“Manobo” is the hispanicized form of “Manuvu,” which, of course, means “people.” The Manobo appear to be a remnant of the very fi rst Austronesian invasion from Taiwan, predating peoples like the Ifugao of Luzon. The Manobo are several people groups who inhabit the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. They speak one of the languages belonging to the Manobo language family. Their populations range from 749,042 (1994). The groups are often connected by name with either political divisions or landforms. The Manobo groups are all very similar, differing only in dialect and in some aspects of culture. There are about 25 tribal groups, linguistically grouped under the “Manobo” family with 24 main dialects. The Ata or Langilan Manobo, Talaingod, Matig-Salug, Tigwa, Dibabawon and Umayamnon are more closely related since their dialects are similar.

ContentsManobo 2Settlement Patterns 4

Location 5 Subgroups 5 Economy and Livelihood 6Kinship System and Marriage 7Manobo Clothing and Accessories 7Political Organization 8

Social Organization 8Manobo Literary Arts 9Manobo Performing Arts 9Religious Beliefs 11

Problems and Issues 11

Th e Manobo people live a semi-nomadic life and settlements are generally kin-oriented nuclear groups near the swidden fi elds located on the ridges. Some communities have long houses. Th e communities are widely dispersed and placed on high ridges above mountain drainage systems. In some areas, there are long houses that accommodate a number of families, usually of an extended kind. Settlements are either dispersed or relatively compact, depending on the terrain, the agricultural system practiced, and the degree of acculturation.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

Th e island of Mindanao is the second largest of the Philippines archipelago with a land area of 36,505 square miles and the most recent of the major islands to be developed. It is often referred to as the "Land of Promise." Th e majority of the Manobo are located in the Central Mountains of the island and are seldom found in lowland towns except for going there to trade. Recently, however, many young people have made their way to the urban centers in search of work.

LOCATION

NORTH

HIGAONON (MISAMIS HIGAONON MANOBO)KAGAYANEN (CAGAYANO CILLO, CAGAYANCILLO)MANOBO, CINAMIGUIN (CINAMIGUIN, KINAMIGIN, KAMIGIN)

CENTRAL EAST

MANOBO, DIBABAWON (MANDAYA, DIBABAON, DEBABAON)MANOBO, RAJAH KABUNSUWAN

CENTRAL WEST

MANOBO, ILIANEN (LIVUNGANEN, PULENIYAN)MANOBO, WESTERN BUKIDNON (ILENTUNGEN, KIRIYENTEKEN, PULANGIYEN)

SUBGROUPS Classifi cation: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian,

Southern Philippine, Manobo

CENTRAL SOUTH, ATA-TIGWA

MANOBO, ATA (ATAO MANOBO, ATA OF DAVAO, LANGILAN)MANOBO, MATIGSALUG (KULAMANEN, TIGWA, TALA INGOD, MATIG-SALUD) CENTRAL SOUTH, OBO

MANOBO, OBO (OBO BAGOBO, BAGOBO, KIDAPAWAN MANOBO) SOUTH

MANOBO, COTABATO (TASADAY, BLIT)MANOBO, SARANGANI (GOVERNOR GENEROSO MANOBO)MANOBO, TAGABAWA (TAGABAWA BAGOBO)

Th e Manobo people usually engage in farming and agriculture for they live in the rural areas of Mindanao. Th e upland Manobo practice swidden or slash-burn farming whereas those inhabiting the valleys practice wet-rice farming. Rice culture is so central to the Manobo way of life that there are more than 60 diff erent names for rice varieties, and all agricultural rituals center around it.

In the late 190s, however many Manobo groups shifted to corn culture because of the gradual disappearance of swidden sites. Besides corn grit, other supplementary foods are sweet potatoes and cassava. In times of famine, emergency foods are unripe bananas and wild yam.

ECONOMY AND LIVELIHOOD

Other major means of subsistence are fi shing, hunting, bee hunting, and trapping. Because of these occupations, the Manobo live a seminomadic life. However, some Manobo villages that have established permanent settlements have shifted to the cultivation of coconut for copra export.

An occupation that fi gures as entertainment for the Manobo is bee hunting, the procedure for which the basis of the comic bee-hunting dance. Bees appear during the season when the tress start to bloom. Th e hunter waits for them along the creek banks and trails them to their hive. If he catches a bee, he ties a fl uff of cotton to it and then releases it. When the bee reaches the hive, the other bees raise such a buzzing noise, that a hunter is led to the location of their hive. He builds a fi re to smoke out the bees and then climbs the tree to get the empty bee hive. However, the hunter faces hazards, such as the tree catching fi re or the bees attacking him.

• Ten piles of corn kernels each are laid out in rows, each symbolizing remuneration for the pains taken by the bride's family in raising her

• Th e groom's family presents the items of the kagun which may consist of a house, a piece of land, clothing, money, articles made of iron, brass, and animals

• the groom's family then presents the tenges (head cloth), which symbolizes that the arrangements must be wrapped up tightly to ensure a happy life for the young couple

• Th e seru ritual follows: the bride and groom sit before a dish of rice. Each of the spokespersons takes a fi stful of rice, molds it into a ball, and gives it to the couple, who feed each other. Th en the guests join in the eating.

• Th e bride's mother then prepares betel chew and hands it to her daughter, who off ers it to the groom. Th is gesture symbolizes her tasks and duties as a wife.

• Th e couple is then given advice by the elders while the guests leave for home.

KINSHIP SYSTEM AND MARRIAGE

Th e Manobos have a bilateral kinship system. Th ey recognize lineage to both their mother or father’s family. Polygamy, although rarely practiced, was allowed.

Marriage among the people is traditionally done by parental arrangement. It begins when two families choose a spokesperson, usually a datu who is known for eloquence and knowledge of custom law. Ginsa, which means “asking”, begins with the girl's representative off ering betel chew, which the boy's representative politely refuses until negotiations for the kagun (bridewealth) begin.Th e wedding date is determined by the length of the groom's family will need to raise the kagun while the bride’s family are preparing the apa (wedding feast), consisting of rice, meat, fi sh, and rice wine.

• Groom wears a white handkerchief and is accompanied by his “party” and walk to the bride's home bride is kept hidden behind a curtain in another room with someone guarding her

• Two or more of the bride's relatives who may ask the groom's party for a gift, such as clothing or money before he is able to see his bride.

• After the feast, the elders sit on a large mat for the edteltagan he rirey, to display the symbols for the bride's value

• Th e groom's parents stay for three more days, during which a purifi cation ritual of chickens and rice is performed for the couple's gimukod (soul-spirit), whose approval of the marriage is sought.

• Th e groom goes home with his parents to call his gimukod in case it stayed there while he was away. He does not stay away too long from his bride's home because, for every day that he is gone, he must gift his in-laws with an article of clothing.

• At fi rst, the young couple lives with the bride’s family until the groom is able to build a house of their own which is located near either parent’s house.

Many taboos are followed by the groom when building the house such as:

• If he sneezes while looking for a site, he should stop look for a site another day

Many rituals are performed and practiced by the married couple and their families such as:

Th e political structures of the Manobo groups are all quite similar. Th eir political formation is based on patriarchy where diff erent kindred are integrated. Th eir chief is usually selected based on his personal qualifi cations and his position in the kinship hierarchy. A ruler, called a sultan, is the head of the group. Beneath him are the royal and non-royal classes. Only those people belonging to the royal classes can aspire to the throne. Th ose belonging to the non-royal classes are under the power and authority of the royal classes. Each class is interdependent on the others.Leadership is achieved by a skilled and socially powerful datu who creates alliances in many ways, including marriage. Several area datus would be organized under a higher datu, united in turn under the Sultanate with a Rajah Muda. Th is structure is gradually giving way to the westernized scheme of provincial government and local councilmen, which places more emphasis on the young and educated. Qualifi cations for leaders are as follows:

• belong to class of bahanis or warrior• wisdom and knowledge of traditional lore and mythology• must have the ability and the wisdom to handle disputes ("You hold the comb and oil represent the act of smoothing and disentangling and are therefore symbols of peace and order”)• must be an eloquent speaker both for the community and outsider• possession of some wealth and property that the person must be willing to share with the whole community• organize a pangayaw or revenge raiding when needed

Position of chieftainship can be passed on to a datu's off spring, as long as the person has the qualifi cations necessary for the position. However, young village member who show promise can be chosen and trained to be chiefs, gradually earning the status of datu. Th e datu has the privilege to be able to wear a red headgear, normally large handkerchief with embroidery called tangkulo or tuvew.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Th e traditional social structure consists of four classes namely, Bagani, who defends the community and goes to battle, Baylan, a male or female priest and healer, the Commoner or the farmers, and Slaves who have been seized in raids. Slaves usually belong to the ruler and were usually given away as part of the bridewealth.

Village members could become enslaved if they could not pay the penalty for a crime they had committed. Slaves could win their freedom through diligence in the fulfi llment of their duties, faithfulness to their master, or payment of their debt through servitude

Intervillage relationship is based on upakat or reciprocity. Village members, usually belonging to kinship group or groups allied by marriage, expect assistance from each other in matters of subsistent labor, defense, and support in crises.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

• If the cry of the limokon (omen bird/dove) is heard while he is clearing the site, he must look for another site

• When he digs holes for the posts, he must avoid unearthing earthworms, termites, or beetles, for these will cause many deaths in the house

• Th e posts must have no disfi gurements because these will cause deaths in the family and no vines wrapped around them because this means that the owner will die by hanging,

• No broken parts because this means that the wife will die.• Th e roof's gable should face east so that the occupants' life "will be like the shining of

the sun"

Teeth fi ling was usually peformed upon puberty, though this is no longer practiced now; teeth were blackened with juice of the mau-mau plant. Both sexes have their earlobes pierced, although women enlarge the holes up to 2.5 cm wide. Th e face is kept hairless, thus both sexes shave their eyebrows, and the men prevent beards from

growing by plucking. Tattooing is done for ornamental purposes on chest, upper arms, forearms, and fi ngers, and women wear theirs elaborately on their calves.

MANOBO PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

Traditionally, Manobos wear only bark cloth to cover genitalia; however, today, they now western clothing. Heavily embroidered traditional Manobo costume are now worn only on special occasions. Traditional fabric was abaca or hemp, weaved by the ikat process; fabric used now is cotto cloth obtained through trade.

Color of the jacket’s body with its matching skirt or trousers identifi es the group to which the wearer belongs. Th ere are two kinds of sawa/sawal or trousers for men: one for working which is close fi tting and plain, and one for festive occasions which is square cut, baggy and embroidered in typical colors. Th ere are two kinds of skirts for women: Saya which is wide and knee-length, and Malong which is made of cotton cloth. Traditional hairdo for both sexes is a bunand bangs cut straight on the forehead. Women wear their buns on the crown of their head. Men wear their buns lower, halfway between the top of their head and nape.

Ear ornaments are usually worn by the Manobos. Th ese are wooden disks, 3 cm in diameter and laminated with silver, gold, or beaten brass wire, four strings of beads 30 cm long, hanging from each ear. Women wear armlets. Highly prized armlets are those made of sagai-sagai (black coral), since these are believed to contract around the wearer’s arm to warn of impending danger.

Bride wears additional accessories of bead necklaces, from which hang pendants of crocodile teeth and pieces of mother-of-pearl, and from which hang cotton tassels and leglets of braided plant fi ber.

MANOBO CLOTHING AND ACCESSORIES

MANOBO LITERARY ARTS

Narrative poems and lyric poems are generally also ritual songs addressed to gods. Western Bukidnon Manabo riddles show the use of metaphorical language in describing their natural environment, material culture, and human anatomy. Numerous Ilianon teterema (folktales) have been collected and classifi ed as tales about animals, culture heroes and heroines, kindness rewarded and evil punished, cleverness and stupidity, and fate. A western Bukidnon myth explains the sacredness of the betel chew. It is the means by which people attain immortality, in recompense for their diffi cult and painful life.

RIDDLES AND PROVERBS

Examples of Western Bukidnon Manabo riddles:

Emun edtibasan nune vasag ne edlambas ne linew. (Sikan is luvi)

If you cut into it, it's a bow; If you pierce it, it's a pool. (Coconut)

Buntud man guntaan heyan ne emun ed-ahaan nu ne egkiramkiram da,

ne emun egkewaan nu nu egkekawe nu. (Sikan is izung)A mountain which can only be dimly seen, yet you can

reach it with your hand. (Nose)

Examples of Ilianon Manobo proverbs:

Ke etew ne kena edlilingey te impuun din ne kena eb-pekeuma diya te edtamanan din

He who does not look back to his origins will not reach his destination.

Ke mevandes ne ed-ipanenew ne melaaran ke egkeruhi.If a man walks fast and steps on a thorn, it will go in deep,but

if he walks slowly, it will go in only a little.

Dancing at agricultural rituals and festive occasions is usually accompanied by an ensemble consisting of the tagungguan, a gibba/gimbae (drum) and a pagakpak (a pair of sticks). Th e fl ute is played to express one’s feeling or to stimulate the sounds of nature.Many Manobo songs are accompanied by rhythmic sounds from the singer’s armpit. Fotfot, sung at wakes and social gatherings, is accompanied by such sounds. Drum was used to accompany religious and secular dances. Manobo vocal music consists of ritual songs that are narrative songs, lullabies, and songs of nature. An important song type is the epic song Owaging/Uwahingen.

MANOBO PERFORMING ARTS

Th e religious beliefs of the Manobo are revolved around the concept that there are many unseen spirits who interfere in the lives of humans. Th ey believe that these spirits can intrude on human activities to accomplish their desires. Th e spirits are also believed to have human characteristics. Th ey are both good and evil in nature and can be evoked to both anger and pleasure.

Animism, the fear of evil spirits, is the mainspring of tribal religion. Every village will have at least one spirit priest, usually a man. Animal sacrifi ces are required to appease the off ended spirit in times of illness. While the religious practices of the Manobo vary slightly, there seems to be at least one common thread linking them together. Each culture believes in one "great spirit." Th is "great spirit" is usually viewed as the creator fi gure.

As the various Manobo groups have been separated, the religious beliefs of other peoples have infl uenced them somewhat. However, the Manobo have often incorporated these new practices into their belief system, rather than abandoning their practices and being converted to new religions.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Like other indigenous groups, the Manobos had to deal with issues such as discrimination, marginalization, human rights violation as exemplifi ed by cases of extra-judicial killings, and deprivation of their right to self-determination and territory brought about by the extensive militarization in Mindanao. Th e said military operations according to them were put into place, not for the purpose of giving them protection but to protect foreign investors who wish to exploit the natural resources of their land. Th e Manobos’ problem on formal education is even more augmented because of the threat infl icted on their children being labeled as rebels and insurgents while at school by military offi cials. Th eir homes were also being surveyed by military offi cials who camp near their houses even if it is supposed to be not allowed.

All these pushed the Manobos and other aff ected indigenous peoples to evacuate to a safer place away from threat. And just as when they learn that they can safely return home, they fi nd their houses and crops destroyed, giving them another burden of how to start all over again.

PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

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peoples_and_places/people_groups/manobo_of_the_philippines• Pomarin, M. (2008). The Arakan Menuvu. Retrieved September 23, 2009, from h p://anthropologywatch.blogspot.

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2009, from h p://www.prayway.com/unreached/clusters/8009.html• Saniel. (2008). Flight of the Manobo Tribe. Retrieved September 19, 2009, from h p://www.shvoong.com/

humani es/1728785-fl ight-manobo-tribe/• Serrano, B. (2009, July 31). Mindanao Tribes “slam” Militariza on on Manobo Areas in Surigao. Mindanao

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Supervisor Professor Rosa Cordillera Castillo | Contributors Robin Myan Aguila . Ma. Minerva Boac . Luigi Gabriel Custodio . Rona Marriane Dalistan . Mary Marguerite De Guzman .

Juvy Rose Macapagal | Layout Artist Fatima Ramos |

Department of Behavioral SciencesUniversity of the Philippines Manila

©2009