OPart IVGlossary

OGJossary

Abstract and Concrete A word is abstract when it refers to a quality such as goodnessor evil, and concrete when it refers to something that can be detected by the five senses.Literature needs both kinds of words. Ideas are abstract but they are made real by con­crete examples . The opening of R. S. Thomas's 'Poetry for Supper' has an abstract wordfollowed by concrete ones :

Listen, now, verse should be as naturalAs the small tuber that feeds on muck...

The concrete words, 'tuber', and 'muck', give body to the abstract, 'natural', thus makingit more effective. (See also Image and imagery.)

Act and Scene The major structural divisions of a play are called acts, and theirsub-divisions scenes. An act or scene changes to indicate either the passage of time, anew action or a change of place . Shakespeare's plays have five acts, whereas mostmodem plays have two or three.

Allegory A story which seeks to demonstrate philosophical or religious beliefs. Eachelement in the story stands for an aspect of the belief that the story is seeking to explain.There could, for instance, be allegorical figures representing Truth, Goodness or Virtue.In Bunyan's Pilgrim 's Progress, the central figure, Christian, is the Christian soul whosets out from the City of Destruction (man's fallen state) as a pilgrim travelling towardsthe Heavenly City (the eternal home of the redeemed) .

Some works are very near to being allegory. The novels of William Golding havemany allegorical elements . In the Lord of the Flies Simon is a Christ-like figure who iskilled because the boys do not want to listen to the good news that he brings.

Alliteration The repetition of the same consonant sound. Alliteration is usually bothpleasing and memorable; pleasing because readers enjoy the pattern of sounds, and mem­orable because repeated sounds impress themselves upon the mind. There is no point injust mentioning that alliteration occurs, unless you can go on to discuss its effect. Tohelp you describe the effect of alliteration you can ask whether or not it produces a dis­tinctive tone, and whether or not it is regularly spaced. The former effect is the moreimportant, because alliteration , whether or not it is regularly spaced, is always capable ofcontributing to the tone of a poem. For instance, the alliteration of the ' f" sound is regularin one line from Owen's 'Exposure', - 'With sidelong flowing flakes that flock, pause,and renew' - and irregular in another - 'Pale flakes with fingering stealth come feelingfor our faces' - yet both create a furtive tone. The flakes may seem delicate but they aresinister in the way they bring a deathly cold to the exposed soldiers. (See also Assonanceand Consonance.)

Allusion A reference to another book, event, person or place. The allusion is usuallyimplied or hinted, so the reader is given the pleasure of seeing it and understanding theeffect it creates. Sometimes the effect is to make what is being said more significant,more ambiguous or more amusing. In Pope's The Rape of the Lock, Belinda is shown tohave bright and sparkling eyes:

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Bright as the sun, her eyes the gazer strike,And, like the sun, they shine on all alike.

It is a radiant picture but one qualified by the allusion to St Matthew's Gospel, whereJesus says that God sends the sun to shine on everybody. The presence of that allusionsuggests that those fascinated by Belinda, and maybe Belinda herself, have a distortedsense of values in that they confuse the human with the divine.

Ambiguity The capacity of a word or words to mean two or more different things. Inpoetry this capacity is valued, because the meanings of poems are thereby enriched.When discussing ambiguity, you should show that the same words could have differentmeanings. For instance, in Blake's 'London' there are the lines:

How the Chimney-sweeper's cryEvery blackening Church appalls. ..

'Blackening' is ambiguous. Does it meant the soot from chimneys has blackened theChurch, or is the Church actively blackening society? You will also probably need todiscuss the tone of the poem, because a poet often makes it clear that a poem is deliber­ately ambiguous.

Assonance The repetition of vowel sounds in adjoining words. The effect of assonanceis similar to that of alliteration; that is to say, it helps to create tone. It is also worthwhilenoting whether or not it is regularly spaced. Assonance is rarer than alliteration yet it canbe very effective. In these four lines from Donne's 'Song', the repetition of the 'i' vowelcreates a tone of lamentation and regret:

When thou sigh'st, thou sigh'st not wind,But sigh'st my soul away,

When thou weep'st, unkindly kind,My life's blood doth decay.

(See also Alliteration and Consonance.)

Audience Those who view a play, and, by extension, those for whom any work iswritten. When you are reading a play, you will have to put yourself in the position ofbeing the audience. The best way to do this is to be aware of all the resources of thetheatre - actors, staging, scenery, costume, lighting and music - and imagine how thesecould be used in the production of a play. Then you will be imaginatively close to theexperiences of the audience.

Ballad A poem, usually of simple construction, that tells a story. Many English andScottish ballads are quatrains, in which the first and third lines are longer than the secondand fourth. Many of them are traditional and deal with love, war, travel and adventure.They are enjoyable because they are direct, fast moving and contain brief but tellingdetails. For instance, the repeated line 'And no birds sing' from Keat's 'La Belle Damesans Merci' is sufficient to convey the poem's terrible bleakness.

Black Comedy Comedy that invites laughter at serious or painful aspects of life suchas disease, pain, failure and death. Joe Orton's comedies can be described as black, andsome moments in Shakespeare's problem plays - Measure for Measure, All 's Well thatEnds Well and Troilus and Cressida - come near to it.

Blank Verse Poetry that is written in lines of unrhymed iambic pentameters. It is verycommon in English and can be used for telling a story or thinking about ideas and feel­ings. It is worthwhile noticing how regular and insistent its rhythms are.

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Shakespeare uses blank verse in his plays . There is usually no point in drawing atten­tion to this, unless there are very interesting variations in the rhythm of a line. Such varia­tions are usually the expres sion of deep emotion . For instance , Hamlet's order to hismother, 'Look here upon this picture, and on this' , could be scanned in the usual way, butthat would not reflect its emotional quality . To do that justice, the line should be scanned :

Look here upon this picture , and on this .. .

It is also important to notice when Shakespeare uses verse which is not blank verse.For instance, the witches in Macbeth and the fairie s in A Midsummer Night 's Dreamspeak in trochees rather than iambs. Trochee s sound different, thus making the witchesand fairies seem strange, non-human creatures . (See also Metre.)

Bravado The outlandish and extravert way in which a tragic hero or heroine acts outhis or her role. There is relish and even enjoyment in the whole-hearted embracing of thedanger , bravery and immorality of the tragic path he or she has freely undertaken. InShakespeare the bravado is seen in terms of a self-conscious adoption of theatricality.Hamlet, for instance , zestfully plays a number of teasing roles (including the staging of aplay) in order to distract those who are trying to investigate his strange behaviour. Thebravado of a tragic figure is what makes him or her both attractive and reprehensible.

Cadence The rise and fall in pitch the voice makes when at the end of a line, a sentenceor caesura . The emotional impact of poetry is often created by cadence s. There is notechnical language to describe their effect , though they are often said to be ' rising ' ,'falling' or 'steady'. When you write about cadences, you should try to characterise theemotion al effect they create . For instance, the close of the passage about skating fromBook I of Wordsworth ' s The Prelude is effective because the steady cadence enacts thepeace of untroubled sleep:

and I stood and watchedTill all was tranquil as a dreamless sleep.

Caesura The break in a line of poetry . The convention for marking a caesura is II.Caesuras are important because they mark changes in tone, in argument and emotion .They can also produce comic effects, particularly when what follows the caesura is verydifferent from what preceded it. When writing about a caesura, you should never justpoint to its existence but try to describe the impact that it has. For instance, the caesura inthe last line of Yeats's 'An Irish Airman Foresees His Death' is effective because there isno break in the previous line (there are very few in the poem) and because it enacts theclear-sighted thoughtfulness of one who has come to a momentous decision:

A waste of breath the years behindIn balance with this life, II this death.

Caricature The deliberate distortion or exaggeration of a character' s features ormanner s in order to ridicule or amuse . The reaction of reader or audience is often affec­tionate amusement. Sometimes the term is used against an author when it is suggestedthat his or her characters are near to caricature. But this criticism can only be used if theauthor aimed at creating a fuller character and failed .

Character and Characterisation Character is the name we give to the figures weencounter in narratives; characterisation is the way in which the character has beencreated .

Code A fashionable term that has at least two distinct meanings . (i) It can refer to theset of beliefs by which a character in a book tries to live his or her life. For instance ,

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Great Expectations is about Pip's attempts to live by what he regards as the code of agentleman . (ii) Its second meaning is the set of conventions of meaning authors employand readers recognise. Allegory is a code because the author directs the reader, usuallythrough names and representative actions, to read the book in a particular way.

The term can be used in a wider sense to refer to any means by which an author createshis or her meaning. Understanding a work therefore can be said to be a matter of recog­nising the code of meaning the author is employing. A word of warning is howevernecessary: many books are subtle in the way in which meaning is made, so any simpleidea that once a reader has got hold of the 'code' the meaning can be 'cracked' is agrossly misleading one.

Comedy and Tragedy A comedy is a play in which the confusions of characters, oftenprompted by love and furthered by deception or misunderstanding, eventually work outso that the play closes happily. The action of comedy is usually amusing, and the plotintricate.

Tragedy is a play in which a character (often called the hero) falls from power ,influence or happiness towards disaster and death. Often a hero is wilful and seems tobring destruction upon himself. This wilfulness is called hubris. The action arouses feel­ings of awe in the audience, who often leave the theatre with a renewed sense of the seri­ousness and significance of human life. The word catharsis is often used to describe theaudience' s feelings. It means the purging from the mind of the feelings of pity and fearthe play has aroused.

You should be careful not to impose these, or any other definitions of comedy andtragedy, upon Shakespeare's plays. All definitions should be used as general guides andnot as rules. Though comedy and tragedy usually apply to plays, the terms can be used ofboth poems and novels.

Complex A line, sentence, image , scene or whole work which consists of severalclosely connected ideas or feelings . You can use the term when you are trying to stressthat the meaning, emotion or construction of a work is rich and varied. It is important tounderstand that the term implies that though a work has many elements, it is stilI unified.Therefore, it is often used as a term of praise. You should not, however, assume that onlycomplex literature is good. There is also a pleasure and a value in simplicity .

Compression A term used when talking about poetry to indicate the way in whichwriters concentrate meaning by cutting down the number of words. The experience there­fore is of meaning concentrated in a few words. In many metaphors the whole figurativeforce is compressed into one word. Sometimes, as in these lines from Browning's' ''Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came'" , compressed writing is direct, concentratedand close to notes or shorthand.

grey plain all round:Nothing but plain to the horizon's bound.I might go on; nought else remained to do.

Conceit A highly elaborate image that seems on first acquaintance far-fetched but yetwhich, with thought, is seen to be appropriate. It is strange but true. You should try toconvey the sense of shock, the challenge to thought, and the pleasure of discovering thatthe image is apt. The most famous example is from Donne's 'Valediction: forbiddingmourning', where he speaks of a husband and wife's souls as being a pair of compasses :

If they be two, they are two soAs stiff twin compasses are two,Thy soul the fixed foot, makes no showTo move, but doth, if the other do.

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The shock is that the insubstantial soul should be compared to 'stiff twin compasses'; thechallenge to thought comes when the third and fourth lines are read, and the pleasure is ofseeing that the image is delightfully logical - she is stable but will move as he moves,because they are really one.

Con sonance The repetition of the same consonant sounds in two or more words inwhich the vowel sounds are different. The effect is of interest when the words are relatedin meaning as well as in sound. In W. H. Auden's "' 0 where are you going?" said readerto rider' there is a line: 'Behind you swiftly the figure comes softly.' The consonance of'swiftly' and 'softly' is interesting because both words are concerned with the stealthyand slightly sinister approach of the strange ' figure' . (See also Alliteration, Assonanceand Half-rhyme.)

Consonants and Vowels A consonant is a sound produced by stopping the breath, and avowel by allowing the air to pass through the mouth without stoppage. Vowels are a, e, i,0, u and, in some cases, y; all other letters are consonants. The terms are useful whenwriting about the effects of sound in poetry.

It is often important to note whether a vowel is long or short. For instance, the longvowels of Herbert ' s 'Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright' create a meditative and tran­quil effect, whereas the short ' i's in the following lines from T. S. Eliot ' s 'The Love­Song of J. Alfred Prufrock' are nervous and slightly irritable.

Oh, do not ask, 'What is it?'Let us go and make our visit.

Convention An agreement between author and reader or audience that a device, formor procedure stands for the reality of what is being conveyed. A convention is never 'trueto life' , but reader and audience accept that it represents that feature or aspect of life. Forinstance, a stage is accepted by the audience as being a battlefield, a palace or a drawingroom. Conventions are present in all types of literature, and as long as the reader under­stands that that is what they are, no difficulty is caused.

Someti mes the word 'conventional' is used to indicate disapproval. This is a differ­ent use. It means that an author is in no way original but simply uses other people ' sideas. You must be careful not to confuse the two uses of the word.

Counterpoint A word borrowed from music to indicate how some syllables in an oth­erwise regular line produce variations on the set rhythm. You should only use the term ifyou want to discuss the emotional or intellectual effect of the variation. The opening ofLarkin's 'Church Going' is basically iambic until the last three emphatic words of thesecond line, which have the effect of enclosing the poet in the church, the poet' s thoughtsin his head, and the reader in the poem:

Once ( am sure there ' s nothing going OIl1step inside, letting the door thud shut .

The counterpointing of the rhythm fixes poet and reader in one place and prepares themboth for the serious and sensitive meditations that are to come. (See also Metre andScansion.)

Denotations and Connotations The denotations of a word are its standard range ofmeanings, the connotations its additional meanings that emerge through association,suggestion, and emotional undertones. Writers, part icularly poets, often exploit aword's connotations, so you should look to see if their words work in this way. Forinstance, the denotations of the word 'flat' are a smooth, unbroken surface; its connota­tions are lifeless, dull and uninteresting.

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Denouement A term that may be used of both novels and plays when talking about theway the tangled element s of a plot are untied. Denouem ents are often linked to discover­ies, because it' s often in the light of a discovery that a plot can be wound up. Becauseplots are more important in comic rather than tragic works, their denouements are morecomplex and, often, more intriguing. The unveiling of Hero in Much Ado About Nothing(a discovery) leads to the hoped for denouement - the publicly declared love of Beatriceand Benedick. (See also Discovery, Resolution and Reversal. )

Diction The selection of words used in a work. The term is only useful if you can char­acterise the diction. For instance, an author may use words drawn from everyday life(John Betjeman often does this in his poetry), from religion, from politics or from anotheracademic subject, such as a science. When you write about diction you should try toshow the effect of selecting a particular range of words.

Discovery The moment, usually towards the close of a plot, when something is dis­closed which alters the situation and allows the plot to be resolved. In Jane Eyre, forinstance, her discovery that Rochester ' s wife is dead enables the plot to end with themarriage that both Jane and the reader desire. In Twelfth Night the discovery that makespossible the winding up of the plot is the public realisation that Sebastian and Viola aretwins. (See also Resolution and Reversal. )

Disjunction The event which by disturbing or rupturing the customary pattern of lifeinitiates the main elements of a plot. The arrival, for instance, of Mr Bingl ey in theopening chapter of Pride and Prejudice is the disjun ction that makes possible the subse­quent events of the plot.

Empathy/Sympathy Empathy is the imagi native act in which we put ourse lves insomebody else's place; sympathy is the feelings we have (usually of understanding pity)for someone' s plight. Literature need not demand either of these responses from a reader;quite often it's differences and distance rather than similarity and close ness that charac ­terises our reactions to the characters in literary works. (It 's hard trying to imagine what itmust feel like being Cleopatra or Macbeth.)

When we are asked to respond, the feeling that is demanded is usually sympathy (wemight pity the terrible misunderstanding of Othello) but sometimes characters invite us tosee their plight as ours. There are elements of this in Hamlet when he speaks in pluralsrather than in singulars: 'Thus conscience does make cowards of us all' . By speaking of'us' rather than 'me', Hamlet invites us to see his state as ours and so empathise.

Enactment This word stands for the way in which all aspects of words - their sounds,rhythms, and the shapes they make in lines and stanzas - contribute to the meaning ofwhat is being said. You should use the word to avoid the idea that poetry is just made upof form and content. Enactment insists that words are not divisible into what they say andhow they say it, and that how something is said shapes what is said, and vice versa. InByron' s 'So, we'll go no more a-roving', the repetition of the ' 0 ' sound, the heavy stresseson 'go ' and 'ro ving' , the casual 'so ' at the beginning of the line, and its repetition at thestart of the second line enact the langour of one who is wearied by much experience:

So, we'll go no more a-rovingSo late into the night,

Though the heart be still as loving,And the moon be still as bright.

End-stopped and Run-on Lines. An end-stopped line is one in which the grammaticalunit, be it clause or sentence, is coterminous with the line. Thus, there is the satisfactionof finding the line and the sense ending together. A run-on line (sometimes called an

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enjambed line) is where the grammar , and thus the sense, is left unfinished at the end ofthe line. Run-on lines create pleasurable feelings of expectation, as the reader has to lookfurther for the full sense of what is being said.

Epic Simile The comparison of one thing in terms of another in which the idea intro­duced to make the compari son (the vehicle) is developed in a lengthy passage to form avivid picture. Epic similes are effective when there is an appropriateness in the compari­son. For instance, in Book I of Milton ' s Paradise Lost the fallen angels rising from theburning lake of Hell are compared to the plague of locusts brought down upon Egypt byAmram' s son - Moses:

As when the potent rodOf Amram ' s son in Egypt's evil dayWaved round the coast, up called a pitchy cloudOf locusts, warping on the eastern wind,That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hungLike night , and darkened all the land of Nile:So numberless were those bad angels seenHovering on wing under the cope of hell . . .

The appropriateness is not ju st a visual one; Milton shows that both the locusts and fallenangels were a plague - the former upon Egypt , the latter upon the whole of mankind.

Epigram Either a brief, usually witty, statement or a short poem which makes a simplebut often dramatic or humorou s point. You will probabl y use the first meaning more thanthe second. Often it is useful to call a deft line or remark epigrammatic. By that you aresaying it is punchy and memorable. T. S. Eliot' s 'Whispers of Immortality' has a griml yepigrammati c thrust:

Webster was much possessed by deathAnd saw the skull beneath the skin;And breastless creatures undergroundLeaned backward with a lipless grin.

Epiphany James Joyce used this word to indicate those moment s of illumination thatoften come to characters, particularl y those in short stories, at the climax of the plot. Anepiphany can be something seen or understand or something familiar which , for the firsttime, is seen for what it is. It' s useful when writing about those moment s of insight thatcome to Katherine Mansfield ' s characters, often at the very end of the story. (See alsoDiscovery).

Expectation The effect of being led to think that something is going to happen . Shortstories, novels and plays all build up expectations in readers and audiences. Expectationsare built upon what is known about events and characters , and also on what the charactersthemselves expect to happen . Whenever you write about expectation, you should stressthat it is the author , or playwright, who is responsible for creating it. (See also Surpriseand Relief.)

Farce A branch of comedy in which the characters are reduced to stock figures, and theaction is often frantic and even violent. Thus, in farce characters can be beaten or humili­ated and the audience reacts with laughter, because it has not been invited to see the charac­ters as having any sort of distinctive personality. Elements of farce creep into some plays.

For instance, the middle scenes of Dr Faustus can be said to be farce, and the innu­merable beatings of servants in Shakespeare' s The Comedy ofErrors introduce farce intoa carefully constructed comic plot. (See also Tragedy and Comedy.)

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Fictionality Although the idea that literary works draw attention to their own fictionalstatus is currently popular, the idea of fictionality - that literature is art and thereforespecially made - is a traditional one. When Victorian novelists addressed their readersdirectly they were drawing attention to the fact that literature is not the same as everydaylife. Nowadays this term is used of those works which deliberately play upon their ownconventions. In The French Lieutenant's Women, John Fowles talks about himself as thenovelist and discusses other, usually nineteenth-century, writers. (See also Reflexivity .)

Flat and Round Characters. Terms introduced by E. M. Forster to indicate charactersin novels who have little personal identity (flat), and those who are given much moreindividuality (round). You should use the terms with care, because characters in novelsare rarely simply flat or round. (See also Stock character.)

Focus A useful term to deploy when talking about how an author is presenting some­thing. For instance, one of the ways in which Wuthering Heights works is though the dif­ference in focus between the steady Nelly who narrates events with a broad, though notnecessarily deep, understanding and Cathy and Heathcliff who are almost obsessive intheir preoccupations with their own feelings.

Foregrounding A term that may be used when discussing the interest an author takesin a character or issue. To foreground is to single out for special interest or treatment. Forinstance, Lawrence usually foregrounds the intense and fluctuating inner lives of his char­acters. Sometimes it's useful when you are trying to bring out what does or does notinterest an author: for instance, Wilkie Collins pays very little attention to his characters'states of minds but foregrounds their strenuous attempts to understand and outwit eachother.

Frame You have to be careful when using this term because in Theatre Studies it has aquite specific meaning, which is concerned with the perspectives an audience is givenwhen viewing a set of events. In English the term is broader and simpler. It is used of anyaction that provides a context for a subsequent action. Its most popular use is in dramawhen there is a play within a play, as in the Induction of The Taming of the Shrew ; or innovels where one narrative leads to another, as in the incidents at the start of Heart ofDarkness which provide the frame for Marlowe's narrative.

Genre A word taken from the French which means a literary type or kind. Comedy,tragedy and satire are genres, but nowadays it is also common to speak of poetry and thenovel as genres, too.

Half-rhyme The effect that is created when the consonants of two words in a rhymingposition have the same sounds but the vowels do not. In effect, it is consonance function­ing in the place of rhyme. The effect of half-rhyme (or para-rhyme, as it is sometimescalled) is to make the ear expect a rhyme which is denied. The result is that the wordsoften sound strangely out of tune with each other. In Owen's 'Futility' the feeling thatdeath has distorted the natural progress of life is enacted in the half-rhymes. He is speak­ing of the sun:

Think how it wakes the seeds,Woke, once, the clays of a cold star.Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides,Full-nerved - still warm - too hard to stir?

Whenever you write about half-rhyme, you should try to bring out how it leads you toexpect a rhyme which you do not get. (See also Consonance and Rhyme.)

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Heroic Couplets These are lines of iambic pentameters that rhyme in pairs. They areassertive and self-affirming and are consequently appropriate for argument. For instance,Pope in An Essay on Criticism neatly conveys the ideal of economy in verse in a heroiccouplet which is itself economical :

Words are like leaves; and where they most abound,Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.

They are, however, also used in narrative poems. Many people do not find them easy toread, because they seem repetitious . They should be read slowly, and it is often interest­ing to note whether the sentences of the poem are coterminous with the couplets . Whenthey are not, and run-on lines occur, readers usually enjoy the variation. (See alsoMetre.)

Image and Imagery Any figurative or descriptive language that appeals to one of thefive senses is called an image. Images could also be metaphors, similes, symbols andpersonification, as well as examples of non-figurative description. Images are impressivebecause they make ideas concrete . They also create atmosphere and can be used to estab­lish a pattern within a poem. It is sometimes helpful to show how an image works insome detail. For instance, in Macbeth Macduff tries to put into words the horror offinding that Duncan, King of Scotland , has been murdered . He uses a very compleximagery to do this:

Confusion now hath made his masterpiece!Most sacrilegious Murther hath broke opeThe Lord's anointed Temple, and stole thenceThe life 0 ' th' building!

The death of Duncan is first seen in the image of 'Confusion' as an artist or craftsman,making his 'masterpiece' . Then 'Murther' (murder) is seen as a thief breaking into a reli­gious building. (See also Abstract and concrete, Metaphor and simile, Personificationand Symbol.)

Intrusion A term usually used when discussing the way in which a narrator enters his orher own narration, usually for the purpose of commenting upon the events. George Eliotfrequently does this in her novels. The effect is sometimes called narratorial intrusion.

Inversion Inversion occurs when an author, usually a poet, changes the 'natural' or'standard' word order. For instance, Milton's line from Paradise Lost - 'Now came stillevening on, and twilight grey' - inverts the normal order of words , so that the verb'came' comes before the noun 'evening'. Inversion draws attention to the crafted natureof literature and also foregrounds certain words and ideas. For instance, in the line fromMilton the inversion allows the interesting (and even paradoxical?) idea of a still eveningmoving by juxtaposing the words ' . ..came still .. .'

Irony The effect produced when a reader sees that there is a gap between the wordsthat are being said and the real significance of those words. There are different kinds ofgaps. The gap between words and truth occurs when something the reader knows to bemistaken is said. A second type of gap, or discrepancy, is between the words andmeaning. This occurs when the reader sees that the real significance of what is being saidis very different from what the speaker supposes. The gap can lie between intention andresult. A speaker can intend something but the reader will see that the result will not bewhat is expected. This is also called dramatic irony. There is also the irony of one charac­ter interpreting the world one way, whilst the reader is led to see that this is false. In all

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cases of irony, someone is put at a disadvantage because others, usually the author andreader, can see more clearly than he or she can.

When you write about irony, you should make clear who is placed in a position ofadvantage and who is at a disadvantage. You should also remember that irony canproduce different emotional effects. It can be bitter, comic, serious, tragic, sad, and so on.In your writing you should try to bring over how irony can make the reader or audiencechange attitudes to a character. For instance, you may be horrified by the callous inhu ­manity of Lady Macbeth , who believes that, after the murder of Duncan, 'A little waterclears us of this deed '. When, however , she walks in her sleep and is seen to be perpetu­ally washing her hands, you may see the terrible irony that 'a little water' can't clear herof guilt. When you see the irony, your horror may turn to pity.

Knowledge Knowledge in literature means what it means in any context - that which youhave good reason to think is true. In literature it's sometimes important to keep in mindwhat characters know and what they think they know. Such knowledge is often to be seen inrelation to what other characters know and what the reader knows. Usually knowledge givesa character advantage and power. There is a chilling moment in The Woman in White whenit' s disclosed that one of the villains has dishonestly come by all the knowledge that theheroine has painstakingly gathered. From that moment the reader knows that she is at hismercy.

Lyric A poem, usually of no more than forty or fifty lines, and often much shorter,which expresses the thoughts and feelings of the poet or of an imagined speaker. Thetones of such poems are varied, but they are often personal, reflective, and frequently dealwith love or other powerful emotions. Sometime s writing that is smooth, fluent and inti­mate is described as lyrical. Most people 's idea of poetry is lyrical. It is useful to remindyourself that poetry can be narrative, didactic and satiric as well. (See also Song.)

Masque A highly elaborate entertainment in verse and song with lavish costumes andsets that was popular in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The characters are oftengods or allegorical figures. Shakespeare' s The Tempest contains a masque to celebrate thebetrothal of Ferdinand and Miranda. Milton' s Comus is also a masque. If you have towrite about masques, you will have to imagine the visual impact that they make on stage.(See also Allegory.)

Mental Landscap The effect created when a landscape is portrayed in terms of the feel­ings of the author or character, who views it. The outer world thus reflects the inner worldof thoughts and feelings. The effect is particularly prominent in late eighteenth-centuryand much of nineteenth -century literature. Mental landscapes are often strangely impres­sive. In Wordsworth 's The Prelude there is a passage in which the poet descends from theAlps through a deep ravine; the vast and sublime landscape echoes the workings of hisown imagination . Sometimes a mental landscape works by using words appropriate toboth the external scene and the state of mind. In Tennyson ' s 'Lock sley Hall ' the protago­nist speaks of the 'dreary, dreary moorland '; the word 'dreary' applies to what he can seeand how he feels.

Metaphor and Simile The compari son of one thing in terms of another; in metaphorthere is an implicit identity, whereas in simile the compari son is introduced by the words' like' or 'as' . Metaphor s are thus more compre ssed and economical than similes, thoughsimiles are closer to ordinary speech, and there is a distinct pleasure in following throughthe comparison from the object being presented to that in terms of which it is presented .If you wish to distinguish one from the other, the terms ' tenor' (the object presented) and've hicle' (that in terms of which it is presented) can be useful. Thus, in the metaphor for achurch from Larkin ' s 'Church Going' - ' this special shell' - church is the tenor and shell

Glossary 387

the vehicle, or in Larkin's simile from' Ambulances' - 'Closed like confessionals' - thetenor is ambulances and the vehicle confessionals.

Metre The regular rhythms of poetic lines, created by a sequence of stressed orunstressed syllables. A recurring unit of stressed and unstressed syllables is called afoot.Special names are given to these recurring feet, and also to the number of feet in a line.Common English metres are the following :

iambic: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllableanapaestic: two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllabletrochaic : a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllabledactylic : a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.

The names for the number of feet in a line are as follows:

monometerdimetertrimetertetrameterpentameterhexameterheptameteroctameter

one foottwo feetthree feetfour feetfive feetsix feetseven feeteight feet

There is usually little point in merely labelling a metre. If you wish to discuss metre, youshould try to characterise the effect it has by showing how it helps to enact the meaningof the poem. (See also Blank verse, counterpoint, Heroic couplets, Scansion andStanza.)

Monosyllabic and Polysyllabic Words of one syllable such as 'did', 'good', 'said' and'would' are monosyllabic. In poetry and verse drama they are effective in making thelines feel emphatic, forceful and strong. Consider the force of the opening of Donne's'Hymn to God the Father' :

Wilt thou forgive my sin where I beganWhich was my sin though it were done before.

The monosyllables enact the dark, serious strength of the poet's plea.Words of more than one syllable are polysyllabic. When a number of polysyllabic

words are used in a line the effect is likely to be flowing, lyrical and sometimes evenmajestic. Notice how the polysyllabic words in Hopkins's 'The Windhover' help to enactthe flowing and majestic movements of the falcon in flight:

I caught this morning morning's minion, king-dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon ...

Multiple Narration A story that is told by more than one narrator. Sometimes, as inWuthering Heights, interesting problems of reliability and perspective are raised when theevents are seen from several viewpoints . The reader must be alert to what each narratorknows and aware of the different ways in which they present, interpret and judge what isgoing on. (See also Narrator, Primary narrator and Reliability.)

Narrative A set of events that are related by an author to a reader or listener.Sometimes the term is used to cover the nature of fiction itself - what it is for a story to

388 Glossary

be told - and, by extension, it's also used of the kind of problems readers encounter innarratives. In these latter senses the emphasis is always on how the narrative is made.

Narrator The narrator is one who tells a story. The narrator can, but need not, be thenovelist. Narrators can tell their stories, or narratives, in the first or the third person. If thestory is told in the first person, there is only access to the mind of the narrator. If, however,the story is narrated in the third person, it is possible to see into the minds of all thecharacters. When an author knows everything that goes on in characters' minds, he or sheis called an omniscient (all-knowing) narrator. (See also Primary narrator andRetrospective narrator.)

Naturalism - See Realism and Naturalism, below.

Onomatopoeia The effect that is created when the sounds of words mime or resemblethe sounds of the object being described. Individual words such as 'crash' or 'buzz' areonomatopoeic, but the term is more generally used of an effect created by a number ofwords. Onomatopoeia is usually worth discussing when it creates atmosphere. In Keats's'Ode to a Nightingale' one stanza closes with this line: 'The murmurous haunt of flies onsummer eves.' The onomatopoeic 'murmurous' combines with the long vowels and thealliteration on 'm ' and's' to produce an atmosphere oflanguid ease.

Overtones and Undertones The associations of a word or words. Overtones are theclear and obvious associations, while undertones are those meanings which are hintedand implied. However, the two words are often used interchangeably to refer to words'wider meanings and emotional colouring. It is often very useful to point out the overtonesand undertones of a word. You can do this by pointing to the number of ways in which aword is used in ordinary speech.

Pathetic Fallacy The way in which a writer gives human feelings to an object that couldnot possibly have them. The effect it creates is very close to personification. Its origin isprobably in the very common practice people have of transferring their own feelingsabout something to the thing itself. Therefore, pathetic fallacy is often an indication ofwhat the writer or character is feeling. In Tennyson 's 'Ulysses' the sea 'Moans roundwith many voices' . The word 'moans ' indicates the state of mind of the protagonist. (Seealso Mental landscape and Personification.)

Pathos The arousing of tenderness, pity or sorrow in a reader or an audience by the pre­sentation of a sad or moving scene. The pity of reader or audience is often due to the help­lessness of the characters. Thus, the distraught Ophelia's speech about the sad decline ofHamlet at the end of Act III, Scene I is full of pathos. When writing about pathos, youshould strike a balance between showing how the emotions are aroused and recordingwhat you feel about the scene.

Persona A specially created voice or self in a poem, novel or short story. In most casesa persona speaks in the first person singular, though in some cases, particularly poems,this need not be so. Personas give works unity by showing the reader that everything inthe work is the expression of a particular viewpoint. Because of this, it is wise to discusspersonas in terms of tone and attitude. You should remember that a persona is not to beidentified with the writer, and that a writer can adopt as many personas as he or shechooses.

Personification The effect created when a non-human object or quality is written aboutas if it were a human being. Keats personifies the Grecian urn when he calls it a 'stillunravished bride of quietness', and Gray personifies wealth and beauty when he writes of'all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave' . You should always try to characterise the

Glossary 389

effect of personification. Often, it makes the object seem close to both author and reader,and, in some cases, it can make the object or quality personified seem more lively andengaging. (See also mental landscape and Pathetic fallacy .)

Plot The pattern of events that constitutes the main business of a narrative. Becauseplot is a literary idea, it's best to define it as the order of events as they are known to thereader. It's often helpful to look at the problem or situation out of which the plot growsand think about the various ways in which plots can be constructed.

Primary Narrator In multiple narrations the primary narrator is the first that the readermeets. Subsequent narrators may be called secondary, tertiary and so on, though usuallythere's no need. The point about the primary narrator is that even if the role is a minorone, as in Lockwood in Wuthering Heights , the term is still the one to use. (See alsoMultiple narration).

Problem Plays A group of plays written by Shakespeare which, though they have acomic form, deal with dark and serious aspects of life. They are sometimes called the'dark comedies' . Measure for Measure, for instance, has the comic form of confusionworking towards a happy ending, and many comic conventions such as disguise anddeception . Yet it deals with a man sentenced to death, and the attempts of a corruptofficial to seduce a nun. Other problem plays are All's Well that Ends Well and Troilusand Cressida. Sometimes Hamlet is said to be closer to a problem play than a tragedy.

ProlepsislProleptic An event the full significance of which is only realised in thefuture. The term can be used of those events that are only seen in their true light later onin the book. There is, for instance, a proleptic element in the way in which Dickens pre­sents Orlick in Great Expectations . After she's been attacked, Pip's sister wants to seeOrlick. This is puzzling, but when we discover towards the end that Orlick was herassailant we can appreciate why she wants to see him.

Protagonist Originally the hero in a Greek play, but now it is also used to mean thespeaker in a narrative poem or dramatic monologue. The protagonist is usually a speciallycreated voice. The poet can thus explore a realm of experience different from his or herown. When writing about the protagonist of a poem, you should make sure that you don'tconfuse him or her with the author of the poem.

Realism and Naturalism Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably to refer tonarratives that try to evoke the sense that what is being conveyed is a direct transcriptionof actual events. Historically, the terms have different origins; realism is any fiction thatpresents everyday characters in their usual settings, whereas naturalism was a more philo­sophical kind of fiction that presented characters as solely the products of their biologicalinheritance and social circumstances. Since there aren't in English many novels thatfollow naturalistic presuppositions, realism is the more useful term.

Whenever you use the words 'realism' or 'realistic' you should remember threethings : (i) most literature isn't realistic (Shakespeare, for instance) - in fact, it's adifficult term to use of literature written before the nineteenth century; (ii) realistic liter­ature isn't, by virtue of being realistic, better than literature that isn't; (iii) although theaim is to reproduce the surface appearance of everyday life, realistic literature is itself aspecially made form of art that depends upon a careful selection and arrangement ofdetails.

Reflexivity the manner in which a book draws attention to its own status as a createdwork. Sometimes, reflexivity can suddenly distance a reader from the events, because heor she is reminded that the characters only exist in a book. On other occasions, reflexivitycan awaken the reader to the fascinating topic of what an author does in creating a work

390 Glossary

of art . In this sense many works are implicitly reflexive; for instance, Keats in 'Ode on aGrecian Urn' is writing about the poem he is writing about the Grecian urn.

Reliability The extent to which what a narrator says can be trusted. In much fiction theissue doesn't arise but when it does, as in for instance Lockwood's and Nelly's narrativesin Wuthering Heights, it raises interesting questions of perspective, contrary judgementsand the extent to which the reader endorses what the narrator is saying . (See alsoMultiple narration, View and viewpoint.)

Relief The effect experienced by readers and audiences when the tension created byexpectation is released. Sometimes a reader or audience responds to relief by laughter,but on other occasions, as in tragedy, a feeling of seriousness is left when the anticipatedevent has occurred. (See also Expectation and Surprise.)

Resolution A term for the ways in which a plot is sorted out, usually at the close of abook. Resolution usually has two aspects - a human one and a formal one. Audiences andreaders want to know how the lives of characters work out, so they take an interest inwhether or not the plans and hopes of the characters are fulfilled. The formal aspect is notdetached from this interest. Characters form groups and are often very similar or interest­ingly different from each other. Such grouping prompts a desire in the reader for abalance, or at least a discernible pattern, in the working out of their respective lives. Asimple case of this is the desire to see the good rewarded and the bad punished .

The close of Shakespeare's plays are an interesting balance of the human and formalinterests; audiences want to see the lovers married off and they enjoy the way in whichthe pairings are carefully contrasted with each other. The marriages at the close of As YouLike It form a set of interesting contrasts as well as engaging our sympathies to varyingdegrees . The term can also be used of poetry, to describe the way in which the passage offeelings in a poem or an argument are brought to a satisfying close.

Retrospective Narration A form of narrative (usually in the first person) that makesuse of the past, often to allow the narrator to reflect on what has happened and to discernthe differences between past and present. In Great Expectations Pip the narrator oftenallows himself to think about the mistakes of his youth and, without giving away whathas happened to him, indicate how different he is from the former self about which hewrites. What is interesting about Great Expectations and several other retrospective nar­rations is their inconsistency . For much of Jane Eyre there is no retrospective distancebetween narrator and the young Jane, only occasionally does she slip in a remark abouthow difficult she must have been as a child. Some retrospective narrations deliberatelyavoid exploiting the distance between the older narrator and the younger narrated self. InHuckleberry Finn the narrating Huck is as naive and prejudiced as the self whom he pre­sents. (See the entries on Narration.)

Reversal A term originally introduced by Aristotle to discuss drama but which can beused when talking about other sorts of narrative. It refers to the event, usually towards theend of a work, when the fortunes of the central figures are changed. In tragedy the changeis for the worse, whilst in comedy reversal paves the way for the happy ending . BecauseShakespeare works through expectation rather than surprise, his reversals don 't functionas dramatic turnabouts . In many nineteenth-century novels, however, secrets are impor­tant, so their disclosures work more like those in the plays that Aristotle used for hisexamples. Reversal is often indistinguishable from discovery . In Great Expectations thereturn of Magwitch functions as a discovery which brings about a reversal in Pip's for­tunes. (See also Discovery.)

Rhyme The identity in two or more words of the final vowel and any consonants thatfollow it. When the rhyming words are monosyllabic, the rhyme is said to be masculine,

Glossa ry 391

as in 'bold' and 'o ld', and when they are polysyllabic, they are said to be feminine, as in'e nding' and 'bending' . (You will also note that in the feminine rhymes the last syllableis unstressed.)

Whenever you write about rhyme, you should bring out the effec t it creates.Rhyme creates harmony and also the pleasing effect of comple ting or reso lving an idea.When words rhyme, they tend to be more noticeable and hence more important in thepoem. When the words rhymed are important, the whole meaning of the poem can befocused. Rhymes, particularly feminine ones, can also be funny. (See also Half-rhyme .)

Satire The art of exposing folly or wickedness by mocking it. Sometimes a whole workis called a satire, but more often it is thought of as a quality or function of an author'swriting. For instance, Dickens satirises the civi l service in Little Dorrit by creating theCircumlocution Office - a massive department whose aim is to prevent anybody fromdoing anything. You should remember that satire is a moral art. That is to say, it does notmerely poke fun at something but ridicules it in the name of important values.

Scansion The examination of metrical patterns in verse by noting the sequences ofaccented and unaccented syllables. If you wish to draw attention to a pattern, you shouldmark accented syllables with a ' and unaccented ones with a ", There is usually no pointsimply in labelling a line (see Metre) unless you can discuss any variations, or show thatit effec tive ly enacts the meanin g of the line. (See also Blank verse, Counterpoint,Heroic couplets and Stanza.)

Setting The context in which the events in a literary work take place. Settings are oftensignificant because they reflect in a number of ways the characters and events. The natureof characters, the moods of characters, the plight of characters and the significance ofwhat is going on are often evident in the locations and surroundings. The abrasive ly newbuildings of Alec D'U rberville' s home indicate his nouveau riche status; the wild andthreatening marshes of Great Expectations echo the guilt of young Pip; the lonely moorsof Jane Eyre reflect her abandonment, and the hollow in which Sergeant Troy demon­strates his sword play to Bathsheba evokes the sexual potent ial of their relationship.

Soliloquy A speech delivered when a character is either alone or isolated on the stage .A soliloquy can be public, in which case the character directly addresses the audience, orprivate , in which case the audience overhears the character talking to himself or herself.In Shakespeare, soliloquies are usually only given to important characters. For instance,Hamlet has a number of private soliloquies, and Iago a number of public ones. Charactersvery rarely tell lies in soliloquies, so you should pay particular attention to them.

Song Either a lyrical poem which might be set to music or verses intended to be sung ina play. In the first case, you could ask yourself whether the rhythm and sounds of thepoem are appropriately light or flowing. In the second , you should ask how it contributesto the mood or meaning of the play. When you are imagining what a play would be likeon stage, you can ask yourself what kind of tune would be suitable. (See also Lyric.)

Sonnet. A poem of fourteen lines. A number of forms have been created, but the twomost popular are the one constructed in an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines), andthe one in three quatrains (four lines each) and a couplet (two lines). When you writeabout a sonnet, you should look for the tightness of the argument and the depth of theemotional range. It is worth noticing how they end: is the end artificia l, or does it natu­rally arise out of the rest of the poem and satisfactorily conclude it?

Stanza A group of lines in a poem that form its basic, structural unit. The shape of astanza is formed by the number of lines and often by the rhyme scheme. If you choose towrite about the stanza form of a poem, you should seek to show how it moulds the

392 Glossary

meaning of the poem. You can also ask whether the stanza is appropriate to the mood andmeaning of the poem.

Famous stanza forms are terza rima (three lines, usually rhyming ABA,BCD); qua­train (four lines); rime royal (seven lines, rhyming ABABBCC); ottava rima (eightlines , rhyming ABABABCC); and the Spenserian stanza (nine lines, rhyming ABAB­BCBCC). The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an alexandrine - a line of six (ahexameter) rather than five stresses; this line closes the stanza in a leisurely, evenlanguid manner. (See also Rhyme).

Stock Character A character in a play or novel who is no more than a representativetype. Such characters have no individuality and usually possess only one or two charac­teristics. They are often comic. (See also Flat and round characters.)

Subjective and Objective A thought is subjective when it is concerned with thepersonal reaction of somebody, and objective when it ignores what the individual feelsabout something but concentrates on the object itself. Writing about literature shouldalways be a blend of both. You should write about the words of a poem, novel or play,and about your subjective reactions to these.

Sub-plot A minor plot which often echoes the concerns of the major plot. You can usethe term of both novels and plays. The relation between major and minor plots deservesattention.

Subversion A popular word for any way in which the language of a book allows thereader to see the events critically and thereby make judgements about the characters. Oneof the teasing aspects of The Great Gatsby is the way in which Nick's enthusiasm forsome aspects of Gatsby's life subverts him in the eye of the reader and makes him a nar­rator whom we think carefully about when it comes to the issue of trust.

Surprise The effect created when expectation is not fulfilled. It can, therefore, only bediscussed in relation to expectation. Novelists often spring surprises upon readers byunusual coincidences or the reappearance of a character. Shakespeare rarely works bysurprise. The rejection of Falstaff and the last scene of The Winter's Tale are rare excep­tions. (See also Expectation and Relief.)

Suspension of Belief A term introduced by Coleridge in relation to the conventions ofthe theatre. When a member of an audience accepts stage conventions, including thingslike ghosts or witches, he or she willingly suspends belief or disbelief. That is to say, con­ventions are accepted as real in the theatre, and the issue of whether or not they can bebelieved in outside the theatre is not raised.

Symbol An object that stands for, points to and shares in a significant reality over andbeyond it. Blake's 'The Tyger' stands for and points to creative energy but it is also aninstance of that creative energy. Some symbols are traditional, while other symbols arespecially created by authors.

You can learn about traditional symbols, but need to be alert to the resonances ofwords and their context to recognise ones that are newly made by a poet or novelist. Forinstance, when you read Shelley's 'Ode to the West Wind', it is important to know thatthe wind is a symbol for inspiration . When, however, you read Ted Hughes's 'HawkRoosting' you should try to see that the way the hawk is presented makes it a symbol ofthe terrible destructiveness that Hughes believes is at the heart of nature.

Syntax The construction of sentences; that is, the order of words and their relation witheach other. As the construction of a sentence controls the meaning and emotional impactof what is being said, it is always wise, particularly when thinking about poetry or verse

Glossary 393

drama, to study syntax. It is important to see whether the sentences are long or short,whether they have many or few clauses, and whether, as is usual in English, the subjectcomes before the object, or the other way round.

Theme The subject, concerns, issues and preoccupations of a poem, novel or play. Theword is usually spoken of as meaning the significance of events rather than the eventsthemselves .

Tone The emotional and intellectual attitude, manner, or poise of a piece of writing. Auseful way of assessing the tone of a work is by asking how the author is speaking to you- the reader. In ordinary conversation you would pick up the tone from the way the wordswere delivered ; when you are dealing with words on the page, you should allow theirdiction , rhythm and sounds to do this for you. Because tone is emotional, you mustalways try to characterise it. Thus, you may say the tone of a work is intimate, sly, inno­cent, hectoring, aggressive or fierce. You should remember that all literary works have atone, and though it is sometimes difficult to detect, you can always try to discuss it.

Trajectory The direction of a plot. The term is useful when discussing how the initialconditions of a plot can be expected to develop . Quite often the delight we have in litera­ture lies in the way in which the trajectory of the plot is other than what we were led toexpect. In The Winter's Tale, for instance, there is an interesting change from a plot pre­occupied with the difficult relationship between the two Kings to one which centres onthe loves of their two children .

Unities At one time it was believed that a good play should comprise one action ,should take place in a day, and should happen in one place. These three requirementswere called the unities. Most English drama ignores them, although Shakespeare 's lastplay, The Tempest, comes quite close to observing them.

View, Viewpoint How an author regards and thereby invites the reader to regard theevents of a narrative. The interesting questions to ask are the closeness of the author tothe characters and events, the moral light in which they are regarded and any changes thatoccur in the author's perspective . Charlotte Bronte is very close to Jane Eyre but distantfrom most of the other characters; George Eliot views everything as a matter of moralconcern but is always deeply understanding of human failure, and Dickens shifts the per­spective in Great Expectations so that we are sometimes invited to look at things morallyand at other times only as the material for comedy.

Villanelle A verse form (originally from France) of five three-line stanzas and a finalquatrain , in which the first and third line of the first stanza appear alternately in the fol­lowing stanzas and form a couplet in the final one. A popular modern example is DylanThomas's 'Do not go gentle into that good night' .

When writing about villanelles, you should bring out the pleasure of finding that therecurring line has an appropriate place in the succeeding stanzas . Sometimes its newplace brings out fresh meanings in the line. For instance, the line from Dylan Thomas isan order in the first stanza and a statement of fact in the second. In grammatical terms itchanges from the imperative to the indicative mood.

OPart VISuggestions for Further Reading

o Suggestions for further reading

GENERAL BOOKS

The following books deal with a number of literary topics; some are in the form of glos­saries, some general introductions, and others show how literary thinking can illuminatenon-literary matters.

M. H. Abrams, A Glossary ofLiterary Terms (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston)John Peck and Martin Coyle , Literary Terms and Critici sm: A Student's Guide

(Macmillan)Ian Robinson, The Survival ofEnglish (Brynmill)W. W. Robson: A Prologue to English Literature (Batsford)

POETRY

Most of the following books are introductions to practical criticism; that is, to the readingof individual poems. Suggest ions about editions of individual poets can be found in thesection headed LITERARY WORKS below. A number of the books listed above also deal withthe reading, appreciation and interpretation of poetry .

Charles Barber, Poetry in English: An Introduction (Macmillan)Paul Fussell, Poetic Metre and Poetic Form (Random House)D. W. Harding, Experience into Words (Chatto & Windus; Penguin)Philip Davies Roberts , How Poetry Works (Penguin)Allen Rodway, The Craft ofCriticism (Cambridge University Press)

NOVELS

Of the following books, some are general introductions and others , in addition to generalmaterial , discuss individual novels.

Walter Allen, The English Novel (Phoenix ; Penguin)Wayne C. Booth , The Rhetoric ofFiction (University of Chicago Press)Ian Milligan, The Novel in English: An Introduction (Macmillan)John Peck, How to Study a Novel (Macmillan)

DRAMA

The following list includes general books on drama and some works on Shakespeare andhis theatre .

John Russell Brown , Shakespeare 's Dramatic Style (Heinemann)S. W. Dawson , Drama and the Dramat ic (Methuen)J. L. Styan, Shakespeare 's Stagecraft (Cambridge University Press)G. J. Watson, Drama: An Introduction (Macmillan)

LITERARY WORKS

Works set in public examinations are usually available in a number of editions; the oneslisted below all have notes and critical comments .

397

398 Suggestions for Furth er Readin g

Macmill an Shake speareMacmillan Students' HardyMacmillan Students' NovelsThe Penguin English LibraryPenguin English PoetsThe New Penguin ShakespeareThe Signet Classic ShakespeareWorld Classics (Oxford)

CRITICISM

The following series are either short books dealing with literary works or concepts, orcollections of essays by a number of writers.

Casebooks (Macmillan)The Critical Idiom Series (Methuen)Macmillan History of LiteratureMacmill an Master GuidesMacmillan Modern Dramati stsPenguin Critical AnthologiesStudies in English Literature (Arnold)Text and Context (Sussex University Press)Text and Perform ance (Macmillan)Twentieth-Century Interpretations (Prentice- Hall)

oGeneral index

Aabstract 377access (into a character's mind) 11 3,

117acting, actors 203, 224-5, 229-30,

293-7action within action 220acts and scenes 204-5,327alexandrine 392allegorical, allegory 176, 298, 320,

377, 380alliteration 60-1, 377allusion 353, 377ambiguity 35- 6,261-2,308,378ambivalence 261,263anapaest, anapaestic 52- 3, 387argument 87-8, 366-7, 372art 4, 105, 325-6aside 214- 16association 335assonance 62, 378atmosphere 33--4, 246, 274, 288-90,

292,309,3 12attitudes of authors 109-10, 120--4,

360-1audience 203, 208, 210- 1I, 213- 16,

261,265-6,270,274,278,288,291-292,296,342,364,378

authors showing see showingauthors telling see telling

Bballad 6, 85-6,378beats 50-1beginnings 244-5,268-70beginnings and ends 94-5, 249-50black comedy 378blank verse 353, 378bravado 265, 379

Ccadence 18,56,63,379caesura 43--4, 379caricature 130, 379catharsis 265- 6, 380

399

chaos 254-5character in drama 207-8 ,210- 11,

217-18,235--43,267,273,277-84,289, 310, 342, 361-2, 373

character in novels 127--45, 149-53,181,310, 312, 317-1 8, 335-8,356-8,373

characterisation 127-35,342,379characters, open and closed, flat and

round 130-3, 384chorus 216- 17classwork 313-14climax 197, 248-9close, closure 45, 182, 265-6, 274-8code 11 , 379comic, comedy 215, 247, 267-84, 320,

323,364-5,380comic conventions 268-84complex 278, 380compression 10-11 , 181, 380conceit 27-8, 381concrete 34confusion 273--4connotations 381consonance 61-2,380consonants 61, 381contraction 11contrast 23, 93--4, 187, 239--40, 309,

320construct 108construction 187, 195-6, 204, 309, 325conventions 203-20, 223, 267-8, 341,

381costume 292-3counterpoint 381couplet 73--4, 79- 81coursework 365-6critics, criticism 329, 355

Ddactyl, dactylic 52- 3, 387dance 218-20,297-8death 255-6, 265-6deception 270-3denotations 381

400 General Index

denouement 172-3, 382detecti ve stories 179, 186device 220-3dialogue 228, 242-3, 343, 359, 363diction 99-100, 382dimeter 53, 387director 230discovery 171-3, 176-7, 197, 382disguise 217-18, 271-2disjunction 167-8, 173, 382drama 203-99,340-5,361-6dramatic action 223-32dramatic monologue 91-2,353dramatic productions 288dramatic self-disclosure 210-11 , 237dream 274

Eecho 64,245eclectic 132economy 181effectiveness 67, 330-46, 363-4emotion and feeling 4-5, 17, 29-30,

44,89-90empathy 351-2,382enactment 16-18, 53, 61, 73, 308, 335,

382epigram , epigrammatic 383epiphany 185-6 ,383essays 365-7evaluate , evaluation 330evidence 366-7examinations 226, 288, 315, 330,

368-74expectation 41, 85-6, 106, 160-2, 180,

247-8,283,383explanation 274-5

Ffarce, farcical 283-4, 342, 383feminine ending 67feminism 5,326-7,353,361fictionality 384fights 299figures of speech 23, 99, 331first impressions 330-1, 345flashback 207,348flaw 258-9focus 384follow-up work 314-15foot 52foregrounding 384form 320-1 ,323-6,334-5frame, framing 220, 384free verse 17

Ggame 90-1,281-2genre 364-5 ,384gesture in drama 224-5ghost story 185-186ghosts 298-9gobbet 351-2grouping in drama 230-2gull, gulling 272-3

Hhalf-rhyme, para-rhyme 72-3, 384happy endings 275-7harmony 68-9heptameter 53, 387hero, heroine 256-6heroic couplet 75-6, 385hexameter 53, 387history, historical 321-3hubris 258-9,264-5,380humour 45,72,134,214-16

Iiamb, iambic 52-3, 54, 387ideas 319-20image, imagery 33-5 , 95-6, 209, 220,

255,282,290,320,331,333-4,349,353,363,385

imagination 288-9inevitability in tragedy 259-60intention 329, 344interest 11-13,20,160-1 , 316interpretation 311,316-29,349inversion II , 385irony 121-4,385-6irony, double 123irony, dramatic 121-3

Jjudgement 329-30, 345

Kkings in drama 211knowledge 110-14 , 116-17, 163,

271-4,324,386

Llatinate diction 353laughter 283-4, 289lighting 293lines 40-5lines, end-stopped 40-3, 382-3lines, run-on 40-3, 382-3listening 313literary theory 323-7

lost, finding the 275-6love 270,280-282lyric 386

Mmarriage 276-7Marxism 326masque 298, 386mental landscape 29-30, 386metaphor, metaphoric 24-7,318,331,

386metre 52-3metre , common 6, 387misinformation 272-3mistaken identity 267monometer 53, 387monosyllable, monosyllabic 209, 387mood 223,228-30,232,308-9,314moral words 194-5motive 308movement 46movement in drama 223-8music 218-20,297-8

Nnarration 108-20,324,349,359narration, first person 108-11 , 116,

119,336-7,356narration, multiple 114-16,338,387narration, retrospective 116, 167,389narration , third person 111-14, 117,

119, 356narrative 387-8narrative, enclosing 115narrative poems 84-6narrator, intrusive 112,385,388narrator, omniscient 113-14,388narrator, primary , secondary, tertiary

114,389narrator, reliable, 118-19,390narrator, unreliable 118-19notes , making 310-12,368novels 105-200,335-40,356-61

ooctameter 53, 387octave 77onomatopoeia 62-3 , 388ottava rima 77, 392overhearing 272overtones 388

ppace 246-7paradox 35

General index 401

parallel 309, 320pathetic fallacy 29-30, 388pathos 45, 388pattern ing 99, 323pause 296-7pentameter 53, 387performance 288-99persona 91-2,99, 108,388personification 29-30, 388perspective 115, 119-20,324picaresque novels 175-6pitch 56pleasure 11, 13-14,20,179,316plots in drama 243-50,267-78,

309-10,323,343-4,349,389plots in novels 160-87, 195-6, 309-10,

338-9 ,344,399,359-60,389poems, poetry 3-102, 331-5, 352-6,

373polysyllable, polysyllabic 387practical criticism 96practice 270-3practicer 273, 275preparation 312-13problem plays 389proleptic 170-1,389proportion, a sense of 284proscenium arch 290prose and verse in drama 207-9protagonist 13, 29, 53, 176, 389puzzlement 11-12,20,316

Qquatrain 76-7,79,392questions, examinations 199,330-67,

371-4questions, passages 232, 350-1 , 355-6quotations 349,367,369

Rreaction , response 309,327,330-1reader 106, 121, 162-3, 170, 176-7,

327-9,331 ,338,345reading 307-10reading aloud 7, 16, 46realism and naturalism 389recognition 274reflexivity 325-6, 389relief 160, 162-3 ,390repeated words , repetition 22, 26, 50,

92-3re-reading 307, 312-15 , 368resolution 172, 390reversal 85-6, 171-2, 390revision 315, 368-9

402 Genera/Index

rhyme 18,67-75,352,390-1rhyme, enclosing 74-5 , 81rhyme, feminine 67, 70, 77, 391rhyme, interlacing 74rhyme, internal 70-1rhyme, masculine 67rhyme-scheme 73-5rhythm 46-56, 308, 320, 334-5, 352rime royal 77, 392

Ssatire, satirise 391scan, scansion 391scenery 292sestet 77setting 148-57,339-40, 360,391short stories 181-6silence in the text 324simile 7,24-7,331,386simile, epic 26, 353, 383society 141-2,318-19,325soliloquy 212-14soliloquy, private 213-14, 364, 391soliloquy, public 213,364,391songs 218-20,297-8,391sonnet 77-80,391sonnet, Petrarchan 77-8sonnet, Shakespearian 79-80sounds 59-67,320spectacle 298stage, apron 291stage directions 230-2stage, staging 230-1,290-3stanza 75-7,320,334,349,352,391-2stock characters, stock figures 240-2,

279-80,289,392story structure 164-5strategy 109structure 88, 323-5style 352-3, 359-60subjective, objective 48, 392sub-plot 245-6, 392subversion 5, 392suffering, tragic 260surprise 85-6,160,162,247-8,392suspense 179, 182suspension of belief 392symbol, symbolic 30-2, 140, 151,

192-3,199,242,392

sympathy 214,382syntax 36, 353, 392

Ttalking 314telling and showing 133-5 , 360tenor 26-7tercet 76terza rima 76tetrameter 53, 387texture 63-4theatre in the round 290-1theatre of the imagination 288-9theatricality 263-5, 326theme 157,165,182-3,188-200,268,

340-1,353-4,358-9,362-3,393

time, the passing of 205-7titles 189-90tone 14-16 ,22,61 ,309,393tragedy, tragic 250,254-66,273,275,

278,289,320,365,380tragedy , domestic 256tragic hero/heroine 256-265trajectory 168-70 ,173,393transformation 281trimeter 53, 387triplet 73trochaic/trochee 52, 54, 387

Uundertone s 388unities 393

Vvariation 51vehicle 26-7view, viewpoint 106-8, 114-15,

119-20, 191, 199,393villanelle 76, 393vowel 61,62,381

Wwind-up Inwomen in drama 279wonder 274-7

y'you' and 'thou' in drama 212

o Index of authors and works

AAngelou, May a 5, 327Arden, John: Serjeant Musgrave 's

Dance 363Aristotle: Poetics 160, 171 , 266, 365,

390Arnold, Matthew

'Dover Beach' 17'Sohrab and Rusturn' 95'Thyrsis' 44

Atwood, Mar garet: The Handmaid'sTale 139-40, 155-6 ,327

Auden , W. H.'Musee des Beaux Arts ' 15-16'In Memory of Sigmund Freud'

46-7' ''0 where are you going?" said reader

to rider' 387Austen , Jane 105, 134, 141 , 199

Austen, JaneEmma 121-3 , 130-1, 138, 164-5 ,

175,177,191-2,317-23,328,336-7,358

Mansfield Park 112,1 34,136,193-4, 164, 168, 189-93 , 195,198-9 ,337,344,357,359

Persuasion 132Pride and Prejudice 134-5 , 145-6,

161-2,189,337,357-8,382

BBeckett, Samuel 296

Waiting fo r Godot 246, 343Behn, Aphra: The Rover 270Belloc, Hilaire: 'Lord Lucky' 72Bennett, Arnold: Anna of the Five Towns

174Betjeman, John 382

'A Sub altern 's Love-Song' 84' Indoor Games near Newbury' 68' In Westm inster Abbey' 333'Lake District' 23' Pot Pouri from a Surrey Garden' 70

Blake William 353' Infant Sorrow' 68

403

'London' 22,92,378' Spring ' 54Song of Innocence 36'The Garden of Love' 70-71'The Poison Tree' 22'The Sick Rose ' 36'The Tyger' 31, 52, 335, 392

Bolt , Robert: A Man for all Seasons217,227-8,238,291 ,295,342

Bradbury, Malcolm: The History Man174

Bronte, Charlotte 148Jane Eyre 91, 105-11 , 116, 132,

143-4 , 152-3, 163-5 , 167,169-70,175-6,316,327,336,357-8,360-1,382,390-1 ,393

Villette I 10Bronte, Emily : Wuthering Heights

114-16 ,164,168-9,196-7, 357-8,384,387,389,390

Browning, Robert 97,99,353"'Childe Roland to the Dark Tower

Came '" 63-4,327,380'Fra Lippo Lippi' 91'How they brought the Good News

from Ghent to Aix' 46'Meeting at Night' 74-5'Porphyria' s Lover ' 91'The Lost Leader' 53'The Lost Mistress ' 93-4

Buchan, John: The Thirty-Nine Steps167-8

Bunting, Basil : Briggflatts 64Bunyan, John : The Pilgrim's Progress

176,327,377Byron, Lord

'So we'll go no more a-roving'382

'The Destruction of Sennacherib'53

CCampbell, Roy : 'The Horses on the

Camargue' 31Carr , J. L.: A Month in the Country 172

404 Index ofAuthors and Works

Carter, AngelaThe Bloody Chamber and other

Stories 186The Magic Toyshop 167

Chaucer, Geoffrey 77,268'The Pardoner's Tale' 71

Clare, John : ' I am ' 49Coleridge, S. T. 392

'Dejection' 325'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'

26,30,86Collins, Wilkie 384

'A Terribly Strange Bed' 186No Name 167The Woman in White 115 -116,163,

170,179,180,324-5,338,359,386

Congreve, William 207The Way ofthe World 227-8

Conrad, JosephHeart ofDarkness 154-5, 172, 189,

384Lord Jim 357

Crabbe, George: 'Peter Grimes' 30Crashaw. Richard 27

'On our crucified Lord, naked andbloody' 28

DDefoe , Daniel : Moll Flanders 175, 356Dickens, Charles 134, 326

Bleak House 193Great Expectation s 110-11, 116-17,

141,143,151-2,179-80,190,326,336,357-358,378,390-1 ,393

Hard Times 131-2,142,151, 164,189,194,198,361

Little Dorrit 125-6, 128, 130,158-9,179,197-8,391

Oliver Twist 162Our Mutual Friend 142, 160-1

Dickin son, Emily 353Donne, John 27,28,97,331,349,

353-4'Hymn to God the Father' 387'Song' 378'The Anniversary ' 56'The Cannonization' 55'The Good Morrow ' 334'The Sun Rising ' 46'The Undertaking' 50'Valediction: forbidding mourning'

380'Woman's Constancy' 91

Doyle, Arthur Conan 179'Silver Blaze' 186The Hound of the Baskervilles 170

Dryden, John 46'Absolom and Architophel' 166'On Death ' 76

Dunbar, William 46du Maurier, Daphne: 'The Birds' 182

EEliot , George 112-13, 141-2, 190,

317,360,385,393Adam Bede 136, 141-4, 157-8Middlemarch 129,132, 136, 139,

141,162,172-3,177-8, 189,196,337-9,344,349,357

Silas Marner 141The Mill on the Floss 112-14 , 117,

121,141,177,356,361Eliot , T. S. 17,97,207

'Burbank with a Baedeker. Bleisteinwith a cigar' 69

Four Quartets 325'Little Gidding' 332Murder in the Cathedral 209'Portrait of a Lady' 92'The love-song of 1. Alfred Prufrock'

13,18,23,92,381'Whispers of Immortality' 383

FFanthorpe, U. A.: 'Not My Best Side' 5Fielding, Henry : Joseph Andrews 175Fitzgerald, Scott

Tender is the Night 134The Great Gatsby 118, 160, 356,

359,392Ford, Ford Madox: The Good Soldier

118-19Forster, E. M.

A Passage to India 167,358,360Aspects of the Novel 130, 164, 384'The Machine Stops' 186

Forsyth, Bill: Gregory's Girl 279Fowles, John : The French Lieutenant's

Woman 160, 384

GGilbert and Sullivan 270Golding, William 361

The Lord ofthe Flies 160,350,377The Spire 113, 170, 174,340,372-3

Goldsmith, Oliver: She Stoops toConquer 215-16,233-4,241,278-9,283,289,292

Gray, Thomas: 'Elegy written in aCountry Churchyard' 29,41,388

Gunn, Thorn'On the Move 20-1The Man with Night Sweats 5

Greene, Graham 190Brighton Rock 128-9, 153-4' I Spy' 183,185The Heart of the Matter 153The Power and the Glory 153-4,

180

HHall, Willis : Billy Liar 282Hardy, Thomas 46,97, 112,134,148,

326'A Church Romance' 94-5'At Castle Botterel' 57-8Far from the Madding Crowd 141,

146-7 ,327,330,359,391Jude the Obscure 327'Neutral Tones' 10-11'Shelley's Skylark' 59-60Tess of the D'Urbervilles 119-20,

123, 132, 144-5, 149-51, 169,175-6,327,340,359-60,391

The Major ofCasterbridge 113,139,169, 173-4,350-1

'The Oxen ' 18-19The Return ofthe Native 155'The Voice' 49-50The Woodlanders 148-9

Harrison, Tony : 'The Heart of Darkness'64

Hartley , L. P.: The Go-Between 140,176, 192-3

Heaney, Seamus 32,347Herbert, George 27

'Affliction' 54'Prayer' 62'Virtue' 43,381

Herrick, Robert : 'To the virgins to makemuch of their time' 27

Hopkins, G. M. 64,97,354'God's Grandeur' 41-2'Spring' 60'The Windhover' 47-8, 387'The Wreck of the Deutschland'

59-60Housman, A. E.: 'This time of year ' 3,

4, 5, 6, 10, 11Hughes, Ted

'An Otter' 59-60'Hawk Roosting ' 43-4, 392'Pike' 61

Index ofauthors and works 405

'Snowdrop' 95-6'The Thought-Fox' 20-1 ,34'View of a Pig' 62

Huxley , Aldous : Brave New World155,186,360

JJames, Henry III , 190James, Henry: What Maisie knew

111-12James, M. R.: 'The Rose Garden' 185James, P. D. 186

Cover her Face 171Jennings, Elizabeth: 'Afternoon in

Florence' 42-3Jonson,Ben 207,272

'Hymn to Diana' 47The Alchemist 269, 279

Joyce , James 185,383Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

176Ulysses 138

KKeats, John 97

'La Belle Dame sans Merci' 85,378'Ode on a Grecian Urn' 35,95,388,

389'Ode to a Nightingale' 388'To Autumn ' 37

LLarkin, Philip

'Afternoons' 98'Ambulances' 387'Arundel Tomb' 98'As Bad as a Mile' 100'At Grass' 98, 100'Church Going' 20-1,89,98,99,

381,386'Here' 98'Home is so Sad' 45'Love Songs in Age' 98'Mr. Bleaney' 98, 100'The Building' 98'The Importance of Elsewhere' 98'The Whitsun Weddings' 98, roo,

335'To the Sea ' 98'Toads' 98'Toads Revisited' 98

Lawrence, D. H. 155-6,184,199'Odour of Chrysanthemums' 184Sons and Lovers 138-9, 169, 174,

337,344,349,358

406 Index of Authors and Works

Lawrence - continuedThe Rainbow 190'Tic kets, Please' 183

Lee, Harper: To kill a Mocking Bird135,176

Lee, Laurie: Cider with Rosie 156-7'Lord Randal' 84-5

MMacNeice, Louis: 'Prayer before Birth'

21Mansfield, Katherine 137, 383Mansfield, Katherine

'Bank Holiday' 186'Daughters of the Late Colonel' 137'Her First Ball ' 184'Mr and Mrs Dove' 171 ,1 82'The Garden Party ' 184-5'The Life of Ma Parker' 181'The Voyage' 184

Marlowe, Christopher: 207Dr Faustus 206,216, 242,245,259,

383'The Passionate Shepherd to his love'

62Marvell, Andrew 27, 353

'Bermudas' 47'To his Coy Mistress' 88,89

Middleton, Thomas 207Miller, Arthur

A View from the Bridge 217Death ofa Salesman 207,214,237,

238,247,256,348,364The Crucible 190, 206, 251- 3

Milton, John 26, 97Comus 7,386'On the Late Massacre in Piedmont'

15Paradise Lost 35-6, 66, 352, 354-5,

383, 385Samson Agonistes 266

Morrison, Toni 327Muir, Edwin: 'The Horses' 32

NNichols, Grace 5

oO'Ca sey, Sean: Juno and the Paycock

239-40,294-5Orton, Joe 267

Loot 267, 289Orwell, George

1984 124-5 , 143, 144, 155, 190,319,337,339

Owen, Wilfred 350, 355'Anthem for Doomed Youth ' 62-3,

90'Exposure' 377'Futility' 93-4, 384'Insensibility' 72-3'Strange Meeting' 59-60

pPinter, Harold

The Caretaker 291-2,295- 6The Homecoming 291,296

Plath, Sylvra 353'Lady Lazarus' 92'Mushrooms' 18

Poe, Edgar Allan 186Pope, Alexander 97, 236

'An Essay on Criticism' 60, 385'Essay on Man' 335

The Dunciad 173The Rape of the Lock 44-5,377

RRaine, Craig: 'A Martian sends a post­

card home' 92Rattigan, Terence: The Winslow Boy

244-5,248Reid, Christopher: 'Arcadia' 28Rendell, Ruth 186Rossetti, Christina 353

'A Birthday' 15, 40'Goblin Market' 86

SSassoon, Siegfried: 'Everyone Sang'

26Scott, Walter

Ivanhoe 174'Proud Maisie' 85

Shaffer, Peter: The Royal Hunt of theSun 205,292, 298, 299-30 1

Shakespeare, William 207, 236,291- 3,297-8,311 ,321 ,351 ,372,377,380,389

All's Well That Ends Well 328A Midsummer Night's Dream

203-4,270,272- 3,275-6, 278,281,293,305,378

Antony and Cleopatra 204,238-239,246- 7,256,260-1,264,292,298,382

As You Like It 217-18,220,241,268,27 1,277,278-80,282, 342,390

Coriolanus 256, 362

Cymbeline 56Hamlet 212,2 14,220,23 7,243,

255-6,264,266,278,292-5,345,348 ,362,364,378 ,388

Henry IV Part I 226Henry IV Part 2 216,224-5 ,226,392Henry V 216,2 18Julius Caesar 205,207,208,210,

239,256,262,284-6,291,293King Lear XIII, 211,219,238,

255-7,260-2,330,341 ,362Love 's Labours Lost 278A1acbeth 212- 13,220,226,247,

250,255-256,258-9,260 ,261,264,290 ,292,294-295,297,299,3 41-2,351,369,371,378,382,38 5, 386

Measure fo r Measure 190, 241- 2,248-9,270,273,362,378

Much Ado Abo ut Nothing 218, 229,268,271-2 73,2 75,2 78,282 ,291 ,294,364,382

Othello 213- 14,229-30,24 1,254-5,257,263 ,264,265 ,266,272,278,289 ,295

Richard II 230-1,265,291Richard III 213,237, 250-1, 363Romeo and Juliet 216,250,259,

263,298'Sonnet 12' 54'So nnet 30''So nnet 73' 27'Son net 97' 57'Sonnet 130' 79The Comedy ofErrors 276, 283,

365,383The Merchant of Venice 270,273,

275The Taming of the Shrew 2 10-11,

220,268,269-70,275,278,365,384

The Tempes t 220,239, 268, 274,276,29 1, 298,363 ,386 ,393

The Two Gentlemen of Verona274-5

The Winter 's Tale 206,2 13,231-2,238,274,292,296 ,298,301-3,350,392-3

Troilus and Cressida 365, 378Twelfth Night 206,213 ,216,219,

220-2,224,233,246,267,269,271-4,276-8,281-2,284,286-7,293-4,326 ,343-4,362 ,382

Shaw, G. B. 207Saint Joan 236

Index ofauthors and works 407

Shelley, Mary: Frankenstein 115Shelley, Percy Bysshe

'Ado nais' 82'Ode to the West Wind' 61,392

Sheridan, Richard 207Sidney, Philip: 'Loving in truth and fain

in verse my love to show' 78'Si r Patrick Spens' 84-5Smith, Stevie

' I Remember' 69'Not Waving but Drowning' 21-2

Spenser, Edmund: The Faerie Queene77

Stoppard, Tom: Rosencrant; andGuildenstern are Dead 228,363

Synge, J. M.: The Playboy of theWestern World 243-4,248-9,269, 283, 363

TTennyson, Alfred 17, 97Tennyson, Alfred

In Memoriam 33-5, 61, 80'Locksley Hall' 386'Mariana' 25, 29, 333-4'Maud' 30'Morte D' Arthur' 63'The Eagle' 8-9The Lady of Shallott' 48The Lotus Eaters' 29,65,81' Ulysses' 13,388

Thackeray, W. M.: Vanity Fair 162Thomas, Dylan 100, 353-4

' Do not go gentle into that GoodNight' 393

'Fern Hill ' 20- 1'Over Sir John ' s Hill ' 60

Thomas, Edward'Adlestrop' 14'Lights Out' 38

Thoma s, R. S.'Evans' 92-3'On the Farm' 20- 1,24-5'Poetry for Supper' 377

Thompson, Flora: Lark Rise 156Thurber, James: 'The Secret Life of

Walter Mitty' 181Twain, Mark: Huckleberry Finn xiii

109, III , 116, 148, 163, 166, 175,359,389

WWalker, Alice 105,327

The Color Purple 188, 316

408 Index ofAuthors and Works

Waugh, Evelyn: Brideshead Revisited357

Wilde, Oscar 207The Importance ofbeing Earnest

242-3,247,249,269-70,273,276,279-80,289,291,294-5

Wodehouse, P. G. 268Woolf, Virginia

A Room ofOne 's Own 170,327To the Lighthouse 137-8, 161

Wordsworth, William 30,46,97,330,354

'A slumber did my spirit seal' 49'I wandered lonely as a cloud' 31,

354'Ode on the Intimations of Immortality

in Early Childhood' 25'Resolution and Independence' 12'She dwelt among the untrodden

ways' 101

The Prelude 329, 386'The Solitary Reaper' 42'Tintern Abbey' 52'Upon Westminster Bridge Sept. 3

1802' 6-7Wyatt, Sir Thomas: 'They flee from me'

51

yYeats, W. B. 17,31,97,353-5

'An Irish Airman foresees his Death'101,380

'Beautiful Lofty Things' 59-60'Byzantium' 40'Leda and the Swan' 40'No Second Troy' 74'The Circus Animals' Desertion' 23,

325'The Second Coming' 34'The Wild Swans at Coole' 332