oil and gas pipeline design, maintenance and repair
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
١PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair
Dr. Abdel-Alim Hashem El-SayedProfessor of Petroleum Engineering
Mining, Petroleum & Metallurgical Eng. Dept. Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University
[email protected]@yahoo.com
Part 9: Pipe Defects
![Page 2: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
٢PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defect Types
Geometrical Defects
smaller change in wall thickness than the allowable wall thickness tolerance and result in stress accumulation and concentration.
Defects resulting in metal loss
greater change in wall thickness than the allowable wall thickness tolerance and result in stress concentration.
Planner discontinuities
two dimensions are significantly greater than the third one
Change in metal do not cause change (or the change does not exceed the allowable limit) in dimension or shape of pipe geometry but they result in disadvantageous change in the material structure and by this way in material characteristics.
![Page 3: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
٣PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Geometrical defects• Buckle: regular buckle and sharp buckle • Ovality• Wrinkle • Ruck• Knob • Rolling imperfection or angularity • Tube expansion • Joint imperfection: edge displacement & angle
error
![Page 4: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
٤PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Rolling imperfectionBuckle: regular & sharp
Ovality
Wrinkle Ruck
![Page 5: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
٥PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
tube expansionknob
joint imperfection: edge displacement & angle error
![Page 6: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
٦PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Regular buckle
• Definition: residual deformation of the pipe wall inside the pipe without sharp edge extending over an area.
• Measures: – maximum depth, d [mm]; – overall dimensions (axial
length × circumferential length), l × k [mm × mm].
• Possible cause of origin:external mechanical impact.
![Page 7: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
٧PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Sharp buckle
• Definition: residual deformation of the pipe wall inside the pipe with sharp edge(s) extending over an area.
• Measures: – maximum depth, d [mm]; – overall dimensions (axial length ×
ircumferential length), l × k [mm ×mm].
• Possible cause of origin: external mechanical impact.
![Page 8: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
٨PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Ovality
• Definition: nearly symmetric deviation of the pipe cross-section from the circular shape resulting in ellipse cross-section without sharp breakpoints.
• Measures: – minimum outside diameter,
dkmin [mm]; – maximum outside diameter,
dkmax [mm]. • Possible cause of origin:
– pipe manufacturing; – external mechanical impact.
![Page 9: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
٩PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Wrinkle
• Measures: – maximum depth of the ripple, db [mm]; – maximum height of the ripple, dk [mm]; – angle of curvature, d [° ].
• Possible cause of origin:– external mechanical impact; – soil movement.
• Remark: from the characteristics of the rippled side of the pipe (number and shape of ripples) the extent of deformation of the opposite side of the pipe can be concluded
![Page 10: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
١٠PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Knob• Definition: residual deformation of
the pipe wall outside the pipe without sharp edge extending over an area.
• Measures: maximum height, d [mm]; overall dimensions (axial length × circumferential length), l ×k [mm × mm].
• Possible cause of origin: change in internal pressure interacting with another defect.
• Remark: the knob can be interpreted as the opposite of the regular buckle.
![Page 11: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
١١PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Ruck
• Definition: the pipe wall is rippled along its circumference partly or entirely and the centre line of the pipe remains straight
• Measures: – maximum depth of the ripple, db [mm]; – maximum height of the ripple, dk [mm]; – angle subtended by the ruck along the
circumference of the pipe, j [° ]. • Possible cause of origin:
– pipe manufacturing; – soil movement.
![Page 12: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
١٢PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Rolling imperfection or angularity
• Definition: during the pipe manufacturing in the vicinity of the plate edge to be joined by welding (seam) the shape of the pipe deviates from cylindrical forming a sharp edge.
• Measures: – height of the bevel edge, Y [mm]; – chord of the bevel edge, 2A [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing.
![Page 13: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
١٣PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Tube expansion
• Definition: elimination of diameter difference between the two pipe ends to be joined with welding (girth weld).
• Measures: – outside diameter of the pipe to be expanded, D1
[mm]; – wall thickness of the pipe to be expanded, t1 [mm]; – expansion length, L [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: – pipe installation (laying); – repair.
![Page 14: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
١٤PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Edge displacement
• Definition: radial displacement of parallel centre lines of pipe sections joined with welding (girth weld).
• Measures: eccentricity, e [mm]. • Possible cause of origin:
– pipe installation (laying); – repair; – pipe manufacturing.
![Page 15: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
١٥PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Angle error• Definition: deviation of centre lines of pipe
sections joined with welding (girth weld).• Measures: angle between the centre lines, δ
[° ]. • Possible cause of origin: pipe installation
(laying); repair; pipe manufacturing
![Page 16: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
١٦PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Metal Loss• Scar
– Longitudinal scar – Circumferential scar – General location
scar • General corrosion • Local corrosion
– Pitting – General location
local corrosion
– Longitudinal corrosion Circumferential corrosion
– Spiral corrosion
• Abrasion
• Grinding off
• Rupture
• Puncture or leak
![Page 17: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
١٧PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Metal Loss
Pitting General location local corrosion
![Page 18: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
١٨PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Metal Loss
General corrosionGeneral location scar
![Page 19: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
١٩PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Metal Loss
Abrasion Spiral corrosion
![Page 20: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
٢٠PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Metal Loss
Grinding off Puncture or leakRupture
![Page 21: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
٢١PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
General Location Scar
• Definition: groove like defect having greater projected length in both axial circumferential directions than the triple of the nominal wall thickness and having a width which is less than the 30% of the nominal wall thickness.
• Measures: angle between the defect and the centre line of the pipe, υ [° ]; length, l [mm]; projected circumferential length, K [mm]; maximum width, b [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm];
• Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing; installation (laying); external mechanical impact.
![Page 22: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
٢٢PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Longitudinal Scar• Definition: groove like defect which is nearly parallel with the centre
line of the pipe having greater projected axial length than the triple of the nominal wall thickness and having a width which is less than the 30% of the nominal wall thickness.
• Measures: angle between the defect and the centre line of the pipe, υ[° ]; length, l [mm]; projected axial length, L [mm];
• maximum width, b [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm]; • Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing; external mechanical
impact
![Page 23: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
٢٣PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Circumferential Scar• Definition: groove like defect which is nearly perpendicular to the centre
line of the pipe having greater circumferential length than the triple of the nominal wall thickness and having a width which is less than the 30% of the nominal wall thickness.
• Measures: angle between the defect and the centre line of the pipe, υ [°]; length, l [mm]; projected circumferential length, K [mm]; maximum width, b [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm];
• Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing; installation (laying); external mechanical impact.
![Page 24: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
٢٤PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
General Corrosion• Definition: metal loss extending over a significant area of
the pipe resulting in wall thickness decrease. • Measures: maximum or effective depth, d [mm]. • Possible cause of origin: effect of the transported
medium (internal); inappropriate material selection (internal); imperfect coating (external); damaged coating (external); inadequate cathodic protection (external
![Page 25: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
٢٥PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Longitudinal Corrosion• Definition: metal loss parallel with the centre line of the pipe resulting
in wall thickness decrease having an axial length which exceeds the nominal outside diameter of the pipe and its circumferential size is significantly smaller.
• Measures: axial length, L [mm]; maximum width, b [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin:– improper welding technology (seam); – damaged coating (external); – installation (pipe laying); – short circuited structure.
![Page 26: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
٢٦PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
General Location Local Corrosion
• Definition: metal loss resulting in wall thickness decrease, extending over a quadratic area of the pipe having a side which is greater than the triple of the nominal wall thickness but not extending over a significant area.
• Measures: projected axial length, L [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: effect of the transported medium (internal); imperfect coating (external); damaged coating (external); inadequate cathodic protection (external).
![Page 27: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
٢٧PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Circumferential Corrosion
• Definition: metal loss perpendicular to the centre line of the pipe resulting in wall thickness decrease having a circumferential length which is significantly greater than its axial width.
• Measures: circumferential length, K [mm]; maximum width, b [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm]; angle subtended by the defect, ϕ [° ]; “clock” position of the defect.
• Possible cause of origin: improper welding technology (seam); imperfect coating (external); damaged coating (external); installation (pipe laying).
![Page 28: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
٢٨PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Spiral Corrosion
• Definition: metal loss subtending nearly constant angle with the centre line of the pipe, forming a continuous strip or repeatingperiodically resulting in wall thickness decrease.
• Measures: angle subtended by the defect and the centre line of the pipe, υ [° ]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm]; length, l d [mm]; projected axial length, L [mm];
• Possible cause of origin: imperfect coating (external). • Remark: considering the cause of defect origin, the spiral corrosion
is always an external defect.
![Page 29: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
٢٩PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Grinding Off• Definition: patch like, general location metal loss having a continuous
transition resulting in wall thickness decrease caused by human action (machining).
• Measures: overall diameter, dk [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: repair. • Remark: definition of the defects and the comparison of α angles on
the relevant figures justifies the difference between the abrasion and the grinding off; considering the cause of defect origin, the spiral corrosion is always an external defect.
![Page 30: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
٣٠PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Rupture
• Definition: generally longitudinal discontinuity caused by superficial or near superficial manufacturing defect
• Measures: – axial length, L [mm]; – Max. or eff. depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin:– pipe manufacturing.
![Page 31: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
٣١PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Puncture or Leak
• Definition: total loss of the pipe wall extending over a small area.
• Measures: geometrical description of this defect is not necessary.
• Possible cause of origin:– Material defect; – Damaged coating
![Page 32: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
٣٢PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Abrasion
• Definition: patch like metal loss resulting in wall thickness decrease caused by friction with a foreign material.
• Measures: overall diameter, dk [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: external mechanical impact; soil movement; repair.
• Remark: the distinction which was made between the abrasion, scar and especially the general location scar is unambiguous because of their geometry.
![Page 33: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
٣٣PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Pitting
• Definition: metal loss resulting in wall thickness decrease, extending over a quadratic area of the pipe having a side which is smaller than the triple of the nominal wall thickness.
• Measures:– Projected axial length, L [mm];– Max. Or effective depth, d [mm];
• Possible cause of origin:– Material defect (internal, external); – Damaged coating (external).
![Page 34: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
٣٤PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Planner Discontinuities
• Crack –"ordinary" crack –Stress corrosion crack –Fatigue crack
• Lapped grinding • Lamination
![Page 35: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
٣٥PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Planner Discontinuities
Ordinary crack Fatigue crack Lapped grinding
![Page 36: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
٣٦PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Planner Discontinuities
LaminationStress corrosion crack
![Page 37: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
٣٧PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Ordinary Crack
• Definition: material discontinuity of which surfaces located very closely to each other and the surfaces end in sharp tip.
• Measures: length, l [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing; welding (seam, girth weld, repair weld).
![Page 38: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
٣٨PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Fatigue Crack
• Definition: generally growing crack originated due to constant or variable amplitude cyclic load at a stress level under yield strength
• Measures: length, l [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: cyclic load caused by operating conditions (low-cycle fatigue, high-cycle fatigue, fatigue crack propagation).
![Page 39: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
٣٩PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Stress Corrosion Crack
• Definition: crack originated due to common action of sufficient tensile stress and medium having critical electrochemical potential.
• Measures: length, l [mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: it can be concluded from the definition.
![Page 40: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
٤٠PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Lapped Grinding• Definition: one or multi-part material discontinuity
which makes the pipe wall multi-layer • Measures: overall dimensions (axial length ×
circumferential length), l × k [mm × mm]. • Possible cause of origin: pipe manufacturing.
![Page 41: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
٤١PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Lapped Grinding• Definition: excess material
rolled or pressed into the pipe surface which partly forms metallic joint with each other.
• Measures: overall dimensions (axial length ×circumferential length), l × k [mm × mm]; maximum or effective depth, d [mm].
• Possible cause of origin:pipe manufacturing.
![Page 42: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
٤٢PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Defects Resulting Changes in the Material Structure
• Arc drawing: burned surface of the pipe wall extending over a relative small area caused by the any part of the electric circuit of the welding apparatus due to improperly applied welding technology.
• Strain aging: application of such steel which became brittle due to the dislocation blocking effect of its nitrogen content, improperly material selection.
![Page 43: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
٤٣PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Arc Drawing
• Definition: burned surface of the pipe wall extending over a relative small area caused by the any part of the electric circuit of the welding apparatus.
• Measures: overall diameter, dk [mm]. • Possible cause of origin: improperly
applied welding technology.
![Page 44: Oil and Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance and Repair](https://reader037.vdocument.in/reader037/viewer/2022102623/585468e11a28abfa3990484c/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
٤٤PE 607: Oil & Gas Pipeline Design, Maintenance & Repair
Strain Ageing• Definition: application of such steel which
became brittle due to the dislocation blocking effect of its nitrogen content.
• Measures: impact strength after normalisation, KV [mm]; impact strength of pipe after operation, KVü [mm].
• Possible cause of origin: improperly material selection.
• Remark: this defect can not be characterised with geometrical dimensions.