed but expressed and properly channeled. Besides, those who
are skilled in human interaction also possess the art of good listening. According
to Anuna (2005), this skill makes the one who possesses it to be firm yet, without
attacking or belittling others in the process of interaction. It also means being
clear about how one feels and/or what one wants.
In the case of children and their care-givers, communication or interaction
is between the care-giver and the children, and between the care-giver and the
children’s parents. To be effective in communicating with these two groups (the
children and their parents), some skills are required. When such skills are
possessed by the care-giver, the type of care he/she gives to the children is
regarded as ‘quality care’ (Boschee and Jacobs, 1998). A care-giver who is
skilled in interaction ensures that parents of the children are informed, on a
regular basis and at the right time, what happens in the day to day occurrences in
the lives of the children. Skilled care-givers are those whose interactions with the
children and their parents are responsive, accepting, and informative. Such type
of responsive interaction also enhances the happiness that the children exhibit in
the care centre. Responsive forms of interaction on the part of the child care-
49
givers have the capability of promoting trust, autonomy, and a true sense of
happiness and well being on the part of the children (Anuna, 2005).
To highlight the importance of the care-giver-child interaction, the World
Health Organization (WHO, 2004) noted that caring interactions promote the
health and development of children. Early care-giver-child interactions play a
profound role in the development of self-regulation, cognitive development,
language acquisition, and socio-emotional adjustment (UNICEF, 2000).
Therefore, care-givers who possess caregiving interacting skills are consistent in
interacting with children with “sensitivity and responsiveness. This is because,
sensitivity and responsiveness in the care-giver-child interaction are the basic
qualities or skills that determine the effectiveness of care giving. The formation
of an ongoing, warm relationship is as crucial to the child’s survival and healthy
development as the provision of food, child care, stimulation and discipline.
Thus, the early interactions and relationships with care-givers exert a strong
effect on the survival and healthy development of young children (WHO, 2004).
Furthermore, it is also the case that care-givers who have interactive skills
simplify and personalize children’s experiences so that these experiences occur in
forms that the children, at their age and level of development, are able to learn
from them. For this reason, long before the child is able to speak, skilled care-
givers attribute meaning to their utterances, gestures and actions, and respond to
these utterances and actions accordingly. Skilled as they are, they can engage
children in rounds of smiling, looking at one another and alternating their
communicative signals in a dialogue.
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Specifically, the Basic Skills Agency (2012) noted that some of the
specific interactive skills needed by child care-givers include: (a) listening
carefully to both the children and their parents; (b) asking sensible questions to
clarify situations (for example, from parents handing over their children, or from
children about their ideas and feelings); (c) giving clear explanations and
instructions (for example to children about play and development activities, and
to parents about their children’s behavior or planned activities); (d) speaking with
clear and pleasant voice when reading or storytelling to children; (e) using a
friendly and positive tone of voice and body language to establish and maintain
good relationships (for example, with children arriving at the centre, with parents
collecting or leaving their children, with children during activities, or when
managing behavior).
According to Cleary, Wetherby, Goldstein and Abbott (1999), the above
list of skills show that care-givers make use of different interaction styles. Some
make use of floor holding behaviours resulting in unbalanced turn taking in their
interaction with children. People who use this style also use more imperatives,
frequently demanding actions from their children. The other style is one in which
the care-givers and the children exhibit more balanced turn taking in their
interactions. The care-givers who employ this style make use of declaratives and
questions to enable the children take their turn in the process of interaction
(Cleary, Wetherby, Goldstein and Abbott, 1999). Of the two styles mentioned
above, the balanced turn taking is a better interactive style. It enhances the
development of children, and, skilled care-givers make use of this style.
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In the view of Cleary, et al (1999), some other interactive skills can be
outlined thus:
Being clear and specific when communicating with children and their
parents;
Recognizing the rights and feelings of children and their parents. The
care-giver should not say something that will intentionally hurt them;
Children want someone who can listen to them to express their feelings. A
skilled care-giver knows this and makes good use of this knowledge by
being a good listener;
Using body language to improve communication and interaction with
children – this includes non-verbal cues and gestures;
Encouraging the children and being reassuring when they need help;
Not attempting to complete children’s thoughts or sentences when they are
interacting with them;
Using a tone of voice which suits the situation/conversation;
Waiting for responses to questions;
Acknowledging the feelings of children;
Listening to the level of language each of the children is able to
communicate with, and respond at the same level;
In line with the above ideas, WHO (2004) is of the view that some of the
features of supportive and facilitative care-giver-child interactions guided by
skilled care-givers are: sensitivity and responsiveness, interactional synchrony,
contingency and social referencing. The attention of children increases or
decreases, depending on the mood, attention, and affection from their care-givers.
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Children are more at home with skilled care-givers who are emotionally
available, and who interact with them in supportive and encouraging manners.
Care-givers who possess interactive skills like sensitivity and responsiveness
possess such characteristics as: (a) they are aware of children’s signals; (b) they
always have accurate interpretation of children’s signals; (c) they have
appropriate response to children’s communications and forms of interaction; (d)
they are prompt in their response to the children under their care (WHO, 2004).
According to Cleary, et al (1999) the responsiveness is frequently operationalized
in experimental and observational studies as either the proportion of infant bids
to which the care-giver responds or as a probability statement of the contingency
of the care-giver’s response to infant behaviours (WHO, 2004).
It needs to be recalled that actions are usually more meaningful than
words. For this reason, interaction with children needs to be such that the care-
giver shows the children how to accomplish tasks. Children also learn from such
assistance, and they try to do some things by themselves. While they try to do
these things, care need to be taken to ensure that they are safe.
(e) Safety Skills needed by Child care-givers
Generally children are curious. They try to do many things by themselves
especially because they are not aware of all the hazards that may go with
experimentation. The only way to protect them and keep them safe from
unnecessary and avoidable harm is by providing a safe environment. According
to The Charity Commission for England and Wales (2009), to keep safe means to
protect. In the case of children, it is the duty of their care-givers to safeguard
53
them, that is, protect them and prevent occasions of accidents and possible
injuries. Draper and Draper (1975) made some distinctions between
‘safeguarding children’ and ‘overprotecting them’. According to them, during the
critical early years of every child, they need to be protected from accidents while
they learn to protect themselves. They need to be protected, although not
overprotected. They need to be allowed the opportunities of exploring their
environment and moving about. With careful guide, they will gradually become
aware of dangers and learn to function safely and protect themselves. However, if
they are overprotected, they will be made to be too afraid that they cannot
explore their environment. Consequently, children’s learning process and
abilities may be impaired
Child care-givers are responsible for helping children learn how to satisfy
normal and healthy needs in the safest possible ways. Care-givers therefore need
to provide children the opportunities of knowing what they can do as well as
what they cannot do (UNICEF, 2000). Experiences like these guide children in
developing ideas about safety in their environment. Remembering also that
children learn by copying the behaviours of others and absorbing adult attitudes,
children will try nearly anything they see others do – stand on the chairs, and
drink liquids, to mention only a few. This makes the job more challenging for the
care-givers. These require that care-givers supervise all the children’s activities.
To guide children and ensure they are safe, care-givers need to skillfully show
them how to walk up or down the stairs holding on the handrails, walking instead
of running indoors, and holding on adults’ hands while walking in traffic or on
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busy sidewalks. Very importantly, care-givers need to skillfully plan ahead for
safety.
Planning for the children’s safety involves such skills as knowing what to
expect for majority of children within particular age ranges. This is because
certain accidents occur more frequently at one stage of a child’s development
than others. The more care-givers know about how children grow and what to
expect at each stage, the better they will be able to provide safe and healthy
environment, and also foresee and prevent potential accident situations. In line
with this view, Clayton (2000) outlined some of the safety needs of children of
different ages, and the specific type of cares and skills the care-giver needs to be
able to keep them safe. Care-givers who have the necessary safety skills take note
of events and situations that are likely to cause accidents. Some of such events
and situations according to Cleary, et al (1999) include: (a) the staff members and
parents do not understand what to expect at particular stages of a child’s
development; (b) a child is in the care of persons not familiar with the routines
and activities of children; (c) a child is hungry, tired, angry, or confused; (d) few
safe areas are available for play; (e) hazards are present; (f) adults have little
concern for close supervision of children’s activities and freedom of movement;
(g) care-givers are not prepared to cope with or manage the activities of young
children because of lack of knowledge of rules and safety procedures; (h) care-
givers are unhappy with their work or have conflicts with each other, and so on.
On the basis of the above, outlined what they regarded as ‘Rules of Safety’. They
include that:
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An adult should be alert and present with children at all times: Children
must not be left alone unsupervised.
Children must remain at the center until the parents or responsible
persons come for them.
Outdoor play areas must be fenced.
All areas should be checked daily for harmful objects such as bottles,
cans, waste paper, or other litter.
Each care-giver and staff working at the centre should be familiar with
the fire escape routes and routines for evacuating the building.
Floor areas must be kept free of litter and scattered toys which block or
obstruct traffic lanes and play areas.
Spilled water, other liquids, and food should be wiped up immediately to
prevent slippery spots on the floor.
Harmful supplies, such as medicines, cleaning agents, and insecticides,
should be locked in cabinets or stored in containers out of the children’s
reach.
Electrical outlets must be covered with safety latches or dummy plugs
(Cleary, et al, 1999).
(f) Hygiene Skills needed by Child care-givers
With regard to the hygiene skill needs of child care-givers, it is important
first of all to understand what the term ‘hygiene’ means. Calder (2012) defined
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hygiene based on the distinction between good hygiene and poor hygiene.
According to the author, poor hygiene means that children are not bathed, always
look messy, and have behaviours that spread disease. On the other hand, good
hygiene is more than just looking neat and clean, it can also reduce the spread of
disease. Hygiene status of an individual affects the health and well-being of
children as well as the people with whom they spend their day (Calder, 2012).
In the view of Tansey (2009), there are certain importance of hygiene
skills for child care-givers. Good hygiene in child care services is essential for
reducing the risk of cross infection between children and adults and help children
to develop hygiene habits that they will use throughout their lives. According to
the author, without the appropriate hygiene skills by child care-givers, infection
can easily spread through direct physical contact between or through airborne
droplets from coughing and sneezing or from contact with surfaces and objects.
Tansey (2009) noted that it is not a surprise that children in child care come into
contact with many other children and adults, and with toys, furniture, food and
eating utensils. This high degree of physical contact with people and the
environment creates a risk that children will be exposed to and spread infectious
illnesses. While it is not possible for services to prevent the spread of all
infections, they should be working to create a hygienic environment to minimize
the spread of disease.
In the views of Calder (2012), some of the major areas which a skilled
care-giver pays attention to with regard to the children under his/her care are: (a)
handwashing; (b) noseblowing, coughing and sneezing; (c) hair; (d) nails; (e)
57
toys; (f) clothes; (g) oral hygiene; and (h) bathing. Tansey (2009) confirmed the
above list by noting that the basic hygiene practices that form the focus of skilled
care-givers include: (a) correct hand washing; (b) dental care; (c) hygienic nose
blowing, coughing and sneezing; and (d) safe food handling and eating. Besides,
skilled care-givers also exhibit their skills by regularly and respectfully
reminding children about when to wash their hands such as before and after
meals, and after messy activities, after going to the toilet and after wiping their
nose.
The schematic representation of the conceptual framework for the study is
diagrammatically presented in Figure 2 below with the structural linkages of the
major concepts in the study. It shows the relationship between the pre-primary
school care-giver and the skills needed to take care of the child for proper growth
and development of the child.
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The care for children is the primary responsibility of the care-givers. The
care-givers, in caring for the child take into consideration the characteristics of
the child and basic needs of the child. For the care-givers in pre-primary schools
to effectively carry out their responsibilities of caring for the child, certain skills
are required. These skills include: child feeding, clothing, toilet training, hygiene,
interaction and safety skills for optimal growth and development of the child.
Theoretical Framework
The theories upon which this study is anchored are social-cognitive
development theory, evolution and ethology theories and attachment theory. It is
important to remark that the choice of these theories is based on the distinction
HygieneToiletingClothingFeeding Interaction Safety
UPTIMAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT
SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS
CARE FOR THE CHILDREN
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILD
NEEDS OF THE CHILD
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of the StudySource: The Researcher
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between the nature of children/human beings, and the influence of nurture on the
development of children/human beings. Slater, et al (2003) stated that human
beings are products of the interaction of the two broad factors of nature-
inheritance or genetic factors-and nature-environmental influences. For example,
it is argued that humans are genetically predisposed to acquire language, but
which language we acquire is determined by the language we hear and learn. It is
important to note that without both factors no development could occur.
Vygotsky (1929) supported this distinction by stating that we must,
therefore, distinguish the main lines in the development of the child’s behaviour.
First, there is the line of natural development of behaviour which is closely
bound up with the processes of general organic growth and the maturation of the
child. Second, there is the line of cultural improvement of the psychological
functions, the working out of new methods of reasoning, the mastering of the
cultural methods of behaviour. According to Berger (2005), nature refers to the
influence of the genes that each person inherits from his or her parents at the
moment of conception while nurture refers to all the environmental influences
that come into play after conception, beginning with the mother’s health during
pregnancy and including all the individual’s experiences in the outside world-all
that the environment contains.
To reduce the possible confusion about which (nature or nurture) has the
greatest influence in the development of the child, Vygotsky (1994) added that
“usually the two lines of psychological development (the natural and the cultural)
merge into each other in such a way that it is difficult to distinguish them and
60
follow the course of each of them separately”. In fact, “cultural development
does not create anything over and above that which potentially exists in the
natural development in the child’s behaviour. Culture, generally speaking, does
not produce anything new apart from that which is given by nature. But it
transforms nature to suit the ends of man”.
From the above distinctions, and relating it with what has been done so far
regarding this study, it is clear that the interest of this study is more on the
nurturing of the child than on the nature of the child-even though the nature as a
human being is what makes nurturing possible. This is because child caregiving
necessarily implies nurturing the child. This is why the above two theories
(social-cognitive development theories, and evolution and ethology theories)
were preferred for the theoretical framework of this study because they are
theories that consider the child as a being that needs to be nurtured to be able to
develop optimally.
Social-cognitive development theories
The theory of social-cognitive development theory was propounded by
Vygotsky (1978). This class of theories lays emphasis on the influence of the
society (namely the environment, adults, culture, and so on) on the development
of the child. They emphasize the important role of the child’s interaction with his
or her community-the social environment-in the child’s learning process and
development. For this reason, this class of theories gives the greatest attention to
behaviors. Hence, behaviorism is associated with this class of theories.
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Berger (2005) referred to ‘behaviourism’ as a grand theory. In her
account, behaviourism arose in direct opposition to the psychoanalytic emphasis
on unconscious, hidden urges. The reason was this: John B. Watson (the earliest
founder of behaviourism) thought it better that psychologists limit themselves to
things that can be observed, and formulate laws concerning only those things.
Because of this confidence in the role of behaviour in child development, Berger
(2005) quoted Watson as saying. That was the birth of behaviourism defined as a
theory of human development that focuses on the sequence and processes by
which behavior is learned (Berger 2005). Based on the above clarifications, three
theorists whose views contribute in providing the framework for this study are:
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Burrhus Frederic Skinner, and Albert Bandura.
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist regarded by Slater, et al (2003)
one of the first to recognize the importance of knowledgeable adults in the
child’s environment. For him, the development of the intellectual abilities is
influenced by didactic relationship (one based on instructive dialogue) with more
advanced individuals. Thus, a major theme in Vygotsky’s theories is that social
interaction plays a fundamental role in cognitive development.
Riddle (2000) noted that Vygotsky believed that the life long process that
defines human development was dependent on social interaction and that social
learning actually leads to cognitive development. Learning occurs within what is
called the Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky (1978) describes this zone
as "the distance between the actual development level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
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determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers. In other words, a student can perform a task under adult
guidance or with peer collaboration that could not be achieved alone. The Zone
of Proximal Development bridges that gap between what is known and what can
be known. Berger (2005) provides a further explanation about this zone when she
wrote that: for learning to occur, a teacher (who can be a parent or peer as well as
professional) draws the learner into his or her zone of proximal development, the
skills that the learner can master with assistance but cannot yet perform
independently. Through sensitive assessment of the learner’s ability and capacity
for growth, the teacher engages the student’s participation, guiding the transition
from assisted performance to independent achievement.
Figure 3 below shows a diagrammatic presentation of Vygotsky’s idea of
zone of proximal development. The figure shows that there is always a
distinction between what a learner already knows, what he could understand, and
what he is not yet ready or able to understand. Despite these differences, the
figure below shows a striking element which is at the centre of this aspect of
socio-cultural development theory stressed by Vygotsky. This element is: the
importance of guidance/a guide in helping the child as a learner in all three stages
about what he already knows, what he is ready to learn, and what he is not yet
ready to learn.
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In the final analysis, Riddle (2000) noted that Vygotsky’s point of focus
was on the connections between people and the cultural context in which they act
and interact in shared experiences. It is this focus of Vygotsky that kept him
within the framework of behaviourism where also Skinner contributed.
Burrhus Skinner’s contributions on the influence of the environment,
especially adults, in the development of the child are always discussed under
behaviorism. Behaviorism, as already highlighted, is a sub-theme in social-
cognitive theories which holds that the child’s behaviors are always determined
by the environment – in fact, by the behaviors of the adults in the child’s
immediate environment.
Figure 3: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (Adapted from Berger 2005)
What the learner is not yet ready or able to learn (don’t teach; too difficult)
Zone of Proximal Development
What the learner could understand with guidance
(do teach; exciting, challenging)
What the learner already knows
(don’t teach; too boring)
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It is from this perspective of the influence of the environment on the
child’s development that Skinner contributed to the development of the socio-
cognitive theory. Skinner saw the growing child as having active roles to play in
his or her development. Unlike the passivity with which children are described
by Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Skinner’s Operant conditioning holds that
children have active roles to play – they operate (that is, emit behaviors) on their
environments even as their environment dominates their development. This
domination by the environment is evident in the possibility of the
adults/environment manipulating the reinforcement that the child receives for
each behavior emitted. Thus, skinner argued that the child’s behavior can be
modeled by the use of rewards and punishment, and “behaviorism continues to
be used in the control of behavior (Slater, et al, 2003).
The third theorist that emphasized the influence of the environment in the
development of the child was Albert Bandura. Bandura was a psychologist at
Stanford University. According to Cobb (2001), Bandura stressed ‘the social
nature of learning’ with emphasis on his approach which he termed ‘socio-
cognitive theory’. Bandura believes that most human learning is observational
learning, not conditioning, and occurs by observing what others do and imitating
what one sees (Cobb, 2001). Presenting Bandura’s theory, Slater et al (2003)
added that Bandura’s behaviourism was less mechanistic than that of Skinner.
His approach was initially named sociobehaviorism, then social cognitive theory,
and finally social learning theory.
The core of Bandura’s theory is that from his experiments, he came to the
conclusion that from series of observations, imitations and modeling, the child
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mentally assumes the role of the observed person based on perceived
reinforcement. Hence, the adults and others in the child’s life provide models for
the child, and learning by imitation is extremely common in all areas of social
and cognitive development.
This theory emphasize two things which include (a) the child as a being
that needs to be nurtured to enhance his natural potentials and (b) the care-giver
as a very important agent in the environment on which the child leans for
support, care, protection, direction, modeling, and development. These are the
two primary reasons why this theory is considered relevant for this study.
Evolution and ethology theories
Theory of evolution was postulated by British naturalist Charles Darwin.
In his book on the origin of species by means of natural selection, published in
1859, Darwin described the evolution of life as a process of natural selection.
This theory as the name implies, have their basis in Charles Darwin’s theory of
evolution which focuses on the important role of genes as necessary units in
evolution. Evolutionary theories of child development which emphasize the
genetic basis of many behaviors, and point to the adaptive and survival value of
these behaviors, are known as ethological approaches. According to Slater, et al
(2003), these approaches hold that certain behaviors in the young of many
species would be genetic in origin because they (1) promote survival and (2) are
found in many species, including humans. One such behavior is imprinting,
which refers to the tendency of the newborn or newly hatched of precocial
species of animals (which includes ducks, geese, sheep, horses) to follow the first
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moving objects they see. This behavior involves the formation of an attachment
between the infant and the mother. Clearly, imprinting is adaptive (adds to
survival value).
This theory is relevant to the present study in the sense that it provides
grounds for possible prediction such that if a child is properly developed
genetically, one can safely predict that he/she will have poor development and
adjustment in all aspects.
Related Empirical Studies
Related empirical studies were grouped and reviewed as they relate to the
current study generally. The reviews were not done as they relate to each of the
six skills under study. This is because there have been very few, and in most
cases no, studies on each of these skills. Thus, the very few empirical studies
reviewed here are those on: toilet-training skills and general child care-giver
skills.
Bachrach and Gardner (1997) carried out a study titled: “Care-giver
knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding childhood diarrhea and dehydration
in Kingston, Jamaica”. The study focused on childhood diarrhea and dehydration
in order to determine if limited care-giver knowledge about the prevention and
treatment of diarrhea and dehydration puts children at increased risk. The study
was an observational case-control study conducted between February 1997 and
May 1997 at Bustamante Hospital for Children in Kingston. Convenience
sampling was used and data were collected by face-to-face interviews with two
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groups of care-givers of children under 5 years of age. The total sample was 215
care-givers. One group (n = 117) presented with children with acute
gastroenteritis, and the other group (n = 98) presented with acute concerns
unrelated to gastroenteritis. While 197 of the 215 care-givers interviewed were
the mothers of the children, there were also 9 guardians, 5 fathers, and 4
grandmothers in the sample. The following results were obtained among others.
The mean care-giver age, level of education, and socioeconomic status were
similar for the two groups. The care-givers in the gastroenteritis group were more
likely to present with younger children and to have less convenient access to
running water or a refrigerator. Children of care-givers who had never heard of
oral rehydration therapy were at increased risk of presenting with gastroenteritis
and dehydration (odds ratio [OR], 4.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.8 – 11.7),
as were children of care-givers with low knowledge scores about the prevention
and treatment of diarrhea and dehydration (OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.6 – 8.8). Another
independent risk factor was a care-giver’s poor sense of self-reliance in
managing a child’s diarrhea (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1 – 4.9). They thus concluded
that the findings highlight a need to enhance educational efforts that will
empower care-givers to protect their children from diarrhea-associated morbidity
and mortality.
However, it is one thing to be educated but yet another thing to posses the
skilled needed to take care of children. The above study was focused on toileting
risks but with very little attention to the skills which if these care-givers
possessed, there would be fewer risks in such situations as when children are
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having diarrhea. It is to fill this gap of lack of information regarding care-givers’
skills that can help in risk situations that warranted the current study.
Izuwa (2002) carried out a study titled: “In-service needs of child care-
givers in Aba education zone of Abia state”. The study was carried out to identify
the competences important for nursery school teachers in the area. The
descriptive survey design was used for the study. The population for the study
was made up of 42 proprietors and 196 nursery school teachers in the zone.
Questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. Means and t-test were used
for data analysis. The findings show that there are 22 competences possessed by
the nursery school teachers and 9 competences which these teachers require and
can be gotten from in-service training. Some of the competences considered as
importanct included the teachers’ ability to: be patient, honest and sincere;
express love towards the children; be self-disciplined and composed; arouse
curiosity in the children among others.
The present study is related to that of Izuwa (2002) because they both
focus on competences and skills. The concept competences may be regarded as
similar to what is referred to here as skills. However, while Izuwa (2002) focused
on competences generally, there is the need to consider these skills as they are
relevant for the effective performance of specific basic tasks around the pre-
school/nursery school children. This is the gap this study intends to fill.
Burchinal and Cryer (2003) conducted a study titled: “Diversity, child
care quality, and developmental outcomes”. The study was focused on whether
what constitutes quality care depends on the child’s ethnic and cultural
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background. To address this question, secondary analysis of data from the two
largest studies of child care experiences in the United States - Cost, Quality, and
Outcomes Study, and the NICHD Study of Early Child Care - tested whether
standard measures of Child care quality were less reliable or valid for African-
American and English-speaking Latino children than for white children. Widely
used measures of child care quality showed comparably high levels of reliability
and similar levels of validity for White, African-American, and Latino children.
Analyses tested whether cognitive and social skills were related to child care
quality, the match between child’s and care-giver’s ethnicity, and the match
between the mother’s and care-giver’s beliefs about child-rearing. Results
indicated children from all three ethnic groups showed higher levels of cognitive
and social skills on standardized assessments shown to predict school success
when care-givers were sensitive and stimulating. Children’s skills were not
consistently related to whether the child’s and care-giver’s ethnicity matched or
whether the mother’s and care-giver’s beliefs about child-rearing were similar.
These two large studies suggest that children from all three ethnic groups benefit
from sensitive and stimulating care on child outcomes related to school success.
The results are interpreted as indicating that the global dimension of quality may
be reflected in very different types of practices that reflect cultural differences.
The present study is related to that of Burchinal and Cryer (2003) in that
both studies are tailored towards quality child care. However, the current study
differs from that of Burchinal and Cryer (2003) because once the proper skills are
possessed by the care-givers, there is supposed to be quality care no matter the
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differences in culture. It is to find out what these proper skills are that the current
study is meant to achieve.
Anuna (2005) studied on “Child care practices of care-givers in
motherless babies’ homes in Imo and Abia state”. The purpose of the study was
to investigate how better to take care of children in motherless babies’ homes in
Nigeria. The study made use of descriptive survey design. Six research questions
and three hypotheses were raised and postulated. The population comprised of
120 married and unmarried care-givers. Structured questionnaire items were used
as the instrument for the study. The data collected were analyzed using mean and
standard deviation, while t-test was used to test the hypotheses. The results
showed that there was no significant difference between the Child care practices
of married and unmarried care-givers in Imo and Abia state. The study concluded
that to improve care-givers’ performances, it is necessary that the employers of
care-givers take into consideration the employment of trained and sufficient
manpower, commensurate remuneration for staff, among others.
While it is good to employ sufficient manpower and to remunerate the
staff, the current study considers it important that the improvement of care-
givers’ performance is not so much dependent on their number and remuneration
as it is on whether they possess the appropriate skills. This is what Anuna’s
(2005) study was not able to consider. This is also what the current study wants
to consider in some detail.
Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman, McCurdy and Johnson (2006) in
a study titled: “Barriers and incentives to orphan care in a time of AIDS and
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economic crisis: a cross- sectional survey of care-givers in rural Zimbabwe”,
investigated the barriers and incentives to orphan care in a time of AIDS and
economic crisis in Zimbabwe, where one-fourth of adults are HIV-positive, one-
fifth of children are orphans, and AIDS and economic decline are straining
society’s ability to care for orphans within their extended families. To explore
barriers and possible incentives to orphan care, a quantitative cross-sectional
survey in rural eastern Zimbabwe asked 371 adults caring for children, including
212 caring for double orphans, about their well-being, needs, resources, and
perceptions and experiences of orphan care. Survey responses indicate that: 1)
foster care-givers are disproportionately female, older, poor, and without a
spouse; 2) 98% of non-foster care-givers are willing to foster orphans, many
from outside their kinship network; 3) poverty is the primary barrier to fostering;
4) financial, physical, and emotional stress levels are high among current and
potential fosterers; 5) financial need may be greatest in single-orphan AIDS-
impoverished households; and 6) struggling families lack external support. The
study concluded that incentives for sustainable orphan care should focus on
financial assistance, starting with free schooling, and development of community
mechanisms to identify and support children in need, to evaluate and strengthen
families’ capacity to provide orphan care, and to initiate and support placement
outside the family when necessary.
The above study by Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman, McCurdy
and Johnson (2006) paid more attention to demographic factors regarding the
care-givers. Even though these factors are very important in defining care-givers’
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activities, it is important also to consider the skills required by these care-givers
besides these demographic factors. Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman,
McCurdy and Johnson (2006) could not do that, and this is why the current study
is very important as it hopes to, by means of its findings, bring to the knowledge
of all interested in caregiving, the skills required by care-givers to perform their
tasks effectively.
Atuma (2012) carried out a study on strategies for improved feeding in
early child care centres in Cross River State. The study adopted survey research
design. Four research questions were developed and answered by the study. The
population for the study was 153 care givers in pre-primary schools in the state.
There was no sampling due to the manageable size of the population. A
structured questionnaire was used to obtain data from the respondents for the
study. The questionnaire was face-validated by three experts; one lecturer from
Home Economics Section of the Department of Vocational Teacher Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka and two senior staff nurses of general medical
centre, Ikom. The reliability of the instrument was achieved using Cronbach
Alpha method in which a coefficient of 0.87 was obtained. The questionnaire was
administered by the researcher with the help of five research assistants who were
indigenes of the state for familiarity with the terrain. Frequency, percentages,
mean and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions while
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypothesis. Based on
the data analysed, the study found that good nutrition and hygiene practices are
required for improved feeding of children in early child care centres in the State.
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The study identified six food preparation methods that are considered hygienic
for preparing children food, the study identified ten health implications of
feeding children with balanced diet and 20 practices for ensuring children meal
safety and security. Based on these findings, the study recommended that State
government should help package the findings of this study into training manual
and distribute to all hospitals in the state. Also, the State government should
ensure that all pre-primary school care-givers and young mothers in the state
should be well informed on the need and importance of healthy feeding practices
for children.
While the above study by Atuma (2012) is very relevant to the current
study because it considered strategies for improved feeding in early child care
centres which is one of the major focus of this study. In addition, the present
study is related to that of Atuma in methodology and the respondents (care-
givers) that were used for responding to the questionnaire for the study.
Carruth, Paula, Ziegler, Gordon and Hendricks (2004) carried out a study
on developmental milestones and self-feeding behaviors in infants and toddlers.
Three research questions and three null hypotheses were developed to guide the
study. The study adopted cross-sectional survey design of households with
infants / toddlers, ages 4 to 24 months. The population for the study was 3,022
primary school care-givers. Multistage random sampling technique was adopted
for selecting 302 care-givers which represented 10% of the total population. The
302 respondents were interviewed through telephone on developmental
milestones and self-feeding behaviors among infants and toddlers. The interview
was guided by pre-design questionnaire. Data generated were analysed using
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frequency, percentage, mean and t-test statistics. From the data analysed, the
primary care-givers reported their children’s food in- take (one 24-hour recall),
the ages when care-givers reported self-feeding skills were shown, and the
number of teeth. Using t-tests, differences in energy and nutrient intake were
determined by age groupings and by the absence or presence of each self-feeding
skill. Results showed that self-feeding skills achieved in the first two years by
care-givers are developmental readiness to self-feed children. The ages at which
children were reported to show gross motor developmental milestones and
eruption of teeth occurred within expected age ranges. A majority of the children
who were reported to show developmental readiness to self-feed at an earlier age
(7 to 14 months) had higher intakes of energy and most nutrients than those who
did not. By 15 to 18 months, most of the children were reported to show
comparable self-feeding skills regardless of whether they self-fed earlier or later.
Summary of Literature Review
The literature reviewed for this study focused on four main headings: the
conceptual framework (with many sub-headings), the theoretical framework
(with three relevant theories), the empirical studies (with many studies reviewed),
and the summary of literature review. Under the conceptual framework, such
concepts as: child, the need of the child, child care, child care-givers, skill and
child care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers. The care-givers skill
needs was reviewed to cover the specific purposes of the study to include:
feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet training skills, interacting skills, safety skills
and hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools for effective
child upbringing. The theoretical framework was anchored on three theories.
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These are: Social-cognitive development theory, evolution and ethology theory
and attachment theory.
The empirical studies carried out in Nigeria and other countries, revealed
that care-givers influence the development of children. Gaps discovered in the
work so far include the fact that none of the empirical studies reviewed addressed
specifically a set of skills needed by care-givers for better development of
children. Again, the studies reviewed focused on competencies, attitudes,
knowledge of how to take care of people in specific crisis situations like AIDS
and Diarrhea, and manpower and remuneration of care-givers. However, none of
these studies focused particularly on pre-primary care-givers in its topic, nor on
the variables this work hopes to address. The gap between knowledge and
practice underscores the relevance and need for this present study, which is
aimed at empirically investigating some of the Child Care skills needed by care-
givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja,
Nigeria.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the method and procedures that were used for the
study. The procedures are described under the design of the study, area of the
study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for
data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method
of data collection and method for data analysis.
Design of the Study
The design of the study was descriptive survey research design. According
to Osuala (2001), a survey research focuses on people, the vital fact of the
people, their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivation and behaviour. Olaitan and
Nwoke (1989) viewed survey design as studying the entire population or
representative sample by collecting and analyzing data from the group through
the use of questionnaire, interview or observation. Survey research design is
therefore considered suitable for this study since data were gathered from
childcare-givers in pre-primary and other group of respondents with the use of
structured questionnaire. Information gathered from the investigation according
to Eboh (2009) must be generalized to the whole population and thus a sample
survey is useful for development and planning purposes.
Area of the Study
This study was carried out in Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja. The
Federal Capital Territory (FCT) came into actual existence on 12th December
1992 and covered a land area of about 8000sq km. The FCT is made up of six (6)
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administrative local councils which include: Abaji, Abuja Municipal, Bwari,
Gwagwalada, Kuje and Kwali (Federal Capital Territory Abuja, 2012). The
population of FCT Abuja is 1,405,201 people comprising 740,489 males and
664,712 females (National Population Commission, 2006). There are 100 public
early child care centres (pre-primary schools) in FCT, Abuja with 11 in Abaji, 39
in Abuja Municipal, 24 in Bwari, 11 in Gwagawlada, 10 in Kuje and 5 in Kwali
local council (See Appendix A, page 144).
Population for the Study
The population for the study was made up of 581 respondents that
comprise the following groups: care-givers in pre-primary school, secondary
school Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses.
There are 236 pre-primary school care-givers in the study area (FCT
Universal Basic Education Board, 2010). The population of the care-givers on
area council basis include 25 from Abaji, 49 from Bwari, 37 from Gwagawlada,
25 from Kuje, 16 from Kwali and 84 from Abuja Municipal local council (See
Appendix B, page 152). The pre-primary school care-givers are involved in day-
to-day care giving of the pre-primary school children in the study area, hence
their involvement as part of the respondents from which data were collected for
the study.
There are 265 secondary school Home Economics teachers (FCT
Education Secretariat, Jabi Abuja, 2010). This include 149 Home Economics
teachers in the 143 Junior Secondary Schools and 116 Home Economics teachers
in the existing 108 Senior Secondary Schools in FCT, Abuja (See Appendix C,
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page 154). These are graduates of Home Economics who teach Home Economics
topics such as child development and others in Secondary schools. By their
qualification therefore, they were considered relevant for supplying information
on skills that should be possessed by care-givers for child care in pre-primary
schools.
The population also include 16 Early childhood experts. These are experts
with higher degree qualification in Early childhood education and child
development. The number of the Early childhood experts was ascertained
through feasibility visit of the researcher to higher institutions in FCT, Abuja.
There are 64 nurses from public medical centres in the study area (Federal
Ministry of Health, 2013). These groups of respondents are characteristically
involved in children upbringing by the nature of their professions and hence are
involved in the study.
Sample and Sampling Technique
Due to the manageable size of the population, the entire 581 respondents
were involved in the study; therefore, there was no sampling for this study.
Focus group discussion was also used in this study. For the focus group
discussion, 30 discussants were randomly selected from three area councils with
10 discussants in each of Bwari, Kwali and Abuja Municipal Area Councils.
These discussants were pre-primary school care-givers, secondary school Home
Economics teachers, Nurses and early child care experts. Issues bothering on
child care skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools were made subject of
discussion to seek relevant contributions and opinions of the discussants on the
issues raised.
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Instrument for Data Collection
Two sets of instruments were used for data collection namely: (i) Child
Care Skills Needed by Care-givers (CCSNC) and (ii) Focus Group Discussion
(FGD) Guide. Both instruments were developed based on the purposes of the
study and the review of related literature.
The questionnaire was made up of two parts. Part one focused on personal
data of the respondents while Part two had six sections A-F which dealt with the
specific purposes of the study. Section A contained 21 items for collecting data
on feeding skills needed by the care-givers, Section B is made up of 18 items for
eliciting data on clothing skills needed by the care-givers, Section C contained 13
items for generating data on toilet-training skills needed by care-givers, Section
D is made up of 24 items which focused on safety skills needed by the care-
givers, Section E contained 11 items for obtaining data on interacting skills
needed by care-givers while Section F is made up of 14 items for gathering data
on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers. In all, the questionnaire contained
101 structured items on a 4-point response scale each assigned a numerical scale as
follows: Strongly Agree (SA) - 4; Agree (A) - 3; Disagree (D) - 2; Strongly Disagree
(SD) – 1 (See Appendix F, page 158 for Questionnaire)
The Focus Group Discussion guide used for qualitative data for the study
centred on six points that bothered on child care skill needs of care-givers in pre-
primary schools. A Focus Group Discussion is a data collection procedure in the
form of a carefully planned group discussion among about ten people with the
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moderator and observer, in order to obtain diverse ideas and perceptions on a
topic of interest in a relaxed, permissive environment that fosters the expression
of different point of views with no pressure for consensus. Focus Group
Discussion in research scenario involves the presentation of topic of interest to
stimulate debate and dialogue in order to raise ideas and suggestions among the
discussants (See Appendix G, page 164 for Focus Group Discussion Guide).
Validation of the Instrument
The Child Care Skills Needed by Care-givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ)
was subjected to face validation by three experts. Two lecturers from Home
Economics unit Department of Vocational Teacher Education, and one expert in
Early Childhood Education from Department of Educational Foundation, all
from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Based on their corrections and
recommendations, the final version of the instrument was made for data
collection (See Appendix F, page 158 for final Instrument and Appendix J, page
205 for Evidence of validation).
Reliability of the Instrument
To determine the reliability of the Child Care Skills Needed by Care-
givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ), Cronbach Alpha reliability technique was used
to test the internal consistency of the instrument. The instrument was trial-tested
by administering fifty (50) copies of the instrument to 15 care-givers in pre-
primary schools, 25 secondary school Teachers of Home Economics, 5 Early
childhood experts and 5 nurses in Nsukka local government area of Enugu state.
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The data generated was analyzed using Cronbach Alpha reliability
method. Reliability coefficients of 0.74 was obtained for feeding skills, 0.69 for
clothing skills, 0.82 for toilet training skills, 0.85 for safety skills, 0.78 for
interacting skills and 0.83 for hygiene while an overall reliability coefficient of
0.79 was obtained for the entire instrument (See Appendix H, page 165).
Method of Data Collection
Five research assistants were trained for data collection. The minimum
educational qualification of the research assistants was National Certificate
Examination (NCE). They were also residents of FCT Abuja to ensure familiarity
and accessibility in quality data collection. A total of 581 copies of the
questionnaire were administered by the enumerators by hand. The researcher
coordinated the activities of the five research assistants and collated the retrieved
questionnaire after two weeks of administration. Out of the 581 copies of
questionnaire administered. Only 556 copies were properly completed and
returned representing 95.6% return rate. The 556 copies retrieved were analysed
One session of focus group discussion (FGD) was organized in each of the
three municipal area councils (MACs), namely Bwari, Kwali and Abuja MACs.
From each of the three area councils, 10 discussants which include: 5 pre-
primary school care-givers, 3 Secondary school Home Economics teachers, 1
Nurse and 1 Early child care expert were randomly selected making 30
discussants for the FGD session. The FGD was organized by the researcher with
the assistant of one moderator with some sets of questions that bothered on issues
relating to childcare giving skills in pre-primary schools. Light refreshments
were provided by the researcher to the participants and notes were taken by the
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researcher and the assistant. Qualitative data collected from the discussants were
summarized. Each of the FGD sessions lasted for one hour.
Method of Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed using mean for answering the research
questions, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypotheses at
p≤0.05 level of significance while the qualitative data from the FGD was
summarized. Real limit of numbers 1.00 – 1.49; 1.50 – 2.49; 2.50 – 3.49 and
3.50 – 4.00 were used to interpret the results as Strongly Disagree, Disagree,
Agree and Strongly Agree respectively.
The hypotheses of no significant difference was accepted for items whose
p-values were greater than 0.05. On the other hand, the hypothesis of no
significant difference was rejected for items whose p-values were less than 0.05.
The qualitative data from each of the FGD session were collated, recorded
and summarized. These are presented under each of the associated research
questions in data presentation and analysis.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data generated
from questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) on child care skills
needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory
(FCT), Abuja. The chapter is organized according to research questions and
hypotheses of the study.
Research Question One
What feeding skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja?
The data for answering research question one are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Feeding Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).
Caregivers HEc Trs ECC Exp Nurses OVERALLSN Feeding Skills Needed by
Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Care givers should have basic
idea of nutrition.3.53 0.69 3.44 0.51 3.65 0.32 3.56 0.65 3.55 0.65 SA
2 Advise parents on the type of food preparation method to give their children
3.77 0.51 3.54 0.53 3.64 0.42 3.46 0.66 3.60 0.54 SA
3 Advise parents on the quantity and quality of food to be given to their children
3.70 0.45 3.67 0.54 3.69 0.48 3.66 0.65 3.68 0.50 SA
4 Care givers should be able to feed children on time
3.47 0.53 3.54 0.50 3.55 0.51 3.46 0.66 3.29 0.54 A
5 Care givers should be able to feed children to avoid talking when eating
3.40 0.49 3.40 0.47 3.35 0.48 3.40 0.49 3.38 0.48 A
6 Care givers should be able to feed children to avoid eating in-between meals
3.52 0.53 3.22 0.48 3.77 0.42 3.21 0.43 2.43 0.52 D
7 Wash children eating wares immediately after eating
3.62 0.49 3.66 0.51 3.58 0.42 3.71 0.62 3.64 0.51 SA
8 Care givers should be able to sterilize children’s feeding utensils
3.50 0.50 3.56 0.49 3.56 0.48 3.54 0.48 3.54 0.49 SA
9 Keep children’s feeding utensils properly when not used
3.43 0.44 3.50 0.40 3.34 0.68 3.48 0.45 3.44 0.44 A
10 Know the constituents of a balanced meal
3.33 0.48 3.29 0.46 3.37 0.42 3.28 0.41 3.32 0.46 A
11 Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods
3.59 0.51 3.59 0.53 3.62 0.51 3.56 0.50
3.59 0.51 SA
12 Have the ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket
3.17 0.55 3.18 0.57 3.00 0.42 3.01 0.54 3.09 0.55 A
13 Have the ability to show affection while feeding the children
3.37 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.53 3.36 0.49 A
14 Ability to help older children feed themselves
2.89 0.49 3.01 0.49 2.95 0.48 2.97 0.46 2.95 0.48 A
15 Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding
2.79 0.47 2.89 0.46 2.86 0.48 2.83 0.47 2.84 0.47 A
16 Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them
3.11 0.47 3.10 0.48 3.22 0.42 3.13 0.50 3.14 0.47 A
17 Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered
3.54 0.51 3.45 0.48 3.51 0.58 3.50 0.46 3.50 0.50 SA
18 Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.
3.36 0.52 3.33 0.46 3.40 0.48 3.400 0.43 3.37 0.50 A
Cluster Summary 3.34 0.19 3.30 0.57 3.28 0.18 3.36 0.22 3.32 0.51 ANote: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; D = Disagreed; Rmk = Remarks.
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Table 1 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 7 out of the 18 identified feeding skills had mean values that
ranged from 3.50 to 3.68 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 feeding skills are needed
by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja. The mean values on ten out of the 18 feeding skills ranged from 2.84 to
3.44 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the
respondent agreed that the ten feeding skills are needed by care-givers for
effective child upbringing in the study area. The mean rating of the responses of
the respondents on item 6 was 2.43 which fell within the real limit of number
1.50 – 2.49 indicating that that the respondents disagreed with the item as part of
the feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.32 which indicated that the respondents
generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified feeding skills for effective
child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation
values of the 18 items in the table ranged from 0.44 to 0.65 which were less than
1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one another
and to the mean.
Feeding skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following feeding skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja:
i. have some basic ideas of nutrition,
ii. advise parents on preparation method of food to give to their children,
iii. feed children on time,
iv. advise parents on giving children food and snacks,
v. wash children’s eating wares immediately after eating.
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Research Question Two
What clothing skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja?
The data for answering research question two are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Clothing Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).
Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Clothing Skills Needed by
Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmks1 Change children’s cloths
anytime they are dirty. 3.44 0.47 3.56 0.46 3.48 0.32 3.41 0.45 3.47 0.46 A
2 Care for children’s clothing 3.57 0.46 3.62 0.48 3.57 0.42 3.53 0.46 3.57 0.46 SA3 Put the children’s clothing in
clean and dry containers2.69 0.47 2.99 0.40 3.40 0.43 3.73 0.48 3.21 0.46 A
4 Cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability
3.66 0.47 3.58 0.53 3.74 0.42 3.68 0.53 3.66 0.49 SA
5 Cloth children with cotton fabrics in hot weather
3.00 0.58 3.10 0.65 3.15 0.70 3.03 0.56 3.07 0.60 A
6 Cloth children with woolen fabrics in cold weather
3.52 0.56 3.44 0.52 3.54 0.42 3.50 0.50 3.55 0.54 SA
7 Cloth children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather
3.47 0.49 3.52 0.50 3.43 0.48 3.46 0.50 3.47 0.50 A
8 Wash children’s clothings with mild soap
2.80 0.50 3.00 0.50 3.00 0.42 2.57 0.48 2.83 0.49 A
9 Allow children sometimes to select what they want to wear
2.45 0.49 2.46 0.47 2.49 0.51 2.50 0.50 2.47 0.49 D
10 Cloth children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall
3.64 0.47 3.50 0.49 3.83 0.48 3.57 0.50 3.60 0.48 SA
11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass
3.47 0.64 3.49 0.69 3.49 0.64 3.47 0.60 3.48 0.65 A
12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes
3.35 0.51 3.34 0.53 3.33 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.33 0.51 A
13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such
3.53 0.53 3.47 0.53 3.55 0.51 3.53 0.50 3.52 0.53 SA
14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts
3.47 0.52 3.49 0.53 3.44 0.51 3.46 0.50 3.47 0.52 A
15 Advising parents to buy clothing
2.39 0.52 2.50 0.63 2.44 0.51 2.52 0.49 2.46 0.54 D
16 Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line and space etc
3.23 0.73 3.24 0.67 3.21 0.75 3.20 0.73 3.22 0.72 A
17 Ability to use colour wheel 3.57 0.51 3.33 0.49 3.26 0.48 3.34 0.47 3.39 0.51 A18 Ability to combine colours 3.49 0.50 3.48 0.53 3.40 0.51 3.55 0.50 3.48 0.50 A
Cluster Summary 3.24 0.23 3.35 0.27 3.30 0.58 3.28 0.24 3.29 0.53 A
Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; D = Disagreed; Rmk = Remarks.
87
Table 2 shows that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 5 out of the 18 identified clothing skills had mean values that
ranged from 3.52 to 3.66 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 5 clothing skills are
needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja. The mean values of 11 out of the 18 clothing skills ranged from 2.83 to
3.48 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the
respondent agreed that the 11 clothing skills are needed by care-givers for effective
child upbringing in the study area. The mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on items 9 and 15 were 2.47 and 2.46 which fell within the real limit of
number 1.50 – 2.49. This indicated that the respondents disagreed with the two item
as part of the clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.29 which indicated that the respondents
generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified clothing skills for effective
child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation
values of the 18 items in the table ranged from 0.46 to 0.72 which were less than
1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one another
and to the mean.
Clothing skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following clothing skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja:
i. change the children’s clothes any time they are dirty,
ii. put the children’s clothes in clean/dry containers,
iii. cloth children with cotton fabrics in hot weather,
iv. cloth children with bright coloured cloths in hot weather,
v. wash children’s clothes with mild soap.
88
Research Question Three
What toilet training skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools in FCT, Abuja?
The data for answering research question three are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Toilet Training Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT (N= 556).
Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Toilet Training Skills
Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Use signs to encourage the
children go to toilet each morning
3.38 0.48 3.39 0.49 3.46 0.48 3.40 0.49 3.40 0.49 A
2 Toilet training the child using potty
3.78 0.55 3.23 0.57 3.88 0.32 3.81 0.39 3.68 0.53 SA
3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place
3.56 0.50 3.49 0.69 3.55 0.48 3.56 0.50 3.54 0.55 SA
4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating
3.56 0.71 3.54 0.72 3.56 0.51 3.61 0.77 3.57 0.71 SA
5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty
3.13 0.47 3.79 0.50 3.31 0.32 3.47 0.48 3.44 0.48 A
6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet
3.33 0.53 3.32 0.60 3.23 0.48 3.69 0.49 3.39 0.55 A
7 Teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly
3.50 0.55 3.56 0.49 3.60 0.48 3.51 0.49 3.54 0.53 SA
8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls
3.64 0.56 3.64 0.48 3.55 0.51 3.23 0.50 3.52 0.53 SA
9 Teach older children how to flush the toilet after use
3.56 0.58 3.54 0.50 3.72 0.42 3.56 0.50 3.60 0.55 SA
10 Teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet
3.46 0.54 3.64 0.48 3.55 0.51 3.57 0.47 3.23 0.53 A
11 Teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet
3.46 0.54 3.50 0.46 3.51 0.51 3.48 0.66 3.56 0.55 SA
Cluster Summary 3.45 0.25 3.53 0.28 3.50 0.48 3.53 0.51 3.50 0.55 SA
Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.
Table 3 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 7 out of the 11 identified toilet training skills had mean values that
89
ranged from 3.52 to 3.68 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 toilet training skills are
needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja. The mean values of the remaining four toilet training skills ranged from 3.23
to 3.44 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the
respondent agreed that the four toilet training skills are needed by care-givers for
effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.50 which indicated that the respondents
strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified toilet training skills for
effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard
deviation values of the 11 items in the table ranged from 0.48 to 0.71 which were
less than 1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one
another and to the mean.
Toilet training skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following toilet training skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
in FCT, Abuja, these include:
i. toilet training the child using potty,
ii. complete toilet training by the age of 2 years,
iii. correct the children if they defecate in the wrong place,
iv. teach the children to sit on the toilet seat properly,
v. teach children how to flush the toilet after use?
Research Question Four
What interacting skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja?
90
The data for answering research question four are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Interacting Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools, Abuja (N= 556).
Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALL
SN Interacting Skills Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk
1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents
3.50 0.56 3.47 0.57 3.60 0.48 3.50 0.56 3.50 0.56 SA
2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents
3.33 0.56 3.52 0.63 3.43 0.60 3.70 0.56 3.49 0.57 A
3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s
3.07 0.65 3.00 0.81 2.99 0.48 3.11 0.73 3.00 0.70 A
4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents
3.50 0.58 3.50 0.69 3.62 0.48 3.43 0.61 3.51 0.61 SA
5 Ability to know the right of the child
3.39 0.50 3.39 0.62 3.44 0.51 3.25 0.66 3.37 0.55 A
6 Ability to recognize the right of the child
3.59 0.56 3.55 0.60 3.63 0.48 3.15 0.66 3.46 0.58 A
7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child
3.47 0.55 3.42 0.60 3.56 0.48 3.46 0.66 3.48 0.57 A
8 Ability to reassure children when they need help
3.00 0.59 3.42 0.63 3.03 0.48 3.14 0.59 3.15 0.60 A
9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs
3.47 0.56 3.37 0.62 3.52 0.51 3.50 0.49 3.46 0.56 A
10 Ability to respond without delay to children’s needs
3.29 0.62 3.52 0.63 3.54 0.42 3.79 0.54 3.53 0.61 SA
11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play
3.65 0.54 3.61 0.68 3.36 0.48 3.61 0.50 3.61 0.57 SA
12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand
3.54 0.49 3.47 0.69 3.55 0.51 3.53 0.50 3.52 0.54 SA
13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner
3.13 0.55 3.39 0.60 3.38 0.70 3.68 0.46 3.49 0.56 A
14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well
3.51 0.59 3.52 0.69 3.55 0.51 3.65 0.47 3.53 0.60 SA
15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes
3.64 0.76 3.41 0.76 3.52 0.42 3.55 0.70 3.34 0.75 A
16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways
3.03 0.60 3.00 0.76 2.96 0.48 3.07 0.60 3.02 0.63 A
17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children
3.60 0.55 3.65 0.57 3.47 0.42 3.65 0.54 3.59 0.55 SA
18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them
3.37 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.53 3.36 0.49 A
19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them
3.25 0.49 3.34 0.49 3.13 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.25 0.48 A
20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers
2.94 0.48 2.99 0.46 2.94 0.48 2.95 0.47 2.95 1.07 A
21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully
3.33 0.47 3.30 0.48 3.32 0.42 3.41 0.50 3.34 0.47 A
Cluster Summary 3.26 0.58 3.21 0.28 3.60 0.54 3.46 0.49 3.38 0.60 A
91
Table 4 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 7 out of the 21 identified interacting skills had mean values that
ranged from 3.50 to 3.61 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 interacting skills are
needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja. The mean values of the remaining 13 interacting skills ranged from
2.95 to 3.49 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated
that the respondent agreed that the 13 interacting skills are needed by care-givers
for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.38 which indicated that the respondents
generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified interacting skills for
effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard
deviation values of the 21 items in the table ranged from 0.47 to 1.07 which were
less than 1.96. This implied that the responses of the respondents are close to one
another and to the mean.
Interacting skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following interacting skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
in FCT, Abuja, these include:
i. listening carefully to the children and their parents,
ii. know the rights of the child,
iii. recognize the rights of the child,
iv. reassure children when they need help,
v. being sensitive to children’s needs.
92
Research Question Five
What safety skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja?
The data for answering research question five are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Safety Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).
Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Safety Skills Needed by
Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Ability to know what to do
in emergency cases 3.54 0.51 3.47 0.48 3.51 0.58 3.51 0.46 3.50 0.50 SA
2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads
3.67 0.53 3.74 0.50 3.66 0.51 3.70 0.66 3.69 0.54 SA
3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary
3.54 0.49 3.63 0.47 3.63 0.48 3.54 0.49 3.58 0.48 SA
4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children
3.32 0.53 3.68 0.48 3.56 0.42 3.75 0.43 3.58 0.52 SA
5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children
3.62 0.49 3.66 0.51 3.67 0.42 3.61 0.62 3.64 0.51 SA
6 Being vigilant at all times with children
3.50 0.50 3.54 0.49 3.53 0.48 3.62 0.48 3.54 0.49 SA
7 Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or guidance
3.77 0.44 3.79 0.40
3.68 0.68 3.75 0.45 3.74 0.44 SA
8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building
3.71 0.48 3.69 0.46 3.74 0.42 3.75 0.41 3.72 0.46 SA
9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling
3.49 0.51 3.49 0.53 3.55 0.51 3.46 0.50 3.49 0.51 A
10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor
3.56 0.55 3.63 0.57 3.57 0.42 3.60 0.54 3.59 0.55 SA
11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks
3.77 0.49 3.69 0.49 3.73 0.48 3.73 0.53 3.73 0.49 SA
Cluster Summary 3.63 0.51 3.64 0.40 3.57 0.57 3.66 0.52 3.62 0.49 SA
Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.
93
Table 5 shows that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 10 out of the 11 identified safety skills had mean values that
ranged from 3.50 to 3.74 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 10 safety skills are needed
by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja. The mean values of the remaining one item specifically, item 9 was 3.49
which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the
respondent agreed that item 9 is needed by care-givers for effective child
upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.62 which indicated that the respondents
strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified interacting skills for
effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard
deviation values of the 11 items in the table ranged from 0.44 to 0.55 which were
less than 1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to
one another and to the mean.
Safety skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja, these include:
i. take the correct actions in cases of emergency,
ii. know what to do in cases of emergency,
iii. keep sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children,
iv. being vigilant at all times,
v. cover electrical outlets with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks in
pre-primary schools.
94
Research Question Six
What hygiene skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja?
The data for answering research question six are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Hygiene Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).
Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALL
SN Hygiene Skills Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk
1 Use hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the children’s nose
3.35 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.35 0.48 A
2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children
3.64 0.47 3.69 0.46 3.63 0.48 3.65 0.47 3.65 0.47 SA
3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination
3.44 0.47 3.45 0.48 3.33 0.42 3.53 0.50 3.44 0.47 A
4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other
3.29 0.51 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.58 3.26 0.46 3.30 0.52 A
5 Avoiding coughing/sneezing into children’s food
3.65 0.52 3.67 0.46 3.66 0.48 3.73 0.43 3.67 0.50 SA
6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean
3.54 0.47 3.59 0.46 3.58 0.32 3.60 0.45 3.57 0.46 SA
7 Regularly cleaning children’s toys & playing equipment
3.67 0.46 3.65 0.48 3.67 0.42 3.68 0.46 3.67 0.46 SA
8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones
3.68 0.47 3.53 0.40 3.81 0.53 3.78 0.48 3.71 0.46 SA
9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons
3.30 0.47 2.98 0.53 3.17 0.42 3.18 0.53 3.15 0.49 A
10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor
3.54 0.58 3.39 0.65 3.55 0.70 3.57 0.56 3.51 0.60 SA
11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing
3.56 0.50 3.54 0.69 3.53 0.48 3.56 0.50 3.54 0.55 SA
12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet
3.46 0.71 3.42 0.72 3.45 0.51 3.54 0.77 3.47 0.73 A
13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities
3.56 0.47 3.49 0.50 3.61 0.32 3.52 0.48 3.54 0.48 SA
14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold
3.33 0.53 3.47 0.60 3.38 0.48 3.39 0.49 3.39 0.55 A
Cluster Summary 3.49 0.58 3.51 0.43 3.50 0.45 3.50 0.41 3.50 0.52 SA
Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.
95
Table 6 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on 8 out of the 14 identified hygiene skills had mean values that
ranged from 3.51 to 3.71 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This
indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 8 hygiene skills are needed
by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja. The mean values of the remaining 6 items ranged from 3.15 to 3.47 which
fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the respondent
agreed that the 6 hygiene skills are needed by care-givers for effective child
upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.
The overall cluster mean was 3.50 which indicated that the respondents
strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified hygiene skills for effective
child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation
values of the 14 items in the table ranged from 0.46 to 0.73 which were less than
1.96. This implied that the responses of the respondents are close to one another
and to the mean.
Hygiene skills needed by care-givers
Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the
following safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT, Abuja, these include:
i. use hygienic toiletries/handkerchiefs/tissue papers to clean children’s
nose,
ii. know how to store food and water to avoid contamination,
iii. avoid coughing/sneezing into children’s food,
iv. ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean,
v. prevent children from sharing utensils like spoon.
96
Testing of Hypotheses
HO1
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the feeding skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis one are presented in Table 7 below.
97
Table 7: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on feeding skills needed by the care-givers (N= 556).
SN Feeding Skills Total Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Ability to have basic idea of nutrition. 207.498 0.775 0.840 0.47 NS2 Advising parents on the type of food
preparation method to give their children
145.814 1.165 3.987 0.01 S*
3 Advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children
125.992 0.379 0.479 0.70 NS
4 Ability to feed children on time 147.482 0.465 0.551 0.65 NS
5 Teaching children to avoid talking when eating
117.377 0.377 0.578 0.63 NS
6 Teache children to avoid eating in-between meals
132.097 1.509 4.760 0.00 S*
7 Wash children eating wares immediately after eating
132.713 0.557 1.071 0.36 NS
8 Have the ability to sterilize children’s feeding utensils
122.607 0.614 1.477 0.22 NS
9 Have the ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used
98.834 0.346 0.724 0.54 NS
10 Have the ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal
107.449 0.342 0.562 0.64 NS
11 Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods
131.482 0.306 0.140 0.93 NS
12 Have the ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket
151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS
13 Have the ability to show affection while feeding the children
122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS
14 Have the ability to help older children feed themselves
117.296 0.341 0.425 0.73 NS
15 Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding
110.866 0.295 0.305 0.82 NS
16 Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them
112.113 0.519 1.285 0.27 NS
17 Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered
125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS
18 Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.
124.874 0.420 0.655 0.58 NS
Cluster Summary 129.650 0.572 1.206 0.47 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493
98
Table 7 shows that the p-values of 16 out of the 18 items in the table
ranged from 0.15 to 0.93 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This
indicated that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-
givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 16
feeding skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 16 items.
On the other hand, the p-values of the remaining two items, specifically
items 2 and 6 were 0.01 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of
significance. This indicated that there are significant differences in the mean
ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the two items.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the four groups of respondents were rejected on the two items. The result of the
Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the two items
revealed that the difference in the mean ratings on item two was between care-
givers and nurse while on item 6 the difference in the mean ratings was among
care-givers, nurse and childhood expert (See Appendix I, page 173).
The overall p-value of the entire 18 feeding skills in the Table was 0.47
which was greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no
significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics
teachers, early child care experts and nurses on feeding skills needed by the care-
givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
HO2
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the clothing skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis two are presented in Table 8 below.
99
Table 8: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on clothing skills needed by the care-givers (N= 556).
SN Clothing Skills Total Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.
108.178 0.632 1.895 0.13 NS
2 Ability to properly care for children’s clothing
108.874 0.385 0.743 0.52 NS
3 Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers
105.182 1.164 4.575 0.00 S*
4 Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability
119.498 0.542 1.241 0.29 NS
5 Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather
179.401 0.994 1.744 0.16 NS
6 Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather
146.235 0.805 1.727 0.16 NS
7 Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather
123.255 0.472 0.889 0.45 NS
8 Washing children’s clothings with mild soap
122.769 0.879 3.564 0.01 S*
9 Allowing children sometimes to select what they want to wear
120.729 0.727 1.988 0.12 NS
10 Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall
118.235 1.028 3.351 0.02 S*
11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces
211.336 1.114 1.609 0.18 NS
12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes
129.555 0.402 0.522 0.67 NS
13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes with ventro instead of buckles
139.255 0.401 0.416 0.74 NS
14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts
135.255 0.290 0.052 0.99 NS
15 Advising parents to buy clothing 148.453 0.592 0.966 0.41 NS16 Ability to use the elements of design in
teaching children example: line, space and form
254.607 0.652 0.256 0.86 NS
17 Ability to use colour wheel 126.235 0.832 4.274 0.01 S*18 Ability to combine colours 127.449 0.370 0.428 0.73 NS
Cluster Summary 140.250 0.683 1.680 0.36 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493
100
Table 8 reveals that the p-values of 14 out of the 18 items in the table
ranged from 0.12 to 0.99 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This
indicated that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-
givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 14
clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 14 items.
The p-values on the remaining four items, specifically items 3, 8, 10 and
17 were 0.00, 0.01, 0.02 and 0.01 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of
significance. This showed that there are significant differences in the mean
ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the four items.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the four groups of respondents are rejected on the four items. The result of the
Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the four items
showed that the differences in the mean ratings on item 3 was among care-givers,
childhood experts and nurse, for item 8 was between care-givers and childhood
experts, for item 10 was care-givers, Home Economics teachers and childhood
experts while on item 17 the difference in the mean ratings was between care-
givers and childhood expert (See Appendix I, page 179).
The overall p-value of the clothing skills cluster was 0.36 which was
greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the
Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
101
HO3
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis three are presented in Table 9 below.
Table 9: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the toilet training skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).
SN Toilet training skillsTotal Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning
118.640 0.688 1.876 0.13 NS
2 Ability to toilet training the child using potty
143.466 1.083 3.762 0.04 S*
3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place
150.607 0.741 1.431 0.23 NS
4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating
254.559 0.756 0.460 0.71 NS
5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty
115.498 1.525 5.692 0.00 S*
6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet
150.235 1.759 4.907 0.00 S*
7 Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly
138.607 0.718 1.564 0.19 NS
8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls
143.158 0.948 3.291 0.03 S*
9 Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use
151.482 1.056 2.465 0.06 NS
10 Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet
139.045 1.503 4.441 0.00 S*
11 Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet
149.296 0.904 2.003 0.11 NS
Cluster Summary 150.418 1.062 2.899 0.14 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493
102
Table 9 shows that the p-values of 6 out of the 11 items in the table ranged
from 0.06 to 0.71 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated
that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home
economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 6 toilet training
skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 6 items.
The p-values on the remaining five items, specifically items 2, 5, 6, 8 and
10 were 0.04, 0.00, 0.00, 0.03 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05
level of significance. This showed that there are significant differences in the
mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the five items.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of
the four groups of respondents are rejected on the five items. The result of the
Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the five items
showed that the differences in the mean ratings on item 2 was between Home
economics teachers and nurse, on items 5 was among care-givers, childhood
experts and nurse, on item 6 and 8 were between care-givers and nurse, while for
item 10 the significance lies between care-givers and Home economics teachers
(See Appendix I, page 185).
The overall p-value of the toilet training skills cluster was 0.14 which was
greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in
the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
HO4
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-givers for child upbringing in
Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis four are presented in Table 10 below.
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Table 10: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).
SN Interacting Skills Total Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents
155.482 0.515 0.629 0.59 NS
2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents
163.482 2.090 5.475 0.00 S*
3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s
242.024 1.257 1.569 0.19 NS
4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents
183.482 0.630 0.689 0.56 NS
5 Ability to know the right of the child 151.968 0.716 1.326 0.27 NS6 Ability to recognize the right of the child 171.045 1.702 3.995 0.01 S*7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child 163.401 0.543 0.635 0.59 NS8 Ability to reassure children when they need
help178.429 1.112 2.092 0.10 NS
9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs 159.045 0.994 2.103 0.09 NS10 Ability to respond without delay to
children’s needs186.769 1.193 3.173 0.04 S*
11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play
163.336 1.031 2.135 0.09 NS
12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand
147.158 0.437 0.460 0.71 NS
13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner
159.482 1.552 3.882 0.01 S*
14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well
178.769 0.714 0.969 0.40 NS
15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes
278.866 2.289 3.097 0.03 S*
16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways
200.421 0.892 1.196 0.31 NS
17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children
151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS
18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them
122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS
19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them
117.296 0.341 0.425 0.74 NS
20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers
110.866 0.295 6.305 0.00 S*
21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully
112.113 0.519 1.285 0.28 NS
Cluster Summary 166.543 0.953 2.077 0.28 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493
104
Table 10 shows that the p-values of 16 out of the 21 items in the table
ranged from 0.09 to 0.74 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This
showed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 16 interacting skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal
Capital Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant
difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents
were accepted on the 16 items.
The p-values on the remaining six items, specifically items 2, 6, 10, 13, 15
and 20 were 0.00, 0.01, 0.04, 0.01, 0.03 and 0.00 respectively which were less
than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that there are significant
differences in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents
on the six items of interacting skills. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no
significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of
respondents are rejected on the six items. The result of the Post-Hoc analysis
showing the direction of the significance on the six items revealed that the
differences in the mean ratings on items 2, 10 and 13 were between care-givers
and nurse. On item 6, the difference in the mean ratings were among care-givers,
childhood experts and nurses while on items 15 and 20, the difference in the
mean ratings were between Home Economics teachers and nurses (See Appendix
I, page 190).
The overall p-value of the interacting skills cluster was 0.28 which was
greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on interacting skills needed by the care-givers in the
Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
105
HO5
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the safety skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital Territory,
Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis five are presented in Table 11 below.
Table 11: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on safety skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).
SN Safety skillsTotal Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Ability to know what to do in emergency cases
125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS
2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads
147.482 0.465 0.551 0.65 NS
3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary
117.377 0.377 0.578 0.63 NS
4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children
132.097 1.509 4.760 0.00 S*
5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children
132.713 0.557 1.071 0.36 NS
6 Being vigilant at all times with children 122.607 0.614 1.477 0.22 NS7 Ability to ensure that children are taken
home only by their parents or guidance198.834 0.346 0.724 0.53 NS
8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building
107.449 0.342 0.562 0.64 NS
9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling
131.482 0.306 0.140 0.93 NS
10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor
151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS
11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks
122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS
Cluster Summary 135.386 0.581 1.248 0.46 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05Degree of freedom = 493
106
Table 11 reveals that the p-values of 10 out of the 11 items in the table
ranged from 0.15 to 0.93 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This
revealed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 10 safety skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on
the 10 items.
The p-value on the remaining one item, specifically item 4 was 0.00 which
was less than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that there is significant
difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents
on the item. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents is rejected on
item 4 in the table. The result of the Post-Hoc analysis revealed that the
significance difference in the mean ratings of the respondents is between care-
givers and nurses (See Appendix I, page 196).
The overall p-value of the safety skills cluster was 0.46 which was greater
than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference
in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early child care
experts and nurses on safety skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal
Capital Territory, Abuja.
HO6
There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in
pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the hygiene skills needed by the care-givers for child upbringing in
Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
The data for testing hypothesis six are presented in Table 12 below.
107
Table 12: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).
SN Hygiene Skills Total Sum of Square
Total Mean Square F-cal
P-value Rmks
1 Using hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the children’s nose
117.296 0.341 0.425 0.74 NS
2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children
110.866 0.295 0.305 0.82 NS
3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination
112.113 0.519 1.285 0.28 NS
4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other
125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS
5 Avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food
124.874 0.420 0.655 0.58 NS
6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean
108.178 0.632 1.895 0.12 NS
7 Regularly washing / cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment
108.874 0.385 0.743 0.53 NS
8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones
105.182 1.164 4.575 0.01 S*
9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons
119.498 0.542 1.241 0.29 NS
10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor
179.401 0.994 1.744 0.16 NS
11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing
150.607 0.741 1.431 0.23 NS
12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet
254.559 0.756 0.460 0.71 NS
13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities
115.498 1.525 5.692 0.00 S*
14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold
150.235 1.759 4.907 0.00 S*
Cluster Summary 134.458 0.767 1.930 0.33 NS
Note: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493
108
Table 12 shows that the p-values of 11 out of the 14 items in the table
ranged from 0.12 to 0.82 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This
showed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 11 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the
mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on
the 11 hygiene skill items.
The p-value on the remaining 3 items, specifically items 8, 13 and 14 were
0.01, 0.00 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of significance.
This indicated that there is significant difference in the mean ratings of the
responses of the four groups of respondents on the 3 items. Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the
four groups of respondents is rejected on items 8, 13 and 14 in the table. The
result of the Post-Hoc analysis revealed that the significance difference in the
mean ratings of the respondents is among care-givers, childhood experts and
nurses (See Appendix I, page 200).
The overall p-value of the hygiene skills cluster was 0.33 which was
greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant
difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in the
Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
109
Findings of the Study
Based on the data analysed, the following major findings emerged:
Feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study as regards to research question one found out that care-givers
needed 17 out of the 18 identified feeding skills in pre-primary schools in FCT
Abuja. The 17 feeding skills needed by the care-givers include:
The care-givers should:
1. have basic idea of nutrition
2. Advise parents of the type of food preparation method to give their
children
3. Advise parents on the quantity of food to give their children
4. feed children on time
5. Teach children to avoid talking when eating
6. Wash children eating wares immediately after eating
7. sterilize children’s feeding utensils
8. keep children feeding utensils properly when not used
9. know the constituents of a balanced meal
10.Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods
11.give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket
12.show affection while feeding the children
13.help older children feed themselves
14.Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding
110
15.Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them
16.Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered
17.Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries
H01: The study on hypothesis one found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on 16 out of the 18 feeding skills needed by the
care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining 2
feeding skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of the four groups of respondents.
Clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study in respect to research question two found that care-givers
needed 16 out of the 18 identified clothing skills in pre-primary schools in FCT
Abuja. The 16 clothing skills needed by the care-givers include:
1. Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.
2. Ability to properly care for children’s clothing
3. Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers
4. Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability
5. Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather
6. Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather
7. Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather
8. Washing children’s clothings with mild soap
9. Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall
111
10. Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces
11. Allowing children to dress themselves atimes
12. Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes
with ventro instead of buckles
13. Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts
14. Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line,
space and form
15. Ability to use colour wheel
16. Ability to combine colours
H02: The study on hypothesis two found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on 14 out of the 18 clothing skills needed by the
care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining 4
clothing skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of the four groups of respondents.
Toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study in respect to research question three found that care-givers
needed all the 11 identified toilet training skills in pre-primary schools in FCT
Abuja. The 11 toilet training skills needed by the care-givers are as follows:
1. Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning
2. Ability to toilet training the child using potty
3. Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place
4. Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating
112
5. Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty
6. Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet
7. Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly
8. Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls
9. Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use
10. Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the
toilet
11. Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the
toilet
H03: The study on hypothesis three found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early
child care experts and nurses on 6 out of 11 toilet training skills needed by the
care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Although, on the remaining 5
toilet training skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the
responses of the four groups of respondents.
Interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study as regards to research question four found that care-givers
needed all the 21 identified interacting skills in pre-primary schools in FCT
Abuja. The 21 interacting skills needed by the care-givers include the following:
1. Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents
2. Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents
3. Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s
4. Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents
113
5. Ability to know the right of the child
6. Ability to recognize the right of the child
7. Ability to recognize the feelings of the child
8. Ability to reassure children when they need help
9. Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs
10. Ability to respond without delay to children’s need
11. Ability to give clear instructions to children about play
12. Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to
understand
13. Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner
14. Ability to praise the children for what they do well
15. Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes
16. Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways
17. Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children
18. Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them
19. Come to children’s level when interacting with them
20. Ability to teach children how to interact with peers
21. Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully
H04: The study on hypothesis four found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics
teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 16 out of the 21 interacting skills
needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on
114
the remaining 6 interacting skills, there are significant differences in the mean
ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents.
Safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study as regards to research question five found that care-givers
needed all the 11 identified safety skills in pre-primary schools in FCT Abuja.
The 11 safety skills needed by the care-givers include:
1. Ability to know what to do in emergency cases
2. Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads
3. Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when
necessary
4. Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children
5. Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides
beyond the reach of children
6. Being vigilant at all times with children
7. Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or
guidance
8. Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building
9. Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and
stumbling
10. Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor
11. Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs
to avoid shocks.
H05: The study on hypothesis five found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics
115
teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 10 out of the 11 safety skills
needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Although, on
the remaining 1 safety skill, there was significant difference in the mean ratings
of the responses of the four groups of respondents.
Hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study as regards to research question six found that care-givers
needed all the 14 identified hygiene skills in pre-primary schools in FCT Abuja.
The 14 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers include the following:
1. Using hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the
children’s nose
2. Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children
3. Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination
4. Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up
with each other
5. Avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food
6. Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean
7. Regularly washing / cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment
8. Preventing children from eating food that has bones
9. Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons
10.Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the
floor
116
11.Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor
without washing
12.Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet
13.Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities
14.Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold
H06: The study on hypothesis six found that there are no significant
differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics
teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 11 out of the 14 hygiene skills
needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other
hand, the findings on the remaining 3 hygiene skills showed that there are
significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of
respondents.
Discussion of Findings of the Study
Feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The findings of this study as regards to research question one showed that
the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following feeding skills for
caring for pre-primary school pupils: ability to have basic idea of nutrition,
advising parents of the type of food preparation method to give their children,
advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children, ability to feed
children on time, teaching children to avoid talking when eating, washing
children eating wares immediately after eating, ability to sterilize children’s
feeding utensils, ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used,
117
ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal, giving the children warm
food instead of too hot or too cold foods, ability to give children the right
quantity of food for their age bracket, ability to show affection while feeding the
children, ability to help older children feed themselves, making sure children are
properly positioned during feeding among, teaching children good table manners
such as the use of cutleries among others.
The findings of this study on care giving skills required by care-givers in
feeding the child agreed with the findings of Anuna (2005) who found that care-
givers needed feeding skills such as using artificial milk to feed the child, testing
the temperature of the milk by using the bottle to touch their cheek before using
it to feed the baby, sterilizing feeding utensils in the sterilizing kit, showing
affection to the child when feeding them, giving the child balanced meals always
and force feeding the child when he refuse it among others.
The findings of this study on feeding skills needed by care-givers agreed
with the findings of Carruth and Skinner (2002) on feeding behaviors and other
motor development in healthy children where the authors found that care-givers
need skills in teaching children on grasps food with hands, removing food from
spoon with lips without spilling much, self-feeding with spoon without spilling
much, drinking from sippy cup without help, drinking from a regular cup without
help, keep children feeding utensils properly, and giving children the right
quantity of food for their age bracket. In addition, the findings of this study is in
consonance with that of Butte, Cobb, Graney, Heird and Rickard (2004) where
the authors found that care-givers interactions and communication with children
118
during feeding influences the infant’s ability to progress in feeding skills and
consume a nutritionally adequate diet. The findings of the authors further showed
that the relationship nurtured when the care-giver correctly interprets the infant’s
feeding cues and abilities enhance teaching children to avoid talking when eating,
basic idea of nutrition, attentive to the infant’s needs, and responds appropriately
to satisfy their feeding needs.
Clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The findings of this study in respect to research question two revealed
that the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following clothing skills
for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils: change children’s cloths
anytime they are dirty, ability to properly care for children’s clothing, putting the
children’s clothing in clean and dry containers, ability to cloth children with
properly fitted cloth for comfortability, clothing children with cotton fabrics in
hot weather, clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather, clothing
children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather, washing children’s clothings
with mild soap, clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do
not fall, helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces, allowing
children to dress themselves atimes, ability to use the elements of design in
teaching children example: line, space and form, ability to use colour wheel and
combination.
The findings of this study on clothing skills needed by care-givers
conformed with the report of a study carried out by Alzheimer’s Association
(2010) where the identified clothing skills needed by care-givers to include:
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helping to have the person get dressed at the same time each day so he or she will
come to expect it as part of the daily routine, encourage the person to dress
himself or herself to whatever degree possible, planning to allow extra time so
there is no pressure or rush, allowing the person to choose from a limited
selection of outfits, store some clothes in another room to reduce the number of
choices, keeping only one or two outfits in the closet or dresser, arranging the
clothes in the order they are to be put on to help the person move through the
process, handing the person one item at a time or give clear, step-by-step
instructions if the person needs prompting and choose clothing that is
comfortable, easy to get on and off, and easy to care for. The findings of the
study further corroborated the result of the study of Smart and Wood (2008) who
investigated family acceptance and use of clothing strategies for early childhood
children and found that care family members required such skills which include
putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers, clothing children with
cotton fabrics in hot weather and laundry children’s clothing with mild soap.
In addition, the findings of this study on clothing skills needed by care-
giver corroborated that submission of Anyakoha and Eluwa (1999) who outlined
children clothing care to include: provision of suitable storage for children
clothings, wash children’s clothing with mild soap, rinse children’s clothing
thoroughly to remove all washing powder, dry cleaning children clothing in the
sun whenever possible to kill the germs on the cloths, iron children cloth to
improve its appearance and kill any germs that may have accepted other laundry
processes, providing a separate bucket with a lid for soaking children napkin, if
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the napkin is soiled , shake or scrap off as much of the stool as you can and avoid
stiffen children’s clothing among others.
Toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The findings of this study as regards to research question three showed
that the respondents agreed that care-givers in pre-primary schools needed toilet
training skills for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils. The toilet
training skills needed include: ability to toilet training the child using potty,
ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place, cleaning the
potty immediately after the child finishes defecating, ability to gradually stop
children at the appropriate age, from using potty, washing hands properly with
soap after visiting toilet, ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat
properly, teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls, ability to teach older
children how to flush the toilet after use, ability to teach older children how to
clean themselves after using the toilet and ability to teach children not to be
talking and playing while using the toilet.
The findings of this study is in conformity with the findings of National
Health and Safety Performance Standards (2002) which reported that: care-givers
need to learn the words the child’s family uses for body parts, urine and bowel
movements to be consistent with what the child is doing at home, toilet training
involves many steps (discussing, undressing, going, wiping, dressing, flushing,
hand washing) reinforce the child’s success at each step, help children recognize
when they are urinating or have a bowel movement, they must be aware of what
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they are doing before they can do anything about it, care-givers should included
toilet training into the daily routine such as reading books, songs and games that
reinforce the skill needed to toilet train, and encourage parents to dress children
in easy to remove clothing to help children be successful in undressing and
dressing.
The findings of the study on toilet training skills needed by care-givers is
in consonance with the findings of Gorski (2009) who identified anticipatory
toilet guidance for children to include: avoiding pressurizing children to use the
potty chair if the child does not want to, use a chair, not a seat that fits over the
toilet seat, ensuring consistent encouragement for toilet training of children, toilet
training a child when the child is not experiencing any other changes and
encourage parents to resist external pressures by family or other day care
provider. In addition, the findings of this study on care giving skills required by
care-givers in toilet training the child agreed with the findings of Anuna (2005)
who found that care-givers in motherless babies home in Imo State required skills
in toilet training child using potty, washing the potty immediately after use by the
child, changing the child’s napkin as soon as it was wet and encouraging the
child to use the toilet each morning among others.
Interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The study on research question four found that the respondents agreed that
care-givers in pre-primary schools needed interacting skills for effective caring
for pre-primary school pupils. Some of the interacting skills needed as found out
by the study include: ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents,
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ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents, ability
to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s, being clear and
specific when interacting with the children’s parents, ability to know the right of
the child, ability to recognize the right of the child, ability to recognize the
feelings of the child, ability to reassure children when they need help, ability to
be sensitive to children’s needs, ability to respond without delay to children’s
need, ability to give clear instructions to children about play, using simple and
positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand, telling children
what they want in a pleasant manner, ability to praise the children for what they
do well, encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes, ability to
discipline the children in firm and positive ways, ability to share non-verbal
interaction like smiles to interact with children, and ability to use children’s
language when interacting with them among other.
The findings of the study on interacting skills needed by care-givers is in
line with the report of Basic Skills Agency (2012) which showed that some of the
specific interactive skills needed by child care-givers include: listening carefully
to both the children and their parents; asking sensible questions to clarify
situations, giving clear explanations and instructions (for example to children
about play and development activities, speaking with clear and pleasant voice
when reading or storytelling to children, using a friendly and positive tone of
voice and body language to establish and maintain good relationships with
children among others. The findings of this study agreed with that of Izuwa
(2002) carried out a study on in-service needs of child care-givers in Aba
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education zone of Abia state and found that some of the competences considered
as importance included the teachers’ ability to: be patient, honest and sincere;
express love towards the children; be self-discipline and composed; arouse
curiosity in the children and so on.
In addition, the findings of the study on interacting skills needed by care-
givers supported the report of Sinclair, Hefner and Perez (2010). The purpose of
their study was to present interactive literacy skills which will engage young
children and the adults who care for them. Adults will develop confidence in
their skills to teach and foster early literacy skills. The information presented in
this workshop is intended to inform, assist, and inspire: parents, care-givers,
teachers, librarians, as well as anyone who would like to become more
knowledgeable about promoting early literacy skills in young children. As part of
the interacting skills needed to be possessed by care-givers, the authors found
that relying on the give and take of conversation with each other and on a shared
context to obtain clues for understanding the message and the meaning of any
new words and cognitive skills and interspersing conversation with the reading of
a book, not just reading straight through the book are needed by care-givers to
effectively interact with children.
Safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The findings of this study as regards to research question five showed that
the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following safety skills for
effective caring for pre-primary school pupils: ability to know what to do in
emergency cases, keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to
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the roads, knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when
necessary, keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children,
ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the
reach of children, being vigilant at all times with children, ability to ensure that
children are taken home only by their parents or guidance, ability to know how to
use the fire escape routes in the building, ability to keep floor areas clean and free
to avoid children tripping and stumbling, wiping water, food or other liquids to
avoid slippery spots on the floor, and covering electrical outlets or naked wires
with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks.
The findings of this study on safety skills needed by care-givers agreed
with the report of Alzheimer’s Association (2010) who reported that that care-
givers need to be safety conscious to install secure locks on all outside windows
and doors, remove the locks on bathroom doors to prevent the person from
accidentally locking himself or herself in, using childproof latches on kitchen
cabinets and anyplace where cleaning supplies or other chemicals are kept, label
medications and keep them locked up, make sure knives, lighters and matches,
and guns are secured and out of reach of children, keep the house free from
clutter, remove scatter rugs and anything else that might contribute to a fall,
make sure lighting is good both inside and outside the home, be alert to and
address kitchen-safety issues, such as the person forgetting to turn off the stove
after cooking, consider installing an automatic shut-off switch on the stove to
prevent burns or fire and be sure to secure or put away anything that could cause
danger, both inside and outside the home.
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The findings of the study also corroborated with the finding of Beach
(2000) who identified safety precautions to be taking by care-givers to include:
reducing the temperature on the water heater this will prevent accidental
scalding, move frequently used items in the kitchen or bath to an area that is easy
to reach. It is important to avoid climbing on step stools or chairs to retrieve
items, remove all throw rugs or replace them with items that have non-skid
backing, make sure all banisters, railings, and grab bars are securely attached to
the wall, check towel racks and toilet paper holders that might be used to help
stand up from the toilet or step out of the tub, install an intercom to the outside so
visitors can be identified prior to entry, secure furniture in place that is used to
help rise from a chair and check electrical outlets and cords.
Hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools
The findings of this study as regards to research question six showed that
the respondents agreed that care-givers in pre-primary schools needed hygiene
skills for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils. The hygiene skills
needed include: using hygienic toiletries/handkerchief/tissue paper to clean the
children’s nose, thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children,
ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination, ability to
separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other,
avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food, ability to ensure that
children’s toilet facilities are clean, regularly washing/cleaning children’s toys
and playing equipment, preventing children from eating food that has bones,
ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons, preventing children
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from picking food items that have dropped on the floor, preventing children from
using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing, ability to teach
children how to wash their hands after using the toilet, providing children with
protective clothing for messy activities and ability to handle children’s food to
avoid being cold.
This finding is in line with the findings of Bupa (2008) stated that
maintaining high levels of personal and kitchen hygiene are important and
effective ways to stop germs from spreading. Bacteria can spread from raw food,
in particular meat, to food that has already been cooked or is eaten raw, such as
salads. To ensure hygienic food preparation for children therefore, it is also very
important that food is stored in the right place (eg fridge or freezer) and at the
correct temperature. WHO (2008) added that the working environment should
also be clean and easy to clean.
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In addition, the findings of the study of Health Expert Organisation (2010)
recommended the following general hygiene practices theses include: hand
washing when working with food; avoidance of food that has fallen to the floor
even if the floor looks clean; Do not cook if unwell, have a known infection or
have an open and uncovered wound; use of a clean and washable apron will help
to prevent the cross contamination of bacteria from clothing to food stuff and
vice versa among others. Also in agreement with the findings of this study, Food
Standard Agency (2008) reported that there are basic food safety and security
measures against the growth and spread of bacteria, these are: ensuring food
areas are clean and good standards of personal hygiene are maintained, cooking
foods thoroughly and keeping foods at the right temperature.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter presented the restatement of the problem, procedure used for
carrying out the study, major findings of the study, conclusion based on the
findings, implications of the study, limitations of the study, recommendation for
implementation and suggestions for further study.
Restatement of the Problem
For the influence of the care-givers to be positive, they need to be skillful
in carrying out their duties such that they know what to do for the child, when to
do it, how to do it, for how long to do it, and so on. These skills are important
because when they are not possessed by the care-givers, the result is that the
child will not be properly taken care of. This further results in the child having
poor social and emotional adjustment which will continue to hinder the child’s all
round development and well being. Since the future of Nigeria depends on how
well the present generation of her children is looked after by care-givers who are
knowledgeable, skilled and equipped for the task, it also means that if the future
of Nigeria is to be taken seriously, the skills of child care-givers in Nigeria need
to be assessed to identify the strength and weakness of such care-givers in such
areas of care-giving skills.
The above situation is necessary more so when it has been reported that
the care-givers in most of the child care-giving centers and schools in most cities
(including the FCT), are not very skillful child care-givers. The authors noted
that they lack the knowledge essential for the social, emotional, and physical
development of children under their care. These are sources of worry for any
127
129
interested home economist who would have reasons to ask: could it be that those
who employ these care-givers do not even know what skills to look out for in
their staff? Could it be that those who present themselves as child care-givers are
not aware of what skills are needed for proficient performance of their tasks
which are very important for the development of the children under their care?
For these reasons, this study was carried out to identify skills needed by care-
givers in the pre-primary schools in Abuja? In carrying the study, the following
specific purposes guided the study:
1. feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,
Abuja,
2. clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,
3. toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,
4. interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,
5. safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,
6. hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.
Summary of the Procedure Used for the Study
Six research questions were developed and answered by the study while
six null hypotheses were formulated and tested at p ≤ 0.05 level of significance.
The study adopted descriptive survey research design and was carried out in FCT
Abuja. The population for the study consist of 581 respondents in the six local
area councils in the area of study. These include 236 pre-primary school care-
givers in the study area, 265 secondary schools Home Economics teachers, 16
early child care experts and 64 nurses in the study area. Due to the manageable
130
size of the population, the entire number of 581 respondents were used, therefore
there was no sampling.
For data collection, two sets of instruments were used namely: Focus
Group Discussion (FGD) Guide and structured questionnaire titled: “Child Care
Skills Needed by Care-givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ)”. The questionnaire
contains 93 structured items. The instrument was subjected to face validation by
three experts. To determine the reliability of the instrument, Cronbach Alpha
reliability co-efficient was used to test the internal consistency of the instrument.
Reliability coefficients of 0.74 was obtained for feeding skills, 0.69 for clothing
skills, 0.82 for toilet training skills, 0.85 for safety skills, 0.78 for interacting
skills and 0.83 for hygiene while an overall reliability coefficient of 0.79 was
obtained for the entire instrument.
The data for the study was collected by the the researcher with the help of
five trained research assistants. Out of a total of 581 copies of the questionnaire
administered, 556 copies were completely filled and retrieved representing
95.6% rate of return. The focus group discussion (FGD) was carried out with 30
discussants. The data collected from the questionnaire administered were
analyzed using mean for answering the research questions while Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypotheses at p≤0.05 level of
significance.
Major Findings of the Study
The findings of the focus group discussion (FGD) revealed that the
responses of the discussants suggested the need to carry out the study.
131
Based on the data collected and analysed, the study identified 90 skills
needed by care-givers for effective management of pre-school children in FCT
Abuja. Specifically, the study identified:
1. 17 feeding skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in
FCT Abuja.
2. 16 clothing skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.
3. 11 toilet training skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools.
4. 21 interacting skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary
schools.
5. 11 safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.
6. 14 hygiene skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.
7. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,
home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 16
out of the 18 feeding skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal
Capital Territory, Abuja while on the remaining 2 feeding skills there are
significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents.
8. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,
home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 14
out of the 18 clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal
Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining four clothing skills,
there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses of
the respondents.
132
9. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,
home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 6
out of the 11 toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal
Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there are significant
difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the respondents on the
remaining 5 toilet training skills.
10. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses
of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 16 out of the 21 interacting skills needed by the care-givers
in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there are
significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the
respondents on the remaining 5 interacting skills.
11. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses
of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 10 out of the 11 safety skills needed by the care-givers in
the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, there are significant
difference in the mean ratings of the respondents on the remaining one
safety skill.
12. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses
of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and
nurses on the 11 out of the 14 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in
the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there is
significant difference in the mean ratings of the respondents on the
remaining 3 hygiene skills.
133
Implications of the Study
The aims of raising educationally sound children in pre-school depend
largely on the quality of care given to them by the care-givers at the pre-school
level of education. In addition, the roles played by the parents, Home economics
educators, curriculum planners and policy makers at this level is also crucial.
To the care-givers and parents, the findings of this study will provide
useful information that will assist to expose them to more care giving skills for
desirable change in the growth and development of the children under their care.
When they are updated with the needed skills, the implication will be felt on
proper feeding, clothing, protection, and socialization of the children for better
development.
The outcome of this study when published will make an immense
contribution to the advancement of knowledge in the field of Home Economics
as Home economics educators will gain ideas and proper understanding of the
required skills in care giving for proper growth and development of pre-school
children.
The findings of this study will provide to curriculum planners of pre-
primary school programmes useful information in developing course contents
useful for care-giver on care giving skills. The findings will also be relevant to
educational institutions that offer courses in Child care education. This is because
these findings will guide those in charge of these institutions in choosing which
skills they need to emphasize while training care-givers.
134
Conclusion
Child care-giving skills, like other skills, are learned and not inborn traits.
For the impact of the care-givers to be positive on the pre-school children, they
need to be skillful in carrying out their duties such that they know what to do for
the child, when to do it, how to do it, for how long to do it and at what stage to
do it. These skills are important because when they are not possessed by the care-
givers, the resultant effect is shown on the pre-school children inform of poor
physical, psychological and educational development of the child. This
necessitated the study to investigate child care skills needed by care-givers in
pre-primary schools in Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. It was therefore
found that care-givers required feeding, clothing, toilet training, interacting,
safety and hygiene skills for effective management of pre-school children in FCT
Abuja.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from this study, the
following recommendations were made that:
1. The Federal and state governments through their respective parastatals and
administrators of pre-primary schools such as Universal Basic Education
Commission (UBEC), State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB),
United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF), Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC), National
Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) and Ministry of
Education (MOE) should help package the identified care giving skills
135
into programmes for training care-givers and other groups that care for the
child for proper physical, social and psychological development of the
child.
2. The concerned parastatals and administrators of pre-primary schools at
Federal and state levels should ensure regular and timely workshops and
conferences on care giving skills where care-givers will be specifically
made the participants of such educational exercise.
3. The administrators of pre-primary schools at Federal and state levels
should ensure the recruitment of competent pre-school care-givers for
effective care-giving to children in pre-schools.
Suggestions for Further Research
The following related areas have been suggested for further research:
1. Child care skills needed by parents for effective child up-bringing in
Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja.
2. Child care skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in other
states in the country.
3. Constraints militating against effective service delivery of pre-school
teachers in FCT Abuja.
4. Effects of pre-school education on academic achievement of primary
school students in Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja.
136
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
NUMBER OF PUBLIC EARLY CHILD CARE CENTRES (PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS) BY LOCAL AREA COUNCIL (LEA) IN
FCT, ABUJA
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
APPENDIX B
POPULATION OF CARE-GIVERS IN EARLY CHILD CARE CENTRES (PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS) IN FCT, ABUJA
154
155
APPENDIX C
POPULATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL HOME ECONOMICS TEACHERS IN FCT, ABUJA
156
157
APPENDIX D
LETTER OF REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Department of Vocational Teacher EducationUniversity of Nigeria, Nsukka31/01/2013
Dear Sir/Madam
Request for Validation of Research Instrument
I am a postgraduate student of the above named department/university
currently carrying out a research study titled: “Child-Care Skills Needed by
Care-givers in Pre-Primary Schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT),
Abuja.” Kindly read the attached questions and assess their validity.
Attached also is a copy of the research purpose and research questions for
your guidance. Please check [√] beside each serial number of items you
consider relevant and [χ] for items that you consider irrelevant.
Your comments and suggestions that could enhance the validity of the
instrument will be highly appreciated.
Thanks in anticipation for your co-operation.
Yours faithfully,
Panyi Amy Blessis
158
APPENDIX E
LETTER OF REQUEST FOR RESPONSE TO RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Department of Vocational Teacher EducationUniversity of Nigeria, Nsukka18.02.2013
Dear Sir/Madam
Request for Response to Research Instrument
I am a postgraduate student of the above named department/university
currently carrying out a research study titled: “Child-Care Skills Needed by
Care-givers in Pre-Primary Schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT),
Abuja.” Kindly respond the items below as you think appropriate.
Thanks in anticipation for your co-operation.
Yours faithfully,
Panyi Amy Blessis
159
APPENDIX F
QUESTIONNAIRE
PROJECT TITLE: CHILD-CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS IN PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY (FCT), ABUJA
QUESTIONNAIRE TITLE: CHILD CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS (CCSNC).
PART I: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Please, provide the information as appropriate1. Name of Care Giving Institution ____________________________ 2. Owner of Institution: Government [ ]
Private [ ]3. Educational Qualification:
FSLC [ ] WASC [ ] TC II [ ] OND [ ]HND [ ] NCE [ ] B.Sc [ ] M.Sc [ ]Ph.D [ ]
4. For how long have you worked as a care-giver:1-5yrs [ ] 6-10yrs [ ] 11-15yrs [ ] 16yrs and above [ ]
PART II
CHILD-CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS IN PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Instructions:Please, tick (√) to the response category that best represent your view on each
item. The response scales and their points are:
Strongly Agree (SA) - 4
Agree (A) - 3
Disagree (D) - 2
Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1
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SECTION A: The feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja
SN Feeding Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Ability to have basic idea of nutrition.
2 Advising parents of the type of food preparation method to give their children
3 Advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children
4 Ability to feed children on time
5 Teaching children to avoid talking when eating
6 Teaching children to avoid eating in-between meals
7 Washing children eating wares immediately after eating
8 Ability to sterilize children’s feeding utensils
9 Ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used
10 Ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal
11 Giving the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods
12 Ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket
13 Ability to show affection while feeding the children
14 Ability to help older children feed themselves
15 Making sure children are properly positioned during feeding
16 Facing the children at their eyes levels when feeding them
17 Ensuring that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered
18 Teaching children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.
SECTION B: The clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja
SN Clothing Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.
2 Ability to properly care for children’s clothing
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3 Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers4 Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for
comfortability5 Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather
6 Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather
7 Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather
8 Washing children’s clothings with mild soap
9 Allowing children sometimes to select what they want to wear
10 Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall
11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces
12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes
13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes with ventro instead of buckles
14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts
15 Advising parents to buy clothing
16 Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line, space and form
17 Ability to use colour wheel
18 Ability to combine colours
SECTION C: The toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja
SN Toilet Training Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning
2 Ability to toilet training the child using potty
3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place
4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating
5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty
6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet
7 Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat
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properly8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls
9 Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use
10 Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet
11 Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet
SECTION D: The interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja
SN Interacting Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents
2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents
3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s
4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents
5 Ability to know the right of the child
6 Ability to recognize the right of the child
7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child
8 Ability to reassure children when they need help
9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs
10 Ability to respond without delay to children’s needs
11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play
12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand
13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner
14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well
15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes
16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways
17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children
18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with
163
them19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them
20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers
21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully
SECTION E: The safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT
SN Safety Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Ability to know what to do in emergency cases
2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads
3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary
4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children
5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children
6 Being vigilant at all times with children
7 Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or guidance
8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building
9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling
10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor
11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks
SECTION F: The hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT
SN Hygiene Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD
1 Using hygienic toiletries/handkerchief/tissue paper to clean the children’s nose
2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children
3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination
4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other
164
5 Avoiding coughing/sneezing into children’s food
6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean
7 Regularly washing/cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment
8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones
9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons
10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor
11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing
12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet
13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities
14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold
165
APPENDIX G
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) GUIDE
i What are the child feeding skills that are needed by care-givers for caring for
the child in pre-primary schools in your locality?
ii In pre-primary school, what are the child clothing skills that are required by
the care-givers?
iii What toileting training skills are needed by care-givers for caring for the child
in pre-primary schools?
iv What are the child safety skills that you think should be possessed by care-
givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja?
v For quality interaction with the child, what are the child interaction skills that
are needed by care-givers for caring for the child in pre-primary schools?
vi What are the hygiene skills that are needed by care-givers for caring for the
child in pre-primary schools in your locality?
166
APPENDIX HRESULTS OF RELIABILITY TEST
Section A. Feeding Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.743 18
Section B. Clothing Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.691 18
Section C. Toilet Training Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.816 11
167
Section D. Safety Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.847 21
Section E. Interacting Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.782 11
Section F. Hygiene Skills N %
Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.833 14
168
OVERALL RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT
N %Cases Valid 50 100.0
Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0
Reliability StatisticsCronbach's
Alpha N of Items.790 93
169
APPENDIX I
RESULT OF DATA ANALYSEDSection A. Feeding Skills
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
AITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5559 .64876
AITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6073 .54385
AITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.6883 .50553
AITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.2939 .54695
AITEM5 556 3.00 4.00 3.3887 .48794
AITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 2.4330 .51763
AITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.6478 .51884
AITEM8 556 3.00 4.00 3.5425 .49869
AITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.4409 .44774
AITEM10 556 2.00 4.00 3.3206 .46685
AITEM11 556 2.00 4.00 3.5939 .51643
AITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.0951 .55348
AITEM13 556 2.00 4.00 3.3684 .49939
AITEM14 556 2.00 4.00 2.9563 .48777
AITEM15 556 3.00 4.00 2.8499 .47422
AITEM16 556 3.00 4.00 3.1482 .47688
AITEM17 556 1.00 4.00 3.5077 .50400
AITEM18 556 1.00 4.00 3.3721 .50328
Valid N (listwise) 556
170
Section B. Clothing Skills Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
BITEM1 556 3.00 4.00 3.4761 .46843
BITEM2 556 3.00 4.00 3.5721 .46994
BITEM3 556 2.00 4.00 3.2126 .46190
BITEM4 556 2.00 4.00 3.6559 .49233
BITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.0742 .60324
BITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.5506 .54463
BITEM7 556 3.00 4.00 3.4777 .50001
BITEM8 556 3.00 4.00 2.8385 .49902
BITEM9 556 3.00 4.00 2.4749 .49486
BITEM10 556 3.00 4.00 3.6032 .48972
BITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.4818 .65473
BITEM12 556 2.00 4.00 3.3320 .51263
BITEM13 556 1.00 4.00 3.5223 .53147
BITEM14 556 2.00 4.00 3.4777 .52379
BITEM15 556 1.00 4.00 2.4606 .54875
BITEM16 556 1.00 4.00 3.2267 .71864
BITEM17 556 2.00 4.00 3.3968 .50602
BITEM18 556 2.00 4.00 3.4899 .50845
Valid N (listwise) 556
171
Section C. Toilet Training Skills Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
CITEM1 556 3.00 4.00 3.4008 .49056CITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6802 .53945CITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .55271CITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5753 .71857CITEM5 556 2.00 4.00 3.4441 .48402CITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.3968 .55203CITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .53024CITEM8 556 1.00 4.00 3.5263 .53887CITEM9 556 1.00 4.00 3.6061 .55432CITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.2304 .53107CITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.5668 .55030Valid N (listwise) 556
Section D. Interacting Skills Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
DITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5061 .56159DITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.4939 .57585DITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.0053 .70066DITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5061 .61006DITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.3765 .55520DITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.4696 .58902DITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.4858 .57571DITEM8 556 1.00 4.00 3.1534 .60160DITEM9 556 1.00 4.00 3.4696 .56798DITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5385 .61550DITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.6182 .57560DITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.5263 .54635DITEM13 556 1.00 4.00 3.4939 .56876DITEM14 556 1.00 4.00 3.5385 .60218DITEM15 556 1.00 4.00 3.3401 .75210DITEM16 556 1.00 4.00 3.0211 .63760DITEM17 556 1.00 4.00 3.5951 .55348DITEM18 556 2.00 4.00 3.3684 .49939DITEM19 556 2.00 4.00 3.2563 .48777DITEM20 556 3.00 4.00 2.9599 1.07422DITEM21 556 3.00 4.00 3.3482 .47688Valid N (listwise) 556
172
Section E. Safety Skills Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
EITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5077 .50400
EITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6939 .54695
EITEM3 556 3.00 4.00 3.5887 .48794
EITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5830 .51763
EITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.6478 .51884
EITEM6 556 3.00 4.00 3.5425 .49869
EITEM7 556 2.00 4.00 3.7409 .44774
EITEM8 556 2.00 4.00 3.7206 .46685
EITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.4939 .51643
EITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5951 .55348
EITEM11 556 2.00 4.00 3.7384 .49939
Valid N (listwise) 556
Section F. Hygiene Skills Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
FITEM1 556 2.00 4.00 3.3563 .48777
FITEM2 556 3.00 4.00 3.6599 .47422
FITEM3 556 3.00 4.00 3.4482 .47688
FITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.3077 .50400
FITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.6721 .50328
FITEM6 556 3.00 4.00 3.5761 .46843
FITEM7 556 3.00 4.00 3.6721 .46994
FITEM8 556 2.00 4.00 3.7126 .46190
FITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.1559 .49233
FITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5142 .60324
FITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .55271
FITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.4753 .71857
FITEM13 556 2.00 4.00 3.5441 .48402
FITEM14 556 1.00 4.00 3.3968 .55203
Valid N (listwise) 556
173
Hypothesis OneANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
AITEM1 Between Groups 1.062 3 .354 .840 .472
Within Groups 206.436 490 .421
Total 207.498 493
AITEM2 Between Groups 2.619 3 .873 3.987 .011Within Groups 143.195 490 .292
Total 145.814 493
AITEM3 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .479 .697Within Groups 125.624 490 .256
Total 125.992 493
AITEM4 Between Groups .496 3 .165 .551 .648Within Groups 146.986 490 .300
Total 147.482 493
AITEM5 Between Groups .414 3 .138 .578 .630Within Groups 116.963 490 .239
Total 117.377 493
AITEM6 Between Groups 3.741 3 1.247 4.760 .003Within Groups 128.357 490 .262
Total 132.097 493
AITEM7 Between Groups .864 3 .288 1.071 .361Within Groups 131.848 490 .269
Total 132.713 493
AITEM8 Between Groups 1.099 3 .366 1.477 .220Within Groups 121.508 490 .248
Total 122.607 493
AITEM9 Between Groups .436 3 .145 .724 .538Within Groups 98.398 490 .201
Total 98.834 493
AITEM10 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .562 .640Within Groups 107.081 490 .219
Total 107.449 493
AITEM11 Between Groups .113 3 .038 .140 .936Within Groups 131.369 490 .268
Total 131.482 493
AITEM12 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305
Total 151.028 493
AITEM13 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744Within Groups 122.638 490 .250
174
Total 122.947 493
AITEM14 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735Within Groups 116.991 490 .239
Total 117.296 493
AITEM15 Between Groups .207 3 .069 .305 .821Within Groups 110.659 490 .226
Total 110.866 493
AITEM16 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279Within Groups 111.238 490 .227
Total 112.113 493
AITEM17 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172Within Groups 123.963 490 .253
Total 125.231 493
AITEM18 Between Groups .499 3 .166 .655 .580
Within Groups 124.375 490 .254
Total 124.874 493
POST HOC Multiple Comparisons
Scheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
AITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01209 .07315 .999 -.1931 .2173
Childhood Experts -.23529 .15742 .526 -.6769 .2063
Nurse/Midwife .02859 .08922 .991 -.2217 .2789
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01209 .07315 .999 -.2173 .1931
Childhood Experts -.24738 .16547 .526 -.7116 .2168
Nurse/Midwife .01651 .10275 .999 -.2717 .3047
Childhood Experts Care-givers .23529 .15742 .526 -.2063 .6769
HomeEc Teachers .24738 .16547 .526 -.2168 .7116
Nurse/Midwife .26389 .17317 .509 -.2219 .7497
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02859 .08922 .991 -.2789 .2217
HomeEc Teachers -.01651 .10275 .999 -.3047 .2717
Childhood Experts -.26389 .17317 .509 -.7497 .2219AITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09989 .06093 .443 -.0710 .2708
Childhood Experts -.13072 .13111 .803 -.4985 .2371Nurse/Midwife .17831* .07430 .125 -.0301 .3868
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09989 .06093 .443 -.2708 .0710Childhood Experts -.23061 .13781 .424 -.6172 .1560Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08558 .840 -.1616 .3185
175
Childhood Experts Care-givers .13072 .13111 .803 -.2371 .4985HomeEc Teachers .23061 .13781 .424 -.1560 .6172Nurse/Midwife .30903 .14423 .206 -.0956 .7136
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.17831* .07430 .125 -.3868 .0301HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08558 .840 -.3185 .1616Childhood Experts -.30903 .14423 .206 -.7136 .0956
AITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02664 .05707 .975 -.1334 .1867Childhood Experts .03922 .12280 .992 -.3053 .3837Nurse/Midwife .08088 .06960 .717 -.1144 .2761
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02664 .05707 .975 -.1867 .1334Childhood Experts .01258 .12908 1.000 -.3495 .3747Nurse/Midwife .05425 .08015 .928 -.1706 .2791
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12280 .992 -.3837 .3053HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12908 1.000 -.3747 .3495Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13509 .992 -.3373 .4206
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.08088 .06960 .717 -.2761 .1144HomeEc Teachers -.05425 .08015 .928 -.2791 .1706Childhood Experts -.04167 .13509 .992 -.4206 .3373
AITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07005 .06173 .732 -.2432 .1031Childhood Experts -.07843 .13284 .951 -.4511 .2942Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07528 1.000 -.2028 .2196
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07005 .06173 .732 -.1031 .2432Childhood Experts -.00839 .13962 1.000 -.4001 .3833Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08670 .845 -.1648 .3216
Childhood Experts Care-givers .07843 .13284 .951 -.2942 .4511HomeEc Teachers .00839 .13962 1.000 -.3833 .4001Nurse/Midwife .08681 .14612 .950 -.3231 .4967
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07528 1.000 -.2196 .2028HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08670 .845 -.3216 .1648Childhood Experts -.08681 .14612 .950 -.4967 .3231
AITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06561 .05506 .701 -.0889 .2201Childhood Experts .07190 .11850 .947 -.2605 .4043Nurse/Midwife -.00102 .06715 1.000 -.1894 .1874
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06561 .05506 .701 -.2201 .0889Childhood Experts .00629 .12455 1.000 -.3431 .3557Nurse/Midwife -.06663 .07734 .863 -.2836 .1503
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.07190 .11850 .947 -.4043 .2605HomeEc Teachers -.00629 .12455 1.000 -.3557 .3431Nurse/Midwife -.07292 .13035 .958 -.4386 .2927
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00102 .06715 1.000 -.1874 .1894HomeEc Teachers .06663 .07734 .863 -.1503 .2836Childhood Experts .07292 .13035 .958 -.2927 .4386
AITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09977 .05768 .394 -.2616 .0620Childhood Experts -.25490* .12413 .240 -.6031 .0933Nurse/Midwife -.22712* .07035 .016 -.4245 -.0298
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09977 .05768 .394 -.0620 .2616Childhood Experts -.15514 .13048 .702 -.5212 .2109
176
Nurse/Midwife -.12736 .08102 .481 -.3546 .0999Childhood Experts Care-givers .25490* .12413 .240 -.0933 .6031
HomeEc Teachers .15514 .13048 .702 -.2109 .5212Nurse/Midwife .02778* .13655 .998 -.3553 .4108
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .22712* .07035 .016 .0298 .4245HomeEc Teachers .12736 .08102 .481 -.0999 .3546Childhood Experts -.02778* .13655 .998 -.4108 .3553
AITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03946 .05846 .928 -.2035 .1245
Childhood Experts -.15686 .12581 .670 -.5098 .1961
Nurse/Midwife -.09783 .07130 .597 -.2978 .1022
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03946 .05846 .928 -.1245 .2035
Childhood Experts -.11740 .13224 .852 -.4884 .2536
Nurse/Midwife -.05837 .08211 .918 -.2887 .1720
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12581 .670 -.1961 .5098
HomeEc Teachers .11740 .13224 .852 -.2536 .4884
Nurse/Midwife .05903 .13839 .980 -.3292 .4473
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09783 .07130 .597 -.1022 .2978
HomeEc Teachers .05837 .08211 .918 -.1720 .2887
Childhood Experts -.05903 .13839 .980 -.4473 .3292
AITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05623 .05612 .800 -.2137 .1012
Childhood Experts -.15686 .12078 .640 -.4957 .1819
Nurse/Midwife -.11520 .06845 .419 -.3072 .0768
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05623 .05612 .800 -.1012 .2137
Childhood Experts -.10063 .12695 .890 -.4567 .2555
Nurse/Midwife -.05896 .07883 .906 -.2801 .1622
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12078 .640 -.1819 .4957
HomeEc Teachers .10063 .12695 .890 -.2555 .4567
Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13286 .992 -.3310 .4144
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .11520 .06845 .419 -.0768 .3072
HomeEc Teachers .05896 .07883 .906 -.1622 .2801
Childhood Experts -.04167 .13286 .992 -.4144 .3310
AITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.06043 .05050 .698 -.2021 .0812
Childhood Experts .06536 .10869 .948 -.2395 .3702
Nurse/Midwife .01328 .06159 .997 -.1595 .1861
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .06043 .05050 .698 -.0812 .2021
Childhood Experts .12579 .11424 .750 -.1947 .4463
Nurse/Midwife .07370 .07094 .782 -.1253 .2727
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.06536 .10869 .948 -.3702 .2395
HomeEc Teachers -.12579 .11424 .750 -.4463 .1947
Nurse/Midwife -.05208 .11956 .979 -.3875 .2833
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01328 .06159 .997 -.1861 .1595
HomeEc Teachers -.07370 .07094 .782 -.2727 .1253
Childhood Experts .05208 .11956 .979 -.2833 .3875
AITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01431 .05269 .995 -.1335 .1621
Childhood Experts -.06536 .11338 .954 -.3834 .2527
Nurse/Midwife -.06883 .06426 .766 -.2491 .1114
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01431 .05269 .995 -.1621 .1335
Childhood Experts -.07966 .11917 .930 -.4140 .2546
Nurse/Midwife -.08314 .07400 .738 -.2907 .1245
177
Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .11338 .954 -.2527 .3834
HomeEc Teachers .07966 .11917 .930 -.2546 .4140
Nurse/Midwife -.00347 .12472 1.000 -.3533 .3464
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .06883 .06426 .766 -.1114 .2491
HomeEc Teachers .08314 .07400 .738 -.1245 .2907
Childhood Experts .00347 .12472 1.000 -.3464 .3533
AITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00617 .05836 1.000 -.1575 .1699
Childhood Experts -.05882 .12558 .974 -.4111 .2935
Nurse/Midwife .02798 .07117 .985 -.1717 .2276
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00617 .05836 1.000 -.1699 .1575
Childhood Experts -.06499 .13200 .970 -.4353 .3053
Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08197 .995 -.2081 .2517
Childhood Experts Care-givers .05882 .12558 .974 -.2935 .4111
HomeEc Teachers .06499 .13200 .970 -.3053 .4353
Nurse/Midwife .08681 .13814 .941 -.3007 .4743
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02798 .07117 .985 -.2276 .1717
HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08197 .995 -.2517 .2081
Childhood Experts -.08681 .13814 .941 -.4743 .3007
AITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664
Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992
Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827
Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265
Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522
HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632
Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679
HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920
Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917
AITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345
Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796
Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818
Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536
AITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112
Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521
Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978
Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128
178
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449
AITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992
Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037
Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013
Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713
Nurse/Midwife .04186 .07523 .958 -.1692 .2529
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429
HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084
Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924
HomeEc Teachers -.04186 .07523 .958 -.2529 .1692
Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453
AITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255
Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353
Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758
Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770
Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131
HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045
Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879
HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906
Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719
AITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758
Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252
Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423
Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259
Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592
HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935
Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123
HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585
Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778
AITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02565 .05678 .977 -.1849 .1336
Childhood Experts -.01307 .12219 1.000 -.3558 .3297
Nurse/Midwife -.09641 .06925 .586 -.2907 .0979
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02565 .05678 .977 -.1336 .1849
Childhood Experts .01258 .12844 1.000 -.3477 .3729
Nurse/Midwife -.07075 .07975 .853 -.2945 .1530
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .12219 1.000 -.3297 .3558
179
HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12844 1.000 -.3729 .3477
Nurse/Midwife -.08333 .13442 .943 -.4604 .2937
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09641 .06925 .586 -.0979 .2907
HomeEc Teachers .07075 .07975 .853 -.1530 .2945
Childhood Experts .08333 .13442 .943 -.2937 .4604
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Hypothesis TwoANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
BITEM1 Between Groups 1.241 3 .414 1.895 .129
Within Groups 106.937 490 .218
Total 108.178 493
BITEM2 Between Groups .493 3 .164 .743 .527Within Groups 108.381 490 .221
Total 108.874 493
BITEM3 Between Groups 2.866 3 .955 4.575 .004Within Groups 102.316 490 .209
Total 105.182 493
BITEM4 Between Groups .901 3 .300 1.241 .294Within Groups 118.597 490 .242
Total 119.498 493
BITEM5 Between Groups 1.896 3 .632 1.744 .157Within Groups 177.505 490 .362
Total 179.401 493
BITEM6 Between Groups 1.530 3 .510 1.727 .161Within Groups 144.705 490 .295
Total 146.235 493
BITEM7 Between Groups .667 3 .222 .889 .447Within Groups 122.588 490 .250
Total 123.255 493
BITEM8 Between Groups 1.897 3 .632 3.564 .014Within Groups 120.872 490 .247
Total 122.769 493
BITEM9 Between Groups 1.452 3 .484 1.988 .115Within Groups 119.277 490 .243
Total 120.729 493
BITEM10 Between Groups 2.377 3 .792 3.351 .019Within Groups 115.858 490 .236
Total 118.235 493
BITEM11 Between Groups 2.062 3 .687 1.609 .186
180
Within Groups 209.274 490 .427
Total 211.336 493
BITEM12 Between Groups .413 3 .138 .522 .667Within Groups 129.142 490 .264
Total 129.555 493
BITEM13 Between Groups .353 3 .118 .416 .742Within Groups 138.902 490 .283
Total 139.255 493
BITEM14 Between Groups .043 3 .014 .052 .985Within Groups 135.212 490 .276
Total 135.255 493
BITEM15 Between Groups .872 3 .291 .966 .409Within Groups 147.581 490 .301
Total 148.453 493
BITEM16 Between Groups .398 3 .133 .256 .857Within Groups 254.209 490 .519
Total 254.607 493
BITEM17 Between Groups 1.733 3 .578 4.274 .009Within Groups 124.501 490 .254
Total 126.235 493
BITEM18 Between Groups .333 3 .111 .428 .733
Within Groups 127.117 490 .259
Total 127.449 493
POST HOC Multiple Comparisons
Scheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
BITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05265 .816 -.1988 .0966
Childhood Experts -.24183 .11330 .209 -.5597 .0760
Nurse/Midwife -.07169 .06421 .742 -.2518 .1084
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05265 .816 -.0966 .1988
Childhood Experts -.19078 .11909 .464 -.5249 .1433
Nurse/Midwife -.02064 .07395 .994 -.2281 .1868
Childhood Experts Care-givers .24183 .11330 .209 -.0760 .5597
HomeEc Teachers .19078 .11909 .464 -.1433 .5249
Nurse/Midwife .17014 .12464 .602 -.1795 .5198
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07169 .06421 .742 -.1084 .2518
HomeEc Teachers .02064 .07395 .994 -.1868 .2281
181
Childhood Experts -.17014 .12464 .602 -.5198 .1795BITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05710 .05300 .763 -.0916 .2058
Childhood Experts -.09804 .11407 .864 -.4180 .2219Nurse/Midwife -.00776 .06464 1.000 -.1891 .1736
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05710 .05300 .763 -.2058 .0916Childhood Experts -.15514 .11989 .643 -.4915 .1812Nurse/Midwife -.06486 .07445 .859 -.2737 .1440
Childhood Experts Care-givers .09804 .11407 .864 -.2219 .4180HomeEc Teachers .15514 .11989 .643 -.1812 .4915Nurse/Midwife .09028 .12548 .915 -.2617 .4423
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00776 .06464 1.000 -.1736 .1891HomeEc Teachers .06486 .07445 .859 -.1440 .2737Childhood Experts -.09028 .12548 .915 -.4423 .2617
BITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10618 .05150 .237 -.2506 .0383Childhood Experts -.31373* .11083 .047 -.6246 -.0028Nurse/Midwife .06127 .06281 .813 -.1149 .2375
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10618 .05150 .237 -.0383 .2506Childhood Experts -.20755 .11649 .367 -.5343 .1192Nurse/Midwife .16745 .07234 .149 -.0355 .3704
Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373* .11083 .047 .0028 .6246HomeEc Teachers .20755 .11649 .367 -.1192 .5343Nurse/Midwife .37500* .12191 .025 .0330 .7170
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06127 .06281 .813 -.2375 .1149HomeEc Teachers -.16745 .07234 .149 -.3704 .0355Childhood Experts -.37500* .12191 .025 -.7170 -.0330
BITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08176 .05545 .538 -.0738 .2373Childhood Experts -.11111 .11932 .833 -.4458 .2236Nurse/Midwife -.02083 .06762 .992 -.2105 .1689
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08176 .05545 .538 -.2373 .0738Childhood Experts -.19287 .12542 .501 -.5447 .1590Nurse/Midwife -.10259 .07788 .629 -.3211 .1159
Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .11932 .833 -.2236 .4458HomeEc Teachers .19287 .12542 .501 -.1590 .5447Nurse/Midwife .09028 .13126 .925 -.2779 .4585
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02083 .06762 .992 -.1689 .2105HomeEc Teachers .10259 .07788 .629 -.1159 .3211Childhood Experts -.09028 .13126 .925 -.4585 .2779
BITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .15279 .06783 .168 -.0375 .3431Childhood Experts -.00654 .14598 1.000 -.4160 .4030Nurse/Midwife .01777 .08273 .997 -.2143 .2498
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.15279 .06783 .168 -.3431 .0375Childhood Experts -.15933 .15344 .782 -.5898 .2711Nurse/Midwife -.13502 .09528 .571 -.4023 .1323
Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .14598 1.000 -.4030 .4160HomeEc Teachers .15933 .15344 .782 -.2711 .5898Nurse/Midwife .02431 .16058 .999 -.4262 .4748
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01777 .08273 .997 -.2498 .2143
182
HomeEc Teachers .13502 .09528 .571 -.1323 .4023Childhood Experts -.02431 .16058 .999 -.4748 .4262
BITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07436 .06125 .688 -.2462 .0974Childhood Experts -.24837 .13180 .315 -.6181 .1214Nurse/Midwife .02941 .07470 .984 -.1801 .2389
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07436 .06125 .688 -.0974 .2462Childhood Experts -.17400 .13854 .665 -.5626 .2146Nurse/Midwife .10377 .08603 .693 -.1375 .3451
Childhood Experts Care-givers .24837 .13180 .315 -.1214 .6181HomeEc Teachers .17400 .13854 .665 -.2146 .5626Nurse/Midwife .27778 .14499 .301 -.1289 .6845
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02941 .07470 .984 -.2389 .1801HomeEc Teachers -.10377 .08603 .693 -.3451 .1375Childhood Experts -.27778 .14499 .301 -.6845 .1289
BITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05771 .05637 .790 -.2158 .1004
Childhood Experts .13725 .12131 .734 -.2031 .4776
Nurse/Midwife .00184 .06875 1.000 -.1910 .1947
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05771 .05637 .790 -.1004 .2158
Childhood Experts .19497 .12751 .506 -.1627 .5527
Nurse/Midwife .05955 .07918 .904 -.1626 .2817
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.13725 .12131 .734 -.4776 .2031
HomeEc Teachers -.19497 .12751 .506 -.5527 .1627
Nurse/Midwife -.13542 .13345 .794 -.5098 .2389
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00184 .06875 1.000 -.1947 .1910
HomeEc Teachers -.05955 .07918 .904 -.2817 .1626
Childhood Experts .13542 .13345 .794 -.2389 .5098
BITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04390 .05598 .893 -.2009 .1131
Childhood Experts -.27451* .12046 .160 -.6124 .0634
Nurse/Midwife -.12173 .06827 .366 -.3132 .0698
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04390 .05598 .893 -.1131 .2009
Childhood Experts -.23061 .12662 .346 -.5858 .1246
Nurse/Midwife -.07783 .07862 .806 -.2984 .1427
Childhood Experts Care-givers .27451* .12046 .160 -.0634 .6124
HomeEc Teachers .23061 .12662 .346 -.1246 .5858
Nurse/Midwife .15278 .13251 .722 -.2189 .5245
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12173 .06827 .366 -.0698 .3132
HomeEc Teachers .07783 .07862 .806 -.1427 .2984
Childhood Experts -.15278 .13251 .722 -.5245 .2189
BITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09175 .05561 .437 -.2477 .0642
Childhood Experts .12418 .11966 .783 -.2115 .4599
Nurse/Midwife .06863 .06782 .795 -.1216 .2589
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09175 .05561 .437 -.0642 .2477
Childhood Experts .21593 .12578 .401 -.1369 .5688
Nurse/Midwife .16038 .07810 .240 -.0587 .3795
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.12418 .11966 .783 -.4599 .2115
HomeEc Teachers -.21593 .12578 .401 -.5688 .1369
Nurse/Midwife -.05556 .13163 .981 -.4248 .3137
183
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06863 .06782 .795 -.2589 .1216
HomeEc Teachers -.16038 .07810 .240 -.3795 .0587
Childhood Experts .05556 .13163 .981 -.3137 .4248
BITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08102* .05480 .535 -.0727 .2348
Childhood Experts .31373* .11793 .071 -.0171 .6446
Nurse/Midwife .11581 .06684 .392 -.0717 .3033
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08102* .05480 .535 -.2348 .0727
Childhood Experts .23270* .12396 .319 -.1150 .5804
Nurse/Midwife .03479 .07697 .977 -.1811 .2507
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.31373* .11793 .071 -.6446 .0171
HomeEc Teachers -.23270* .12396 .319 -.5804 .1150
Nurse/Midwife -.19792 .12973 .508 -.5618 .1660
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.11581 .06684 .392 -.3033 .0717
HomeEc Teachers -.03479 .07697 .977 -.2507 .1811
Childhood Experts .19792 .12973 .508 -.1660 .5618
BITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01998 .07365 .995 -.2266 .1866
Childhood Experts .24837 .15850 .484 -.1963 .6930
Nurse/Midwife -.12316 .08983 .598 -.3751 .1288
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01998 .07365 .995 -.1866 .2266
Childhood Experts .26834 .16660 .459 -.1990 .7357
Nurse/Midwife -.10318 .10345 .803 -.3934 .1870
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.24837 .15850 .484 -.6930 .1963
HomeEc Teachers -.26834 .16660 .459 -.7357 .1990
Nurse/Midwife -.37153 .17436 .210 -.8606 .1176
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12316 .08983 .598 -.1288 .3751
HomeEc Teachers .10318 .10345 .803 -.1870 .3934
Childhood Experts .37153 .17436 .210 -.1176 .8606
BITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06992 .05786 .692 -.0924 .2322
Childhood Experts .01961 .12451 .999 -.3297 .3689
Nurse/Midwife .04044 .07056 .955 -.1575 .2384
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06992 .05786 .692 -.2322 .0924
Childhood Experts -.05031 .13088 .986 -.4174 .3168
Nurse/Midwife -.02948 .08127 .988 -.2575 .1985
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .12451 .999 -.3689 .3297
HomeEc Teachers .05031 .13088 .986 -.3168 .4174
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13697 .999 -.3634 .4051
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .07056 .955 -.2384 .1575
HomeEc Teachers .02948 .08127 .988 -.1985 .2575
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13697 .999 -.4051 .3634
BITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06425 .06001 .766 -.1041 .2326
Childhood Experts -.01961 .12913 .999 -.3819 .3426
Nurse/Midwife .00470 .07318 1.000 -.2006 .2100
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06425 .06001 .766 -.2326 .1041
Childhood Experts -.08386 .13573 .944 -.4646 .2969
Nurse/Midwife -.05955 .08428 .919 -.2960 .1769
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .12913 .999 -.3426 .3819
HomeEc Teachers .08386 .13573 .944 -.2969 .4646
184
Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14205 .999 -.3742 .4228
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00470 .07318 1.000 -.2100 .2006
HomeEc Teachers .05955 .08428 .919 -.1769 .2960
Childhood Experts -.02431 .14205 .999 -.4228 .3742
BITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01344 .05920 .997 -.1795 .1526
Childhood Experts .03268 .12740 .996 -.3247 .3901
Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07220 1.000 -.1942 .2109
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01344 .05920 .997 -.1526 .1795
Childhood Experts .04612 .13392 .989 -.3295 .4218
Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08316 .995 -.2115 .2551
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03268 .12740 .996 -.3901 .3247
HomeEc Teachers -.04612 .13392 .989 -.4218 .3295
Nurse/Midwife -.02431 .14015 .999 -.4175 .3688
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07220 1.000 -.2109 .1942
HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08316 .995 -.2551 .2115
Childhood Experts .02431 .14015 .999 -.3688 .4175
BITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09681 .06185 .485 -.0767 .2703
Childhood Experts -.04575 .13310 .990 -.4191 .3276
Nurse/Midwife -.00756 .07543 1.000 -.2192 .2041
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09681 .06185 .485 -.2703 .0767
Childhood Experts -.14256 .13991 .792 -.5350 .2499
Nurse/Midwife -.10436 .08688 .696 -.3481 .1393
Childhood Experts Care-givers .04575 .13310 .990 -.3276 .4191
HomeEc Teachers .14256 .13991 .792 -.2499 .5350
Nurse/Midwife .03819 .14642 .995 -.3725 .4489
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00756 .07543 1.000 -.2041 .2192
HomeEc Teachers .10436 .08688 .696 -.1393 .3481
Childhood Experts -.03819 .14642 .995 -.4489 .3725
BITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.00999 .08118 1.000 -.2377 .2177
Childhood Experts .12418 .17469 .918 -.3659 .6142
Nurse/Midwife .04779 .09900 .972 -.2299 .3255
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .00999 .08118 1.000 -.2177 .2377
Childhood Experts .13417 .18362 .911 -.3809 .6493
Nurse/Midwife .05778 .11402 .968 -.2621 .3776
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.12418 .17469 .918 -.6142 .3659
HomeEc Teachers -.13417 .18362 .911 -.6493 .3809
Nurse/Midwife -.07639 .19217 .984 -.6155 .4627
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04779 .09900 .972 -.3255 .2299
HomeEc Teachers -.05778 .11402 .968 -.3776 .2621
Childhood Experts .07639 .19217 .984 -.4627 .6155
BITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05488 .05681 .817 -.2142 .1045
Childhood Experts -.28758* .12225 .138 -.6305 .0554
Nurse/Midwife .03533 .06928 .967 -.1590 .2297
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05488 .05681 .817 -.1045 .2142
Childhood Experts -.23270 .12850 .352 -.5932 .1278
Nurse/Midwife .09021 .07979 .734 -.1336 .3141
Childhood Experts Care-givers .28758* .12225 .138 -.0554 .6305
185
HomeEc Teachers .23270 .12850 .352 -.1278 .5932
Nurse/Midwife .32292 .13448 .125 -.0543 .7002
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.03533 .06928 .967 -.2297 .1590
HomeEc Teachers -.09021 .07979 .734 -.3141 .1336
Childhood Experts -.32292 .13448 .125 -.7002 .0543
BITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .03737 .05740 .935 -.1237 .1984
Childhood Experts -.06536 .12353 .964 -.4119 .2812
Nurse/Midwife -.04105 .07001 .952 -.2374 .1553
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.03737 .05740 .935 -.1984 .1237
Childhood Experts -.10273 .12984 .890 -.4670 .2615
Nurse/Midwife -.07842 .08063 .814 -.3046 .1478
Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .12353 .964 -.2812 .4119
HomeEc Teachers .10273 .12984 .890 -.2615 .4670
Nurse/Midwife .02431 .13589 .998 -.3569 .4055
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04105 .07001 .952 -.1553 .2374
HomeEc Teachers .07842 .08063 .814 -.1478 .3046
Childhood Experts -.02431 .13589 .998 -.4055 .3569
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Hypothesis Three
186
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
CITEM1 Between Groups 1.347 3 .449 1.876 .133
Within Groups 117.293 490 .239
Total 118.640 493
CITEM2 Between Groups 2.386 3 .795 3.762 .042Within Groups 141.080 490 .288
Total 143.466 493
CITEM3 Between Groups 1.308 3 .436 1.431 .233Within Groups 149.299 490 .305
Total 150.607 493
CITEM4 Between Groups .715 3 .238 .460 .710Within Groups 253.843 490 .518
Total 254.559 493
CITEM5 Between Groups 3.890 3 1.297 5.692 .001Within Groups 111.608 490 .228
Total 115.498 493
CITEM6 Between Groups 4.382 3 1.461 4.907 .002Within Groups 145.853 490 .298
Total 150.235 493
CITEM7 Between Groups 1.315 3 .438 1.564 .197Within Groups 137.293 490 .280
Total 138.607 493
CITEM8 Between Groups 11.980 3 .660 3.291 .027Within Groups 131.178 490 .288
Total 143.158 493
CITEM9 Between Groups 2.252 3 .751 2.465 .062Within Groups 149.230 490 .305
Total 151.482 493
CITEM10 Between Groups 3.681 3 1.227 4.441 .004Within Groups 135.364 490 .276
Total 139.045 493
CITEM11 Between Groups 1.809 3 .603 2.003 .113
Within Groups 147.486 490 .301
Total 149.296 493
POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
187
Mean Difference
(I-J)Lower Bound
Upper Bound
CITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01061 .05514 .998 -.1653 .1441
Childhood Experts -.28105 .11866 .134 -.6139 .0518
Nurse/Midwife -.02063 .06725 .993 -.2093 .1680
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01061 .05514 .998 -.1441 .1653
Childhood Experts -.27044 .12473 .196 -.6203 .0794
Nurse/Midwife -.01002 .07745 .999 -.2273 .2072
Childhood Experts Care-givers .28105 .11866 .134 -.0518 .6139
HomeEc Teachers .27044 .12473 .196 -.0794 .6203
Nurse/Midwife .26042 .13053 .265 -.1058 .6266
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02063 .06725 .993 -.1680 .2093
HomeEc Teachers .01002 .07745 .999 -.2072 .2273
Childhood Experts -.26042 .13053 .265 -.6266 .1058CITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03872 .06047 .938 -.2084 .1309
Childhood Experts -.24837 .13014 .304 -.6134 .1167Nurse/Midwife -.17198 .07375 .144 -.3789 .0349
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03872 .06047 .938 -.1309 .2084Childhood Experts -.20964 .13679 .504 -.5934 .1741Nurse/Midwife -.13325* .08494 .483 -.3715 .1050
Childhood Experts Care-givers .24837 .13014 .304 -.1167 .6134HomeEc Teachers .20964 .13679 .504 -.1741 .5934Nurse/Midwife .07639 .14316 .963 -.3252 .4780
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .17198 .07375 .144 -.0349 .3789HomeEc Teachers .13325* .08494 .483 -.1050 .3715Childhood Experts -.07639 .14316 .963 -.4780 .3252
CITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07806 .06221 .665 -.0965 .2526Childhood Experts .23529 .13388 .379 -.1403 .6109Nurse/Midwife .00613 .07587 1.000 -.2067 .2190
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07806 .06221 .665 -.2526 .0965Childhood Experts .15723 .14072 .741 -.2375 .5520Nurse/Midwife -.07193 .08738 .878 -.3171 .1732
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.23529 .13388 .379 -.6109 .1403HomeEc Teachers -.15723 .14072 .741 -.5520 .2375Nurse/Midwife -.22917 .14727 .490 -.6423 .1840
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00613 .07587 1.000 -.2190 .2067HomeEc Teachers .07193 .08738 .878 -.1732 .3171Childhood Experts .22917 .14727 .490 -.1840 .6423
CITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02269 .08112 .994 -.2049 .2502Childhood Experts -.17647 .17457 .796 -.6662 .3132Nurse/Midwife -.04453 .09893 .977 -.3221 .2330
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02269 .08112 .994 -.2502 .2049Childhood Experts -.19916 .18349 .758 -.7139 .3156Nurse/Midwife -.06722 .11394 .951 -.3868 .2524
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .17457 .796 -.3132 .6662HomeEc Teachers .19916 .18349 .758 -.3156 .7139
188
Nurse/Midwife .13194 .19203 .925 -.4067 .6706Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04453 .09893 .977 -.2330 .3221
HomeEc Teachers .06722 .11394 .951 -.2524 .3868Childhood Experts -.13194 .19203 .925 -.6706 .4067
CITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.18991* .05379 .006 -.3408 -.0390Childhood Experts .18954 .11575 .444 -.1352 .5143Nurse/Midwife -.07435 .06560 .733 -.2584 .1097
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .18991* .05379 .006 .0390 .3408Childhood Experts .37945* .12167 .022 .0382 .7208Nurse/Midwife .11557 .07555 .506 -.0964 .3275
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18954 .11575 .444 -.5143 .1352HomeEc Teachers -.37945* .12167 .022 -.7208 -.0382Nurse/Midwife -.26389 .12733 .233 -.6211 .0933
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07435 .06560 .733 -.1097 .2584HomeEc Teachers -.11557 .07555 .506 -.3275 .0964Childhood Experts .26389 .12733 .233 -.0933 .6211
CITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .06149 .169 -.3109 .0341Childhood Experts .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712Nurse/Midwife -.26042* .07499 .008 -.4708 -.0500
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13836 .06149 .169 -.0341 .3109Childhood Experts .13836 .13909 .804 -.2518 .5285Nurse/Midwife -.12205 .08637 .573 -.3643 .1202
Childhood Experts Care-givers .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .13909 .804 -.5285 .2518Nurse/Midwife -.26042 .14556 .363 -.6687 .1479
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .26042* .07499 .008 .0500 .4708HomeEc Teachers .12205 .08637 .573 -.1202 .3643Childhood Experts .26042 .14556 .363 -.1479 .6687
CITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10051 .05966 .418 -.2679 .0668Childhood Experts -.16340 .12838 .655 -.5235 .1967Nurse/Midwife -.09048 .07276 .672 -.2946 .1136
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10051 .05966 .418 -.0668 .2679Childhood Experts -.06289 .13494 .975 -.4414 .3157Nurse/Midwife .01002 .08379 1.000 -.2250 .2451
Childhood Experts Care-givers .16340 .12838 .655 -.1967 .5235HomeEc Teachers .06289 .13494 .975 -.3157 .4414Nurse/Midwife .07292 .14122 .966 -.3232 .4691
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09048 .07276 .672 -.1136 .2946HomeEc Teachers -.01002 .08379 1.000 -.2451 .2250Childhood Experts -.07292 .14122 .966 -.4691 .3232
CITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.15785 .06050 .080 -.3276 .0119Childhood Experts -.07190 .13018 .959 -.4371 .2933Nurse/Midwife -.04759* .07378 .937 -.2546 .1594
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .15785 .06050 .080 -.0119 .3276Childhood Experts .08595 .13684 .941 -.2979 .4698Nurse/Midwife .11026 .08497 .641 -.1281 .3486
Childhood Experts Care-givers .07190 .13018 .959 -.2933 .4371
189
HomeEc Teachers -.08595 .13684 .941 -.4698 .2979Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14321 .999 -.3774 .4260
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04759* .07378 .937 -.1594 .2546HomeEc Teachers -.11026 .08497 .641 -.3486 .1281Childhood Experts -.02431 .14321 .999 -.4260 .3774
CITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08312 .06220 .618 -.2576 .0914Childhood Experts -.31373 .13385 .141 -.6892 .0617Nurse/Midwife -.09845 .07585 .641 -.3112 .1143
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08312 .06220 .618 -.0914 .2576Childhood Experts -.23061 .14069 .443 -.6253 .1640Nurse/Midwife -.01533 .08736 .999 -.2604 .2297
Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373 .13385 .141 -.0617 .6892HomeEc Teachers .23061 .14069 .443 -.1640 .6253Nurse/Midwife .21528 .14723 .545 -.1977 .6283
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09845 .07585 .641 -.1143 .3112HomeEc Teachers .01533 .08736 .999 -.2297 .2604Childhood Experts -.21528 .14723 .545 -.6283 .1977
CITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.17746* .05924 .031 -.3436 -.0113Childhood Experts -.09150 .12748 .915 -.4491 .2661Nurse/Midwife -.19220 .07224 .071 -.3949 .0105
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .17746* .05924 .031 .0113 .3436Childhood Experts .08595 .13399 .938 -.2899 .4618Nurse/Midwife -.01474 .08320 .999 -.2481 .2187
Childhood Experts Care-givers .09150 .12748 .915 -.2661 .4491HomeEc Teachers -.08595 .13399 .938 -.4618 .2899Nurse/Midwife -.10069 .14023 .915 -.4941 .2927
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .19220 .07224 .071 -.0105 .3949HomeEc Teachers .01474 .08320 .999 -.2187 .2481Childhood Experts .10069 .14023 .915 -.2927 .4941
CITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13676 .06183 .181 -.3102 .0367
Childhood Experts -.01307 .13306 1.000 -.3863 .3602
Nurse/Midwife .04248 .07541 .957 -.1691 .2540
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13676 .06183 .181 -.0367 .3102
Childhood Experts .12369 .13986 .854 -.2687 .5160
Nurse/Midwife .17925 .08685 .236 -.0644 .4229
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .13306 1.000 -.3602 .3863
HomeEc Teachers -.12369 .13986 .854 -.5160 .2687
Nurse/Midwife .05556 .14637 .986 -.3551 .4662
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04248 .07541 .957 -.2540 .1691
HomeEc Teachers -.17925 .08685 .236 -.4229 .0644
Childhood Experts -.05556 .14637 .986 -.4662 .3551
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Hypothesis FourANOVA
190
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
DITEM1 Between Groups .596 3 .199 .629 .597
Within Groups 154.886 490 .316
Total 155.482 493
DITEM2 Between Groups 5.302 3 1.767 5.475 .001Within Groups 158.180 490 .323
Total 163.482 493
DITEM3 Between Groups 2.303 3 .768 1.569 .196Within Groups 239.721 490 .489
Total 242.024 493
DITEM4 Between Groups .771 3 .257 .689 .559Within Groups 182.711 490 .373
Total 183.482 493
DITEM5 Between Groups 1.223 3 .408 1.326 .265Within Groups 150.744 490 .308
Total 151.968 493
DITEM6 Between Groups 4.083 3 1.361 3.995 .008Within Groups 166.961 490 .341
Total 171.045 493
DITEM7 Between Groups .633 3 .211 .635 .593Within Groups 162.768 490 .332
Total 163.401 493
DITEM8 Between Groups 2.256 3 .752 2.092 .100Within Groups 176.173 490 .360
Total 178.429 493
DITEM9 Between Groups 2.022 3 .674 2.103 .099Within Groups 157.023 490 .320
Total 159.045 493
DITEM10 Between Groups 4.452 3 .817 3.173 .040Within Groups 180.318 490 .376
Total 186.769 493
DITEM11 Between Groups 2.107 3 .702 2.135 .095Within Groups 161.229 490 .329
Total 163.336 493
DITEM12 Between Groups .413 3 .138 .460 .710Within Groups 146.745 490 .299
Total 147.158 493
DITEM13 Between Groups 3.703 3 1.234 3.882 .009Within Groups 155.779 490 .318
Total 159.482 493
191
DITEM14 Between Groups 1.054 3 .351 .969 .407Within Groups 177.715 490 .363
Total 178.769 493
DITEM15 Between Groups 5.189 3 1.730 3.097 .027Within Groups 273.677 490 .559
Total 278.866 493
DITEM16 Between Groups 1.457 3 .486 1.196 .311Within Groups 198.964 490 .406
Total 200.421 493
DITEM17 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305
Total 151.028 493
DITEM18 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744Within Groups 122.638 490 .250
Total 122.947 493
DITEM19 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735Within Groups 116.991 490 .239
Total 117.296 493
DITEM20 Between Groups 10.207 3 .069 6.305 .001Within Groups 100.659 490 .226
Total 110.866 493
DITEM21 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279
Within Groups 111.238 490 .227
Total 112.113 493
192
POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
DITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .03811 .06336 .948 -.1396 .2159
Childhood Experts -.15686 .13636 .724 -.5394 .2257
Nurse/Midwife .00980 .07728 .999 -.2070 .2266
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.03811 .06336 .948 -.2159 .1396
Childhood Experts -.19497 .14333 .604 -.5970 .2071
Nurse/Midwife -.02830 .08900 .992 -.2780 .2214
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .13636 .724 -.2257 .5394
HomeEc Teachers .19497 .14333 .604 -.2071 .5970
Nurse/Midwife .16667 .15000 .745 -.2541 .5874
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00980 .07728 .999 -.2266 .2070
HomeEc Teachers .02830 .08900 .992 -.2214 .2780
Childhood Experts -.16667 .15000 .745 -.5874 .2541DITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07732 .06403 .692 -.2570 .1023
Childhood Experts -.54902 .13780 .801 -.9356 -.1625Nurse/Midwife -.04902* .07810 .001 -.2681 .1701
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07732 .06403 .692 -.1023 .2570Childhood Experts -.47170 .14484 .055 -.8780 -.0654Nurse/Midwife .02830 .08994 .992 -.2240 .2806
Childhood Experts Care-givers .54902 .13780 .211 .1625 .9356HomeEc Teachers .47170 .14484 .215 .0654 .8780Nurse/Midwife .50000 .15159 .113 .0748 .9252
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04902* .07810 .001 -.1701 .2681HomeEc Teachers -.02830 .08994 .992 -.2806 .2240Childhood Experts -.50000 .15159 .113 -.9252 -.0748
DITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05549 .07883 .920 -.1656 .2766Childhood Experts -.19608 .16964 .721 -.6720 .2798Nurse/Midwife .15809 .09614 .440 -.1116 .4278
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05549 .07883 .920 -.2766 .1656Childhood Experts -.25157 .17831 .575 -.7518 .2486Nurse/Midwife .10259 .11072 .835 -.2080 .4132
Childhood Experts Care-givers .19608 .16964 .721 -.2798 .6720HomeEc Teachers .25157 .17831 .575 -.2486 .7518Nurse/Midwife .35417 .18661 .309 -.1693 .8777
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.15809 .09614 .440 -.4278 .1116HomeEc Teachers -.10259 .11072 .835 -.4132 .2080Childhood Experts -.35417 .18661 .309 -.8777 .1693
DITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00037 .06882 1.000 -.1927 .1934Childhood Experts -.15686 .14810 .772 -.5723 .2586Nurse/Midwife .07230 .08393 .863 -.1631 .3078
193
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00037 .06882 1.000 -.1934 .1927Childhood Experts -.15723 .15567 .796 -.5939 .2795Nurse/Midwife .07193 .09666 .907 -.1992 .3431
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .14810 .772 -.2586 .5723HomeEc Teachers .15723 .15567 .796 -.2795 .5939Nurse/Midwife .22917 .16292 .577 -.2279 .6862
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.07230 .08393 .863 -.3078 .1631HomeEc Teachers -.07193 .09666 .907 -.3431 .1992Childhood Experts -.22917 .16292 .577 -.6862 .2279
DITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.00407 .06251 1.000 -.1794 .1713Childhood Experts -.05229 .13452 .985 -.4297 .3251Nurse/Midwife .14216 .07624 .325 -.0717 .3560
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .00407 .06251 1.000 -.1713 .1794Childhood Experts -.04822 .14140 .990 -.4449 .3484Nurse/Midwife .14623 .08780 .429 -.1001 .3925
Childhood Experts Care-givers .05229 .13452 .985 -.3251 .4297HomeEc Teachers .04822 .14140 .990 -.3484 .4449Nurse/Midwife .19444 .14798 .631 -.2207 .6096
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.14216 .07624 .325 -.3560 .0717HomeEc Teachers -.14623 .08780 .429 -.3925 .1001Childhood Experts -.19444 .14798 .631 -.6096 .2207
DITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01924 .06579 .994 -.2038 .1653Childhood Experts -.17647* .14157 .000 -.5736 .2207Nurse/Midwife .24020* .08023 .001 .0151 .4653
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01924 .06579 .994 -.1653 .2038Childhood Experts -.15723 .14881 .773 -.5747 .2602Nurse/Midwife .25943 .09240 .050 .0002 .5186
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647* .14157 .000 -.2207 .5736HomeEc Teachers .15723 .14881 .773 -.2602 .5747Nurse/Midwife .41667* .15574 .008 -.0202 .8535
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.24020* .08023 .031 -.4653 -.0151HomeEc Teachers -.25943 .09240 .111 -.5186 -.0002Childhood Experts -.41667* .15574 .008 -.8535 .0202
DITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01344 .06496 .998 -.1957 .1688Childhood Experts -.18954 .13979 .607 -.5817 .2026Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07922 1.000 -.2139 .2306
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01344 .06496 .998 -.1688 .1957Childhood Experts -.17610 .14693 .697 -.5883 .2361Nurse/Midwife .02182 .09124 .996 -.2341 .2778
Childhood Experts Care-givers .18954 .13979 .607 -.2026 .5817HomeEc Teachers .17610 .14693 .697 -.2361 .5883Nurse/Midwife .19792 .15377 .647 -.2334 .6293
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07922 1.000 -.2306 .2139HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .09124 .996 -.2778 .2341Childhood Experts -.19792 .15377 .647 -.6293 .2334
DITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09039 .06758 .618 -.2800 .0992Childhood Experts -.22876 .14543 .481 -.6367 .1792
194
Nurse/Midwife .09416 .08242 .728 -.1370 .3254HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09039 .06758 .618 -.0992 .2800
Childhood Experts -.13836 .15286 .845 -.5672 .2904Nurse/Midwife .18455 .09492 .287 -.0817 .4508
Childhood Experts Care-givers .22876 .14543 .481 -.1792 .6367HomeEc Teachers .13836 .15286 .845 -.2904 .5672Nurse/Midwife .32292 .15998 .255 -.1258 .7717
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.09416 .08242 .728 -.3254 .1370HomeEc Teachers -.18455 .09492 .287 -.4508 .0817Childhood Experts -.32292 .15998 .255 -.7717 .1258
DITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09323 .06380 .545 -.0857 .2722Childhood Experts -.08497 .13730 .944 -.4701 .3002Nurse/Midwife -.12316 .07781 .475 -.3414 .0951
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09323 .06380 .545 -.2722 .0857Childhood Experts -.17820 .14431 .677 -.5830 .2266Nurse/Midwife -.21639 .08961 .122 -.4678 .0350
Childhood Experts Care-givers .08497 .13730 .944 -.3002 .4701HomeEc Teachers .17820 .14431 .677 -.2266 .5830Nurse/Midwife -.03819 .15103 .996 -.4619 .3855
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12316 .07781 .475 -.0951 .3414HomeEc Teachers .21639 .08961 .122 -.0350 .4678Childhood Experts .03819 .15103 .996 -.3855 .4619
DITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09471 .06912 .040 -.2886 .0432Childhood Experts -.28758 .14875 .292 -.7049 .1297Nurse/Midwife -.13480* .08430 .006 -.3713 .1017
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09471 .06912 .094 -.0992 .2886Childhood Experts -.19287 .15635 .677 -.6315 .2457Nurse/Midwife -.04009 .09709 .982 -.3124 .2323
Childhood Experts Care-givers .28758 .14875 .292 -.1297 .7049HomeEc Teachers .19287 .15635 .677 -.2457 .6315Nurse/Midwife .15278 .16363 .832 -.3062 .6118
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .13480* .08430 .006 -.1017 .3713HomeEc Teachers .04009 .09709 .982 -.2323 .3124Childhood Experts -.15278 .16363 .832 -.6118 .3062
DITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .14046 .06465 .195 -.0409 .3218Childhood Experts -.11111 .13912 .888 -.5014 .2792Nurse/Midwife .08681 .07884 .750 -.1344 .3080
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.14046 .06465 .195 -.3218 .0409Childhood Experts -.25157 .14623 .399 -.6618 .1586Nurse/Midwife -.05366 .09080 .950 -.3084 .2011
Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .13912 .888 -.2792 .5014HomeEc Teachers .25157 .14623 .399 -.1586 .6618Nurse/Midwife .19792 .15304 .643 -.2314 .6272
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.08681 .07884 .750 -.3080 .1344HomeEc Teachers .05366 .09080 .950 -.2011 .3084Childhood Experts -.19792 .15304 .643 -.6272 .2314
DITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07079 .06168 .725 -.1022 .2438
195
Childhood Experts -.01307 .13273 1.000 -.3854 .3593Nurse/Midwife .01123 .07522 .999 -.1998 .2222
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07079 .06168 .725 -.2438 .1022Childhood Experts -.08386 .13951 .948 -.4752 .3075Nurse/Midwife -.05955 .08663 .925 -.3026 .1835
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .13273 1.000 -.3593 .3854HomeEc Teachers .08386 .13951 .948 -.3075 .4752Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14600 .999 -.3853 .4339
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01123 .07522 .999 -.2222 .1998HomeEc Teachers .05955 .08663 .925 -.1835 .3026Childhood Experts -.02431 .14600 .999 -.4339 .3853
DITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10926 .06355 .399 -.2875 .0690
Childhood Experts -.00654 .13675 1.000 -.3902 .3771
Nurse/Midwife -.24959* .07750 .016 -.4670 -.0322
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10926 .06355 .399 -.0690 .2875
Childhood Experts .10273 .14374 .916 -.3005 .5059
Nurse/Midwife -.14033 .08926 .481 -.3907 .1101
Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .13675 1.000 -.3771 .3902
HomeEc Teachers -.10273 .14374 .916 -.5059 .3005
Nurse/Midwife -.24306 .15043 .456 -.6650 .1789
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .24959* .07750 .016 .0322 .4670
HomeEc Teachers .14033 .08926 .481 -.1101 .3907
Childhood Experts .24306 .15043 .456 -.1789 .6650
DITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01196 .06787 .999 -.2024 .1784
Childhood Experts -.03922 .14606 .995 -.4490 .3705
Nurse/Midwife -.13991 .08278 .415 -.3721 .0923
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01196 .06787 .999 -.1784 .2024
Childhood Experts -.02725 .15353 .999 -.4579 .4034
Nurse/Midwife -.12795 .09533 .615 -.3954 .1395
Childhood Experts Care-givers .03922 .14606 .995 -.3705 .4490
HomeEc Teachers .02725 .15353 .999 -.4034 .4579
Nurse/Midwife -.10069 .16067 .942 -.5514 .3500
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .13991 .08278 .415 -.0923 .3721
HomeEc Teachers .12795 .09533 .615 -.1395 .3954
Childhood Experts .10069 .16067 .942 -.3500 .5514
DITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13405 .08423 .470 -.3703 .1022
Childhood Experts -.49673 .18126 .059 -1.0052 .0117
Nurse/Midwife -.09395 .10272 .841 -.3821 .1942
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13405 .08423 .300 -.1022 .3703
Childhood Experts -.36268 .19052 .306 -.8971 .1718
Nurse/Midwife .04009* .11830 .000 -.2918 .3720
Childhood Experts Care-givers .49673 .18126 .059 -.0117 1.0052
HomeEc Teachers .36268 .19052 .306 -.1718 .8971
Nurse/Midwife .40278 .19939 .254 -.1566 .9621
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09395 .10272 .841 -.1942 .3821
HomeEc Teachers -.04009* .11830 .000 -.3720 .2918
Childhood Experts -.40278 .19939 .254 -.9621 .1566
196
DITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05401 .07182 .904 -.1474 .2555
Childhood Experts -.23529 .15455 .510 -.6688 .1983
Nurse/Midwife .05637 .08759 .937 -.1893 .3021
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05401 .07182 .904 -.2555 .1474
Childhood Experts -.28931 .16245 .367 -.7450 .1664
Nurse/Midwife .00236 .10087 1.000 -.2806 .2853
Childhood Experts Care-givers .23529 .15455 .510 -.1983 .6688
HomeEc Teachers .28931 .16245 .367 -.1664 .7450
Nurse/Midwife .29167 .17001 .401 -.1852 .7686
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.05637 .08759 .937 -.3021 .1893
HomeEc Teachers -.00236 .10087 1.000 -.2853 .2806
Childhood Experts -.29167 .17001 .401 -.7686 .1852
DITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664
Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992
Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827
Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265
Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522
HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632
Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679
HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920
Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917
DITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345
Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796
Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818
Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536
DITEM19 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112
Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521
Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978
Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449
197
DITEM20 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992
Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037
Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013
Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713
Nurse/Midwife .04186* .07523 .008 -.1692 .2529
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429
HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084
Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924
HomeEc Teachers -.04186* .07523 .008 -.2529 .1692
Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453
DITEM21 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255
Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353
Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758
Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770
Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131
HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045
Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879
HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906
Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Hypothesis Five
198
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
EITEM1 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172
Within Groups 123.963 490 .253
Total 125.231 493
EITEM2 Between Groups .496 3 .165 .551 .648Within Groups 146.986 490 .300
Total 147.482 493
EITEM3 Between Groups .414 3 .138 .578 .630Within Groups 116.963 490 .239
Total 117.377 493
EITEM4 Between Groups 3.741 3 1.247 4.760 .003Within Groups 128.357 490 .262
Total 132.097 493
EITEM5 Between Groups .864 3 .288 1.071 .361Within Groups 131.848 490 .269
Total 132.713 493
EITEM6 Between Groups 1.099 3 .366 1.477 .220Within Groups 121.508 490 .248
Total 122.607 493
EITEM7 Between Groups .436 3 .145 .724 .538Within Groups 198.398 490 .201
Total 198.834 493
EITEM8 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .562 .640Within Groups 107.081 490 .219
Total 107.449 493
EITEM9 Between Groups .113 3 .038 .140 .936Within Groups 131.369 490 .268
Total 131.482 493
EITEM10 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305
Total 151.028 493
EITEM11 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744
Within Groups 122.638 490 .250
Total 122.947 493
POST HOC Multiple Comparisons
Scheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
199
Mean Difference
(I-J)Lower Bound
Upper Bound
EITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758
Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252
Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423
Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259
Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592
HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935
Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123
HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585
Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778EITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07005 .06173 .732 -.2432 .1031
Childhood Experts -.07843 .13284 .951 -.4511 .2942Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07528 1.000 -.2028 .2196
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07005 .06173 .732 -.1031 .2432Childhood Experts -.00839 .13962 1.000 -.4001 .3833Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08670 .845 -.1648 .3216
Childhood Experts Care-givers .07843 .13284 .951 -.2942 .4511HomeEc Teachers .00839 .13962 1.000 -.3833 .4001Nurse/Midwife .08681 .14612 .950 -.3231 .4967
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07528 1.000 -.2196 .2028HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08670 .845 -.3216 .1648Childhood Experts -.08681 .14612 .950 -.4967 .3231
EITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06561 .05506 .701 -.0889 .2201Childhood Experts .07190 .11850 .947 -.2605 .4043Nurse/Midwife -.00102 .06715 1.000 -.1894 .1874
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06561 .05506 .701 -.2201 .0889Childhood Experts .00629 .12455 1.000 -.3431 .3557Nurse/Midwife -.06663 .07734 .863 -.2836 .1503
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.07190 .11850 .947 -.4043 .2605HomeEc Teachers -.00629 .12455 1.000 -.3557 .3431Nurse/Midwife -.07292 .13035 .958 -.4386 .2927
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00102 .06715 1.000 -.1874 .1894HomeEc Teachers .06663 .07734 .863 -.1503 .2836Childhood Experts .07292 .13035 .958 -.2927 .4386
EITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09977 .05768 .394 -.2616 .0620Childhood Experts -.25490 .12413 .240 -.6031 .0933Nurse/Midwife -.22712* .07035 .016 -.4245 -.0298
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09977 .05768 .394 -.0620 .2616Childhood Experts -.15514 .13048 .702 -.5212 .2109Nurse/Midwife -.12736 .08102 .481 -.3546 .0999
Childhood Experts Care-givers .25490 .12413 .240 -.0933 .6031HomeEc Teachers .15514 .13048 .702 -.2109 .5212
200
Nurse/Midwife .02778 .13655 .998 -.3553 .4108Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .22712* .07035 .016 .0298 .4245
HomeEc Teachers .12736 .08102 .481 -.0999 .3546Childhood Experts -.02778 .13655 .998 -.4108 .3553
EITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03946 .05846 .928 -.2035 .1245Childhood Experts -.15686 .12581 .670 -.5098 .1961Nurse/Midwife -.09783 .07130 .597 -.2978 .1022
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03946 .05846 .928 -.1245 .2035Childhood Experts -.11740 .13224 .852 -.4884 .2536Nurse/Midwife -.05837 .08211 .918 -.2887 .1720
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12581 .670 -.1961 .5098HomeEc Teachers .11740 .13224 .852 -.2536 .4884Nurse/Midwife .05903 .13839 .980 -.3292 .4473
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09783 .07130 .597 -.1022 .2978HomeEc Teachers .05837 .08211 .918 -.1720 .2887Childhood Experts -.05903 .13839 .980 -.4473 .3292
EITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05623 .05612 .800 -.2137 .1012Childhood Experts -.15686 .12078 .640 -.4957 .1819Nurse/Midwife -.11520 .06845 .419 -.3072 .0768
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05623 .05612 .800 -.1012 .2137Childhood Experts -.10063 .12695 .890 -.4567 .2555Nurse/Midwife -.05896 .07883 .906 -.2801 .1622
Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12078 .640 -.1819 .4957HomeEc Teachers .10063 .12695 .890 -.2555 .4567Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13286 .992 -.3310 .4144
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .11520 .06845 .419 -.0768 .3072HomeEc Teachers .05896 .07883 .906 -.1622 .2801Childhood Experts -.04167 .13286 .992 -.4144 .3310
EITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.06043 .05050 .698 -.2021 .0812Childhood Experts .06536 .10869 .948 -.2395 .3702Nurse/Midwife .01328 .06159 .997 -.1595 .1861
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .06043 .05050 .698 -.0812 .2021Childhood Experts .12579 .11424 .750 -.1947 .4463Nurse/Midwife .07370 .07094 .782 -.1253 .2727
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.06536 .10869 .948 -.3702 .2395HomeEc Teachers -.12579 .11424 .750 -.4463 .1947Nurse/Midwife -.05208 .11956 .979 -.3875 .2833
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01328 .06159 .997 -.1861 .1595HomeEc Teachers -.07370 .07094 .782 -.2727 .1253Childhood Experts .05208 .11956 .979 -.2833 .3875
EITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01431 .05269 .995 -.1335 .1621Childhood Experts -.06536 .11338 .954 -.3834 .2527Nurse/Midwife -.06883 .06426 .766 -.2491 .1114
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01431 .05269 .995 -.1621 .1335Childhood Experts -.07966 .11917 .930 -.4140 .2546Nurse/Midwife -.08314 .07400 .738 -.2907 .1245
Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .11338 .954 -.2527 .3834
201
HomeEc Teachers .07966 .11917 .930 -.2546 .4140Nurse/Midwife -.00347 .12472 1.000 -.3533 .3464
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .06883 .06426 .766 -.1114 .2491HomeEc Teachers .08314 .07400 .738 -.1245 .2907Childhood Experts .00347 .12472 1.000 -.3464 .3533
EITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00617 .05836 1.000 -.1575 .1699Childhood Experts -.05882 .12558 .974 -.4111 .2935Nurse/Midwife .02798 .07117 .985 -.1717 .2276
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00617 .05836 1.000 -.1699 .1575Childhood Experts -.06499 .13200 .970 -.4353 .3053Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08197 .995 -.2081 .2517
Childhood Experts Care-givers .05882 .12558 .974 -.2935 .4111HomeEc Teachers .06499 .13200 .970 -.3053 .4353Nurse/Midwife .08681 .13814 .941 -.3007 .4743
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02798 .07117 .985 -.2276 .1717HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08197 .995 -.2517 .2081Childhood Experts -.08681 .13814 .941 -.4743 .3007
EITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917
EITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345
Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796
Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818
Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Hypothesis SixANOVA
202
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
FITEM1 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735
Within Groups 116.991 490 .239
Total 117.296 493
FITEM2 Between Groups .207 3 .069 .305 .821Within Groups 110.659 490 .226
Total 110.866 493
FITEM3 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279Within Groups 111.238 490 .227
Total 112.113 493
FITEM4 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172Within Groups 123.963 490 .253
Total 125.231 493
FITEM5 Between Groups .499 3 .166 .655 .580Within Groups 124.375 490 .254
Total 124.874 493
FITEM6 Between Groups 1.241 3 .414 1.895 .129Within Groups 106.937 490 .218
Total 108.178 493
FITEM7 Between Groups .493 3 .164 .743 .527Within Groups 108.381 490 .221
Total 108.874 493
FITEM8 Between Groups 2.866 3 .955 4.575 .007Within Groups 102.316 490 .209
Total 105.182 493
FITEM9 Between Groups .901 3 .300 1.241 .294Within Groups 118.597 490 .242
Total 119.498 493
FITEM10 Between Groups 1.896 3 .632 1.744 .157Within Groups 177.505 490 .362
Total 179.401 493
FITEM11 Between Groups 1.308 3 .436 1.431 .233Within Groups 149.299 490 .305
Total 150.607 493
FITEM12 Between Groups .715 3 .238 .460 .710Within Groups 253.843 490 .518
Total 254.559 493
FITEM13 Between Groups 3.890 3 1.297 5.692 .001Within Groups 111.608 490 .228
Total 115.498 493
203
FITEM14 Between Groups 4.382 3 1.461 4.907 .002
Within Groups 145.853 490 .298
Total 150.235 493
POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe
Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
FITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112
Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521
Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978
Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123
Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128
HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865
Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480
HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333
Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449FITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992
Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713Nurse/Midwife .04186 .07523 .958 -.1692 .2529
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924HomeEc Teachers -.04186 .07523 .958 -.2529 .1692Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453
FITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879
204
HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719
FITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778
FITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02565 .05678 .977 -.1849 .1336Childhood Experts -.01307 .12219 1.000 -.3558 .3297Nurse/Midwife -.09641 .06925 .586 -.2907 .0979
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02565 .05678 .977 -.1336 .1849Childhood Experts .01258 .12844 1.000 -.3477 .3729Nurse/Midwife -.07075 .07975 .853 -.2945 .1530
Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .12219 1.000 -.3297 .3558HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12844 1.000 -.3729 .3477Nurse/Midwife -.08333 .13442 .943 -.4604 .2937
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09641 .06925 .586 -.0979 .2907HomeEc Teachers .07075 .07975 .853 -.1530 .2945Childhood Experts .08333 .13442 .943 -.2937 .4604
FITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05265 .816 -.1988 .0966Childhood Experts -.24183 .11330 .209 -.5597 .0760Nurse/Midwife -.07169 .06421 .742 -.2518 .1084
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05265 .816 -.0966 .1988Childhood Experts -.19078 .11909 .464 -.5249 .1433Nurse/Midwife -.02064 .07395 .994 -.2281 .1868
Childhood Experts Care-givers .24183 .11330 .209 -.0760 .5597HomeEc Teachers .19078 .11909 .464 -.1433 .5249Nurse/Midwife .17014 .12464 .602 -.1795 .5198
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07169 .06421 .742 -.1084 .2518HomeEc Teachers .02064 .07395 .994 -.1868 .2281Childhood Experts -.17014 .12464 .602 -.5198 .1795
FITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05710 .05300 .763 -.0916 .2058Childhood Experts -.09804 .11407 .864 -.4180 .2219Nurse/Midwife -.00776 .06464 1.000 -.1891 .1736
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05710 .05300 .763 -.2058 .0916Childhood Experts -.15514 .11989 .643 -.4915 .1812Nurse/Midwife -.06486 .07445 .859 -.2737 .1440
Childhood Experts Care-givers .09804 .11407 .864 -.2219 .4180HomeEc Teachers .15514 .11989 .643 -.1812 .4915Nurse/Midwife .09028 .12548 .915 -.2617 .4423
205
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00776 .06464 1.000 -.1736 .1891HomeEc Teachers .06486 .07445 .859 -.1440 .2737Childhood Experts -.09028 .12548 .915 -.4423 .2617
FITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10618 .05150 .007 -.2506 .0383Childhood Experts -.31373* .11083 .077 -.6246 -.0028Nurse/Midwife .06127* .06281 .003 -.1149 .2375
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10618 .05150 .237 -.0383 .2506Childhood Experts -.20755 .11649 .367 -.5343 .1192Nurse/Midwife .16745 .07234 .149 -.0355 .3704
Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373* .11083 .037 .0028 .6246HomeEc Teachers .20755 .11649 .367 -.1192 .5343Nurse/Midwife .37500* .12191 .015 .0330 .7170
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06127* .06281 .003 -.2375 .1149HomeEc Teachers -.16745 .07234 .149 -.3704 .0355Childhood Experts -.37500* .12191 .005 -.7170 -.0330
FITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08176 .05545 .538 -.0738 .2373Childhood Experts -.11111 .11932 .833 -.4458 .2236Nurse/Midwife -.02083 .06762 .992 -.2105 .1689
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08176 .05545 .538 -.2373 .0738Childhood Experts -.19287 .12542 .501 -.5447 .1590Nurse/Midwife -.10259 .07788 .629 -.3211 .1159
Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .11932 .833 -.2236 .4458HomeEc Teachers .19287 .12542 .501 -.1590 .5447Nurse/Midwife .09028 .13126 .925 -.2779 .4585
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02083 .06762 .992 -.1689 .2105HomeEc Teachers .10259 .07788 .629 -.1159 .3211Childhood Experts -.09028 .13126 .925 -.4585 .2779
FITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .15279 .06783 .168 -.0375 .3431Childhood Experts -.00654 .14598 1.000 -.4160 .4030Nurse/Midwife .01777 .08273 .997 -.2143 .2498
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.15279 .06783 .168 -.3431 .0375Childhood Experts -.15933 .15344 .782 -.5898 .2711Nurse/Midwife -.13502 .09528 .571 -.4023 .1323
Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .14598 1.000 -.4030 .4160HomeEc Teachers .15933 .15344 .782 -.2711 .5898Nurse/Midwife .02431 .16058 .999 -.4262 .4748
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01777 .08273 .997 -.2498 .2143HomeEc Teachers .13502 .09528 .571 -.1323 .4023Childhood Experts -.02431 .16058 .999 -.4748 .4262
FITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07806 .06221 .665 -.0965 .2526Childhood Experts .23529 .13388 .379 -.1403 .6109Nurse/Midwife .00613 .07587 1.000 -.2067 .2190
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07806 .06221 .665 -.2526 .0965Childhood Experts .15723 .14072 .741 -.2375 .5520Nurse/Midwife -.07193 .08738 .878 -.3171 .1732
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.23529 .13388 .379 -.6109 .1403HomeEc Teachers -.15723 .14072 .741 -.5520 .2375
206
Nurse/Midwife -.22917 .14727 .490 -.6423 .1840Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00613 .07587 1.000 -.2190 .2067
HomeEc Teachers .07193 .08738 .878 -.1732 .3171Childhood Experts .22917 .14727 .490 -.1840 .6423
FITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02269 .08112 .994 -.2049 .2502Childhood Experts -.17647 .17457 .796 -.6662 .3132Nurse/Midwife -.04453 .09893 .977 -.3221 .2330
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02269 .08112 .994 -.2502 .2049Childhood Experts -.19916 .18349 .758 -.7139 .3156Nurse/Midwife -.06722 .11394 .951 -.3868 .2524
Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .17457 .796 -.3132 .6662HomeEc Teachers .19916 .18349 .758 -.3156 .7139Nurse/Midwife .13194 .19203 .925 -.4067 .6706
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04453 .09893 .977 -.2330 .3221HomeEc Teachers .06722 .11394 .951 -.2524 .3868Childhood Experts -.13194 .19203 .925 -.6706 .4067
FITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.18991* .05379 .006 -.3408 -.0390Childhood Experts .18954 .11575 .444 -.1352 .5143Nurse/Midwife -.07435 .06560 .733 -.2584 .1097
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .18991* .05379 .006 .0390 .3408Childhood Experts .37945* .12167 .022 .0382 .7208Nurse/Midwife .11557 .07555 .506 -.0964 .3275
Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18954 .11575 .444 -.5143 .1352HomeEc Teachers -.37945* .12167 .022 -.7208 -.0382Nurse/Midwife -.26389 .12733 .233 -.6211 .0933
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07435 .06560 .733 -.1097 .2584HomeEc Teachers -.11557 .07555 .506 -.3275 .0964Childhood Experts .26389 .12733 .233 -.0933 .6211
FITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .06149 .169 -.3109 .0341
Childhood Experts .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712
Nurse/Midwife -.26042* .07499 .008 -.4708 -.0500
HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13836 .06149 .169 -.0341 .3109
Childhood Experts .13836 .13909 .804 -.2518 .5285
Nurse/Midwife -.12205 .08637 .573 -.3643 .1202
Childhood Experts Care-givers .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712
HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .13909 .804 -.5285 .2518
Nurse/Midwife -.26042 .14556 .363 -.6687 .1479
Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .26042* .07499 .008 .0500 .4708
HomeEc Teachers .12205 .08637 .573 -.1202 .3643
Childhood Experts .26042 .14556 .363 -.1479 .6687
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
207
APPENDIX J
EVIDENCE OF VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT