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EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTAL NEEM LEAF MEAL ON
PERFORMANCE OF BROILER BIRDS,
BY
OLABODE ADEYEMI DAVID
PG/M.Sc/05/39487
A research project report submitted to the department of
Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka; in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in
Animal Nutrition.
FEBUARY, 2009.
I
CERTIFICATION
We certify that Mr. OLABODE ADEYEMI DAVID, a postgraduate
student in the department of Animal Science with the registration number
PG/M.Sc/05/39487, carried out this research work for the award of the
degree of Master of Science in Animal Nutrition. The work embodied in
this project report is original and has not been previously reported
elsewhere.
……………………………… ……………………………
Prof. G.C. Okeke Dr.A.E. Onyimonyi
(Supervisors)
………………………………..
(Head of Department)
……………………………….
………………………………
(External Examiner) (Internal Examiner)
II
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my beloved Wife, Favour Olabode and my late
father Mr. A. O. Olabode (FAAI).
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to my project supervisors; Prof. G.C. Okeke
and Dr.A.E. Onyimonyi, for their thorough supervision of this work, which
has made it what it is today. I shall not fail to thank Dr. Ezekwe and other
members of the academic staff and non- academic staff of the
department for their assistance throughout my study.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my wife, Olabode Favour
who was of great help and assistance to the completion of this project
work.
Special thanks to my pastor, Pastor Afanga Saviour (Winners Chapel,
Okigwe, Imo State) for his unceasing prayers for me and every member of the
Winners family Okigwe. My thanks also goes to Pastor John Olabode for his
support and encouragement. May the good Lord reward and bless him greatly.
Olabode Adeyemi D.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Tables of content v
List of tables vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1 - 4
Objectives 4
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1 Poultry Nutrition 5 - 6
2.2 Nutrient Requirement for Broilers 6 - 7
2.2.1 Energy Requirements 7 - 8
2.2.2 Protein and Amino acid Requirement 8 - 10
2.2.3 Water Requirement 10 - 11
2.2.4 Mineral Requirement 11 - 12
2.2.5 Vitamin Requirement 12 - 13
2.3.1 Characteristics and features of leaf meals. 13 - 14
2.3.2 Utilization of leaf meals in poultry. 14 - 16
2.3.3 Neem tree leaves. 16
2.4 Hematological studies. 17 - 18
V
CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Methods
3.1 Location and Duration of study 19
3.2 Experimental Design 19
3.3 Processing of Neem leaves 19 - 20
3.4 Experimental Diets 20 - 22
3.5 Management of Birds 23
3.6 Response Parameters 23
3.7 Statistical Analysis 24 - 25
3.8 Laboratory Analysis 25
CHAPTER FOUR
Result and Discussions
4.1 Average daily weight gain. 27 - 28
4.2 Average daily feed intake. 28 - 29
4.3 Feed conversion ratio 29
4.4 Hemoglobin (Hb) values. 30 - 31
4.5 Packed cell volume (PCV) values. 31
4.6 Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values. 31 - 32
4.7 Bilirubin values. 32
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Summary and Conclusion 33 - 34
5.2 Suggestion 35
5.3 References 35 - 41
5.4 Appendices 42 - 44
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1. Amino acid requirements by broilers (%) 10
2. Composition of Broiler starter diets supplemented with graded levels
of neem leaf meal. 21
3. Composition of Broiler finisher diets supplemented with graded levels
of neem leaf meal. 22
4. Proximate composition of processed Neem leaf meal (NLM) 26
5. Effects of varying levels of supplemental NLM on the performance of
broiler birds. 27
6. Effects of supplemental NLM on the Hematological values
of broiler birds. 30
vii
ABSTRACT
Ninety “Ross” unsexed day old broiler chicks were used to determine
the optimum level of neem leaf meal supplementation in broiler diet. The
experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD). The birds
were randomly selected and divided into five treatment groups of eighteen birds
each. Each treatment group had two replicates with nine birds per pen. The birds
were fed five diets containing neem leaf meal at 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 % levels of
inclusion. Results revealed that feed intake of birds on diet 1 (129.39g), 2
(131.71g) and 3 (128.24g) were similar (P>0.05) but were significantly (P<0.05)
higher than those of birds fed diet 4 (126.56g) and 5 (110.60g). Similarly weight
gains of birds on diet 1 (40.82g), 3 (40.20g) and 4 (39.80g) did not differ
significantly (P>0.05) but birds on diet 2 (44.80g) had a higher weight gain
which resulted in a significantly higher final body weight. Hemoglobin (Hb)
values of birds fed diet 2 (10.8g/dl) and 5 (10.2g/dl) were similar (P>0.05) but
significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of birds fed diet 1 (8.9g/dl), 3 (8.8g/dl)
and 4 (9.0g/dl). Also the packed cell volume (PCV) values of birds fed diet 2
(39%) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those fed diet 1 (32%), 3 (30%), 4
(34%) and 5 (36%) respectively. The overall result shows that birds on diet 2
(0.5%, NLM) had significantly (P<0.05) superior body weight gain and final
body weight than birds on diet 1 (0%, NLM), 3 (1%, NLM), 4 (1.5%, NLM) and
5 (2%, NLM). Also hematological values investigated were within accepted
normal range for poultry, except for hemoglobin where diet 1 and 3 fell slightly
below the recommended values for broiler birds.
ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Nutrition is the most important consideration in any livestock
enterprise. Its (livestock industry) survival is dependent on the
availability of feedstuffs, which are mainly components of human food
(Esonu et al., 2006). The aim of keeping livestock and poultry is for
the production of high quality protein. Agriculturists and Nutritionist
in Nigeria have generally agreed that poultry is the fastest means of
bridging the protein deficiency gap prevailing in the country (Olomu,
1995; Atteh, 2002).
According to Olomu (1995) and Kekeocha (1994), broiler birds
are fast growing birds and are described as good converters of feed
and are marketed from eight to twelve weeks. Broiler birds are
regarded as the type of birds that have high feed consumption and
conversion ratio of non-conventional feed ingredients that cannot be
directly consumed by man into high quality meat which are needed in
large quantity by man (Partmouth, 1991). However, the production of
broiler birds as meat bird cannot be effective in the absence of
adequate feed and feed ingredients in right proportion. It has been
estimated that 70-80% of poultry production inputs is been attributed
to feed cost, hence making it imperative that good quality feed be
available at reasonable price to make poultry production more
profitable (Oruwari et al., 1995).Thus, the birds can only perform
economically well and profitably if it consumes, on daily basis, the
appropriate amount of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals (Richard
and Church, 1998).
1
Antibiotics are drugs such as penicillin, amoxicillin and
tetracycline that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of harmful
bacteria (Atteh, 2002). Thus, the use of antibiotics in improving the
rations of birds have been carried out by various authors. Onifade and
Babatunde (1995) reported that growth depression in broiler chickens
fed high fibre diet was effectively and economically alleviated by the
action of the following antibiotics namely tylosin, streptomycin and
neoterramycin. Also Onifade and Babatunde (1996) reported that the
growth performance of broiler chicks fed a high fibre diet
supplemented with antibiotics was better than those fed
unsupplemented diet. Thus, antibiotics supplementation is an effective
and readily adaptable strategy, if not for the possibility of their
immunosuppressive actions under prolonged usage.
However the inclusion of antibiotics in livestock rations as feed
additives is being discouraged because of the negative effect on the
animals and the humans who consume the final animal products
(HCWH, 2005). This was also confirmed by Oyekunle and
Owonikoko (2002). Dipeolu (2002) and Chan et al. (2002) who
reported problems of residual effect in livestock products. Thus, there
is the need to evaluate potential antibiotic alternatives to improve
disease resistance in intensive food animal production. Nutritional
approach to counteract the debilitating effects of stress and infection
may provide products with useful alternatives to antibiotics.
Improving the disease resistance of animals grown without antibiotics
can benefit the animal’s health, potentially increasing production
efficiency and food safety. Improving disease resistance in food
2
animals particularly in the absence of antibiotics treatment is a key
strategy in the effort to increase food safety (HSUS, 2007).
Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) is an indigenous tropical plant
predominant in Nigeria. It is known by names such as “Ogwu Iba” in
Ibo land and “Dogonyaro” in Hausa. Neem tree is a member of the
family meliaceae in the order fagates of the Dicotyledonous class in
the plant kingdom. When fully grown, it can reach 24m in height with
dense wide spreading crown. The crown bears large number of
compound leaves each with 5-9 pairs of leaflets. Flowering is twice a
year (April/May and August/ September). When fertilized one seeded
fruits are produced with fibrous cover. The tree can yield between 20 –
50kg of fruits annually (Aliero, 2003).
The neem has been reported to contain several biologically
active constituents such as azadirachtin, meliantriol, salanin as well as
nimbin and nimbidin (Schmutterer, 1990). He also reported salanolide
(a meliacin) as one of the bitter principles in neem seed oil.
Azadirachta indica is medicinal and it is used as an insecticide and
pesticide. The tree is relevant in organic farming. The leaf meal has a
proximate composition of 92.42% dry matter; 7.58% moisture;
20.68% crude protein; 7% ash; 4.13% ether extract; 16.60% crude
fibre; and 43.91% nitrogen-free extract (Esonu et al., 2005). The
nutritive value of the neem leaf meal has also been reported by the
same author. They observed that carcass weight, dressed weight, liver,
heart and gizzard weights of laying hens fed varying levels of neem
leaves were significantly increased at 5 per cent level. There is
however scarcity of information in the literature on the utilization of
neem leaves by broilers. However, factors such as nutrient imbalance,
3
improper metabolism, presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxic
elements in such novel feed ingredient have been implicated in similar
productions.
OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
i. To evaluate the performance of finishing broilers fed graded
levels of neem leaf meal.
ii. To investigate the hematology and blood chemistry of
finishing broilers fed graded levels of neem leaf meal.
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2:1 POULTRY NUTRITION
The nutrition of animal involves various activities that result in
the conversion of feed into animal tissues or animal products for
example egg, meat, milk e.t.c (Richard and Church, 1998). Pond et al,
(1995) defined nutrition as a series of processes by which an organism
takes and assimilates food for promoting growth and replacing worn-
out tissues. Also Obioha (1992) defined nutrition as a process which
provides nourishment to a living organism and thus the food which a
living organism takes in is used primarily for two major purposes;
maintenance and productive function.
Olomu (1995) emphasized that poultry nutrition is more critical
than other farm animals (except pig) because poultry birds are usually
reared in confinement. Poultry are more active and more sensitive to
environmental influences than other farm animals. According to
Obioha (1992), poultry have high growth rate, intensive metabolic
rates and rapidly developed reproductive organ. He further reported
that during the first ten weeks of post embryonic growth, the weight of
broilers increases for about thirty to forty times and that such rate of
growth have not been encountered in other farm animals.
The ultimate aim of poultry nutrition is to increase the
productive efficiency of the poultry. The economic importance of
poultry feeding has become apparent, when it was realized that feed is
the highest single cost factor, about two third of the total production
cost . Many cases of poultry business failures can be traced to poor or
5
improper feeding of the birds. Therefore, it is pertinent that the right
nutrients in adequate quantities must be supplied to the birds.
According to Richard and Church (1998), quality of ingredients as
well as quality of nutrients present must be evaluated.
2.2 NUTRIENTS REQUIREMENT FOR BROILERS.
On the basis of physiological structures of the poultry, a good
knowledge of their nutritional requirement is very important. Thus,
lack of understanding of the digestive system of birds could put the
producer in a serious problem. Nutrient can be defined as chemical
substances found in feed ingredients which when made available to the
animal are used for maintenance, production and health of the animals
(Atteh, 2002). It can also be described as a specific chemical element
or compound supplied by or derived from the diet and absorbed into
the body tissues to support physiological processes. These nutrients
are essential to be in appropriate amounts and proportions in the diets
of intensively housed birds, because they have no access to other
sources of nutrients. The essential nutrients required by the poultry
birds are carbohydrates, fat and oil (mostly served as energy givers);
protein (amino acid), minerals (micro and macro), vitamins and water
(Pond et al., 1995; Olomu, 1995 and Smith, 2001).
The dietary requirement of nutrients varies with age, bodyweight
and rate of growth of the birds. Thus the requirement for any nutrient
may be defined as the amount of that nutrient which must be supplied
in the diet to meet the needs of the normal healthy animal given on
otherwise completely adequate diet in an environment compatible with
good health (Olomu, 1995). Such level of nutrient must meet the
6
requirement for maintenance, growth, productive and reproductive
potential of the animal (NRC, 1994).
2:2: 1 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Poultry, like other farm animal, consume feed primarily to
satisfy their energy requirement. According to Obioha (1992), the
energy required by the bird to perform its maintenance and productive
functions is usually given to the animal through carbohydrate and fats.
Protein can also be broken down to supply energy, though this only
occurs where the lipid and carbohydrate sources of energy are
inadequate.
Cereal grains, cereal by-products, fats and oils from animal and
vegetable supply most of the energy in poultry diets. Poultry have
limited ability to utilize high fibrous feeds such as roughages. Olomu
(1995) reported that most chickens have the ability to adjust feed
intake in-order to obtain the necessary energy required for optimum
performance. When fed ad-libitum, chickens on low energy diets
consumed more feed than those fed high energy diets. Therefore, the
amount of nutrients required in the poultry rations must be adjusted in
relation to the energy levels of the rations.
Fats can be used to increase the energy level of low-energy
rations. Fats inclusion should be limited to not more than five to ten
percent of the diets. Fats supply about 2.5 times as much energy as
that which an equal weight of carbohydrate supplies (Pond et al.,
1995). It increases the utilization of feed and performs important
functions in the cells. In hot climate areas, feed containing added fats
might become rancid quickly, unless it has been properly stabilized. In
7
poultry, energy of the rations is usually expressed in unit of
metabolizable energy per unit weight; joules per kg, or calories per kg,
where one calorie is equivalent to 4.16 joules.
According to NRC (1994), the energy requirements of tropical
countries are lower than those of temperate regions. The recommended
energy requirements for chickens, pullets and layers under tropical
environments have been estimated as 3200; 2900 and 2900kcal/kg
respectively. Olomu (1995) fed birds’ dietary energy levels of 2500,
3000 and 3200kcal ME per kg. He observed that, the best performance
of chicks was realized with the ration containing 3000KcalME per kg.
For tropical environment, Obioha (1992) recommended an energy
level of 2850Kcal ME per kg for broiler starter diet and 2900Kcal ME
per kg for broiler finisher diet. It must be noted that increasing the
dietary energy resulted in an increase in the cost of diet.
2:2:2 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID REQUIREMENT
Amino acids are the basic fundamental structural units of
protein, which are required by the birds for growth and for repairing
worn out tissues (Smith, 2001). Chickens and pigs can produce in their
bodies some but not all the amino acids. Those amino acids that must
be supplied in the feed are known as the essential amino acids. Thus
Smith (2001) reported that the protein requirement of a bird can be
defined as the birds’ requirement for the supply of each essential
amino acid together with sufficient supply of suitable nitrogenous
compounds from which the non-essential amino acids can be
synthesized. 8
According to Olomu (1995), under normal circumstance birds
eat more as they grow older. Therefore, the total protein consumed
increases as the birds gets older and presumably increase in weight.
However, the protein consumed per unit weight either reduces or
remains constant. Thus, if dietary protein level remains constant
throughout the life of the birds, more protein than necessary may
eventually be consumed. Since protein is not stored in the body to any
appreciable extent, any protein consumed above the birds’ requirement
is oxidized for energy (Olomu, 1995). All essential amino acids are
required by poultry and the most commonly deficient amino acids in
the chicken diets are arginine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan and non-
essential glycine (Obioha, 1992). Environmental temperature affects
protein requirements of chicks in the tropics. The high ambient
temperature in the tropics has been found to adversely affect the feed
intake as well as the protein intake of chicks. Olomu (1995), therefore
recommended that broiler starter diets should contain between 23 and
26% crude protein, if a maximum weight gain and efficient feed
utilization (good feed conversion) could be achieved. In terms of
amino acids requirements young birds have the highest demand for
essential amino acids as percent of the dietary protein (Oluyemi and
Robert, 1988).
9
Table 1: Amino Acid Requirement of Broilers (%)
Broiler Broiler
Starter Finisher
Lysine 1.3 1.1
Methionine 0.5 0.4
Leucine 1.5 1.4
Methionine + Cystine 0.75 0.7
Tryptophan 0.25 0.20
Isoleucine 0.85 0.80
Threonine 0.80 0.70
Arginine 1.10 1.0
Phenylalanine 0.80 0.70
Valine 1.0 0.85
Source: Olomu (1995).
In general, deficiency of essential amino acids in poultry diets leads to
poor growth, poor egg production and low degree of feed utilization.
2:2:3 WATER REQUIREMENTS.
Water is one of the most important nutrients needed by
broilers. Water constitutes more than half of the weight of poultry
meat and about two-third of the weight of egg (Ranjhan, 1981). The
newborn animal contains 750 to 800g of water per kg weight, though
this falls to about 500g/kg in the matured fat animal (McDonald et al.,
1995). Oluyemi and Roberts (2007) reported that for every kg of feed,
2-3 liters of water is consumed. Smith (2001) also reported that
drinking water for poultry should be free from salt and toxic
10
substances. He also reported that the ratio of dry matter to water intake
by poultry in a temperate environment is normally 1:2, but does
depend to some extent on the diet. Thus, increase in protein level also
increases the water consumption of the birds.
Water is available in the feed (metabolisable water) but the bulk
of water must be provided separately in drinking cans or troughs. The
water must be provided ad-libitum, clean and free from excessive
salts, which might have a laxative effect and must be cool. Olomu
(1995) suggested that 2 to 2.5 liters of water in the first two weeks is
adequate for 100 chicks, this is doubled after another 2 weeks. In
practice, the daily water consumption per 1000 broilers ranges from 20
liters at one week of age to 380 liters at 8weeks of age. On very hot
days, the water consumption may be increased as much as three times
of the water intake on cooler days.
2:2:4 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS
Minerals are mainly inorganic components of feed. The body
of animals contains large number of mineral elements, which occur in
combination with the organic constituents. Chicken body contains
about four per cent mineral matter (Ranjhan, 1981). Phosphorus and
calcium are the two most abundant mineral elements in the bone and
other skeletal components of the birds.
Olomu (1995) classified mineral elements as macro and micro
depending on the quantitative requirement for each. Macro elements
include; calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, magnesium
and potassium while some of the micro-elements are iodine, zinc,
cobalt, iron, copper and molybdenum. Excess or deficiency of these
11
mineral elements is detrimental to the health and development of the
birds. Minerals function in many ways such as in body structural
components and acid-base balance. Calcium and phosphorus have
been found to have closely related metabolic functions. The
requirement of these minerals appears to be higher for warm climates
than for cold climates (Olomu, 1995). It is therefore recommended that
the level of calcium be increased from 1-1.2% to 4-4.5% and the level
of total phosphorous from 0.7-0.8% to 1-1.1% during periods of hot
weather. Ranjhan (1981) stated that mineral deficiency and over
supply have serious adverse effects and could lead to death of chicks.
Thus, in practice 0.30-0.35% common salt or sodium chloride would
take care of the requirements for sodium and chlorine which must be
supplied from sources other than the normal ingredients used in
formulating poultry feeds.
2:2:5 VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS
Vitamins are organic compounds that cannot be synthesized in
the poultry body and they are required in extremely small quantities
but absolutely essential for normal growth and health. Oluyemi and
Robert (2007) listed the vitamins required in poultry diets as follows:
the fat soluble- vitamins A, D,E and K and the water soluble vitamins-
thiamine (B1), niacin, riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6), biotin,
pantothenic acid, folic acid, choline, and vitamin B12. Vitamin C can
be synthesized in the body of birds but they are required as antistress
in hot environment.
The deficiency of these vitamins in the feed consumed by birds or
non-availability of these vitamins to the birds usually result in disease
12
symptoms, such as rickets which is caused by vitamin D deficiency
associated with low or imbalance of calcium and or phosphorous level
in the diet; curled toe paralysis (Vitamin B12) and perosis associated
with deficiency of choline and biotin (Olomu, 1995). Deficiency of
folic acid causes poor feathering, poor feather pigmentation and
anemia (Obioha, 1992).
2:3:1 CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES OF LEAF
MEALS
Leaf meals have been observed as having potential in non-
ruminant nutrition and feeding especially in poultry production. The
nutrient contents of leaf meals, mostly those of the leguminous plants,
have relatively higher crude protein content than the non-leguminous
plants and cereals. Also leaf meal contains high level of crude fiber
when compared with other feedstuffs used in the livestock industry. In
most cases, the crude fiber content of leaf meal may equal or even
exceed the crude protein content (D’Mello, 1992), like in the case of
Cajanus cajan, Prosopis chillensis, Albizia falacata and Manihot
esculenta.
Thus, this tends to reduce the overall digestibility when there is
significant proportion of leaf meal in the diet as well as consequently
decrease in growth and egg production of birds (Tangendjaja et al.,
1990). Leaf meals also provide some essential vitamins such as
vitamin A and C, minerals and oxycarotenoids which cause yellow
color of broiler chicken skin, beaks, shanks and egg yolk (Opara,
1996). Lysine concentration in leaf meal is relatively higher than those
of grains and some by- products such as coconut oil meal (D’Mello
13
and Acamovic, 1989), but not as high as those of fishmeal or soybean
meal. They are deficient in sulphur containing amino acids though
their use can be enhanced on supplementation with methionine.
Except for cassava leaf meal, the metabolisable energy content
of leaf meals is generally low (D’Mello and Acamovic, 1989). This
therefore entails that leaf meals cannot fully replace high energy
ingredients in monogastric nutrition. Leaf meals contain carotenoids
which are a class of compounds which includes the carotenes; the
precursors of vitamin A and the xanthophylls which do not possess
vitamin activity of pigment.
The concentration of carotenoids in leaf meal however will
depend upon the duration and method of drying. Rapid drying of
Leucaena leucocephala foliage yielded a meal with carotenes and
xanthophylls concentrations of 484 and 932 mg/kg dry matter
respectively (Wood et al., 1983). However they further said that
substantial losses occurred during oven drying at 60oC and 145
oC.
They also reported that carotenoids were more stable in sun dried L.
leucocephala leaf than in oven dried samples.
2:3:2 UTILIZATION OF LEAF MEALS IN POULTRY
At a high inclusion level, leaf meals lead to depressed growth.
This may be attributed to their low digestibility and inadequate
metabolisable energy content. Egbewande et al. (2004) have reported
that a graded level of mistletoes (Tapinanthus bangwensis) leaves
induced dose-related depression in growth of chicks. Also with older
broiler chicks, D’Mello et al. (1987) showed that diets containing
100g leaf meal per kilogram diet significantly reduced growth without
14
affecting dry matter intake. Although feed intake remained unaltered,
the chicks failed to consume sufficient quantities of the digestible
nutrients particularly protein and energy required to sustain rapid
growth, they further reported.
D’Mello and Acamovic (1982) reported no appreciable
differences in weight gain or efficiency of feed utilization between
control chicks fed a maize-soybean meal diet and those offered diets
containing Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal. Two trials by Ranaweera
et al. (1981) involving feeding Gliricidia sepium leaf meal to
growing chicks at inclusion rates of 50g/kg and 100g/kg diet
respectively resulted to satisfactory growth rate relative to control
animals while chicks fed a higher concentration of the leaf meal
(150g/kg) had markedly reduced growth rates. Inclusion of Robinia
pseudoacacia leaf meal at the rate of 200g/kg diet depressed growth
of chicks to 71% of that observed in the control group fed a maize
soybean diet (Cheeke et al., 1983).
Leaf meal derived from Sesbania sesban and S. grandiflora were
highly toxic to chicks even at inclusion rates as low as 100g/kg diet
(Shqueir et al., 1989). They also recorded mortality of 100% but
reported that chicks fed alfalfa meal at the same level gained 442g
over a three weeks period without any record of mortality.
The inclusion of Gliricidia sepium leaf meal at rates of up to
100g/kg diet induced small increase in feed to gain ratio of chickens
but a striking increase in this ratio occured on inclusion of the leaf
meal at 150g/kg diet (Ranaweera et al., 1981). Ravindaran et al.,
(1986) observed that cassava leaf meal depressed feed conversion
efficiency particularly when the leaf was used to replace soybean and
15
maize. They however, also observed that when cassava leaf meal was
used in replacing a poor quality raw material such as coconut oil meal,
the feed conversion efficiency was not depressed until levels of the
leaf meal reached 300g/kg in diets for chicken.
2:3:3 NEEM TREE LEAVES
Neem is an attractive broad leaved evergreen tree which can
grow up to 24m tall and 2.5m in girth (Aliero, 2003). Its spreading
branches form a rounded crown of deep green leaves and honey
scented flowers as much as 20m across. The leaves mainly yield
quercetin (Flavonoid) and nimbosterol (β sitosterol) as well as a
number of liminoids (nimbin and its derivatives). Quercetin (a
polyphenolic flavonoid) is known to have antibacterial and antifungal
properties (Elangovan et al., 2000). Liminoids like nimocinolide and
isonimocinolide affect fecundity in house flies (Musca domestica) at a
dose ranging between 100 and 500ppm. Fresh matured leaves yield an
odorous viscous essential oil which exhibits antifungal activities
against fungi (Trichophyton mentagrophytes) in vitro.
Few works have been carried out using neem tree leaves in
livestock production. Among such work include those carried out by
Esonu et al. (2006) who reported that up to 15% neem leaf meal in
treatment diet may increase both hen day egg production and egg yolk
color. Bawa et al. (2007) reported that up to 20% level of neem seed
cake can replace groundnut cake in a young rabbit ration. Uko and
Kamalu (2007) have also shown that autoclaved or toasted neem seed
kernel can be used to improve the carcass characteristics of broilers.
16
2:2:4 HEMATOLOGICAL STUDIES
Hematology and Serum biochemistry assay of livestock suggests
the physiological disposition of the animals to their nutrition. Esonu et
al. (2001) had stated that hematological constituents reflect the
physiological responsiveness of the animal to its internal and external
environments which include feed and feeding. Awosanya et al. (1999)
have observed the dependence of blood protein and creatinine on the
quality of dietary protein while, Iyayi (2001) feeding swine with
cassava leaf supplement found that serum glutamic oxaloacetic
transaminase (SGOT) was significantly lowered while serum total
protein was significantly increased.
The Aspartate aminotransferase test measures the level of
aspartate aminotransferase (AST), an enzyme released into the blood
when certain organs or tissues, particularly the liver and heart are
injured. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is also known as serum
glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT). The normal ranges for
AST are laboratory specific, but can range from 3-45(units per litre)
(Allelo and Mays, 1998). Striking elevations of AST (400-4,000 units
per litres) are found in almost all forms of acute hepatic necrosis, such
as viral hepatitis and carbon tetrachloride poisoning (Parnigrahy et al.
1986). Usually low levels of AST are normally found in the blood.
When body tissues or an organ such as the heart or liver is diseased or
damaged, additional AST is released into the blood stream. The
amount of AST in the blood is directly related to the extent of the
tissue damaged.
Bilirubin is a lipid soluble substance usually carried in plasma as
a plasma protein bound substance. It is removed from the plasma
17
protein at the sinusoidal membrane of the liver cell, and it is thus
excreted into bile. It is a pigment derived from the decomposition of
hemoglobin within the red blood cell. It is also known as total
bilirubin, neonatal bilirubin and direct bilirubin. Fasting causes an
increase in the bilirubin level of the plasma, hence deep yellow
coloration of plasma is seen in a fasting animal (Aka, 2004).
Packed cell volume (PCV) is the variable normally used to
assess the basic status of the erythron-increased in polycythemia,
decreased in anemia although if a sample is too hemolyzed to allow
measurement of PCV, a meaningful Hemoglobin measurement may
still be obtained. An abnormally high PCV may be relatively due to a
change in the proportion of circulating RBC (Red Blood Cell) to blood
plasma without any alteration in the size of the erythron or absolute
due to a real increase in erythron size. The normal range of PCV for
poultry birds is between 30-40% (Allelo and Mays, 1998).
Hemoglobin (Hb) is a complex iron containing conjugated
protein. It is also composed of a pigment. Hemoglobin is contained in
the erythrocyte cell that gives it the characteristic red color. The
pigment contained in the hemoglobin is ferroheme. The protein
contained in hemoglobin is globin. Ferroheme makes up about 5% of
the hemoglobin. Thus the normal range is between 9-13g/dl (Allelo
and Mays, 1998).
18
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3:1 LOCATION AND DURATION OF STUDY.
The study was carried out at the Poultry Unit of Animal
Production Programme, Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu,
Ebonyi State. The experiment lasted for Nine weeks (from February
2nd
to April 5th
2007). The first two weeks of the experiment period
served as adaptation and acclimatization period. The starter phase
lasted for three weeks, while the finisher phase lasted four weeks
respectively.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Ninety day old “ROSS” broiler chicks of mixed sexes from
“COSIN” Enugu were used for the study. The chicks were randomly
allocated to five treatment group with eighteen birds per treatment in a
completely Randomized Design experiment. Each treatment group
was further sub-divided into two replicate groups with nine birds per
replicate.
3:3 PROCESSING OF NEEM LEAF.
The Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves used for the experiment
were obtained within the College environment. They were air-dried in
a ventilated room for one week. The leaves were thereafter sun dried
for about 2 hours at the environmental temperature of 30oC. They were
then reduced to smaller particles with pestle and mortar. Other feed
ingredients used were obtained from a Feed mill from Owerri in Imo
19
State and they include; maize (white maize), wheat offal,
soyabeanmeal, groundnut cake, palmkernelcake, fishmeal, bloodmeal,
bonemeal,vitamin-premix ,lysine and methionine while salt was
obtained from the local market.
3:4 EXPERIMENTAL DIETS
Five experimental diets were used in each phase of the study.
Treatment 1 ( Diet 1) served as the control with 0% of neem leaf meal,
while diets 2, 3, 4 and 5 contained neem leaf meal at 0.5, 1, 1.5 and
2% level of supplementation respectively ( Table 2).
20
Table 2:- Percentage Composition of Broiler Starter Diets
supplemented with Graded levels of Neem leaf meal.
Ingredients Diets
1 2 3 4 5
Neem leaf meal 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Maize 44.50 44.40 44.20 44.10 44.10
Wheat offal 13.80 13.70 13.60 13.40 13.10
Soya bean meal 9.40 9.30 9.20 9.20 9.10
Groundnut cake 14.20 14.10 14.10 14.00 14.00
Palm kernel cake 7.50 7.40 7.30 7.20 7.10
Fish meal 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70 5.70
Blood meal 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90
Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamin premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Total 100 100 100 100 100
Calculated Analysis
Crude protein (%) 23.31 23.30 23.32 23.33 23.34
Energy (Kcal/k) 2,785.69 2,788.42 2,762.79 2,752.39 2,743.72
Crude fibre (%) 4.25 4.29 4.31 4.34 4.36
Determined Analysis Crude protein 24.06 24.28 23.62 24.53 24.65
Crude fibre 4 5 5.5 5.8 5.9
Ash 10 12 10 10 10
Ether extract 6 8 8 10 12
Moisture 10 10 12 10 12
NFE 45.94 40.72 40.88 39.67 37.45
21
Table 3:- Percentage Composition of Broiler Finisher Diets
supplemented with Graded levels of Neem leaf meal.
Ingredients Diets
1 2 3 4 5
Neem leaf meal 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Maize 48.50 48.30 48.20 48.10 48.00
Wheat offal 14.10 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70
Soya bean meal 5.40 5.30 5.20 5.10 5.00
Groundnut cake 12.30 12.20 12.10 12.10 12.00
Palm kernel cake 10.50 10.50 10.40 10.20 10.10
Fish meal 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20
Blood meal 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Bone meal 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamin-premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Total 100 100 100 100 100
Calculated Analysis Crude protein (%) 20.17 20.16 20.15 20.16 20.15
Energy (Kcal/kg) 2,795.35 2,783.62 2,772.62 2,761.45 2,718.20
Crude fibre (%) 4.34 4.38 4.41 4.43 4.46
Determined Analysis Crude protein 20.45 20.57 20.56 20.71 20.60
Crude fibre 4.5 5.3 5.9 6.4 6.6
Ash 10 10 12 12 11
Ether extract 2.5 3.5 5 5 5
Moisture 10 10 10 12 12
NFE 52.55 50.63 46.54 43.89 44.80
22
3:5 MANAGEMENT OF BIRDS
Few days to the arrival of the chicks, the brooding pen, the
drinkers and the feeders were cleaned and disinfected. Wood shavings
were spread on the floor. The hovers, feeders and drinkers were placed
in position. Kerosene stoves and lanterns were used to provide the
heat needed to keep the temperature within optimum range (between
33oC to 35
oC). Feed and water were provided ad-libitum. Feeding was
carried out twice, in the morning between the hours of 7-8am and in
the evening between the hours of 5-6pm daily.
3:6 RESPONSE PARAMETERS
(a) Average Daily Feed Intake Per Bird:-
This was calculated as the amount of feed left over
subtracted from the total amount of feed supplied. The
result was then divided by the number of days of the
experiment (49 days).
(b) Average Daily Weight Gain Per Bird:-
This was estimated as the total weight of the birds at the
end of the period ( ninth week) less the total weight of the
birds at the beginning of the study, divided by the number
of days (49 days) and the result was then divided by the
number of birds per replicate.
(c) Feed Conversion Ratio:-
This was calculated as the average daily feed intake
divided by the average weight gain. 23
(d) Body Weight:-
This was measured on a weekly basis using a weighing
balance. The birds were however weighed at the beginning
of the experiment to determine their initial weight.
(e) Hematological Studies:-
This was carried out using blood samples collected from
each treatment. Two birds were collected from each
replicate (i.e. four birds per treatment) for analysis. The
parameters analyzed included; hemoglobin (Hb), packed
cell volume (PCV), total bilirubin and aspartate
aminotransferase (AST). They were determined according
to the methods of Okeudo et al. (2003)
3:7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
At the end of the study (nineth week) data obtained from the
response variables were subjected to analysis of variance using a one
way (ANOVA) by Steel and Torrie (1980) in a completely randomized
design (CRD)The experimental model of the CRD used in the analysis
is given as;
Yij = µ + Ti + Σij
Where;
Yij = Response variables of the observations on jth treatment.
µ = Mean of the common effect of the whole experiment.
Ti = Effect of the jth treatment.
Σij = Random error present in the observation and the treatment.
24
3:8 LABORATORY ANALYSIS
Some quantity of the dried neem leaf meal was obtained after
processing and taken for analysis in the laboratory at Michael Opara
University .Also some quantity of feeds formulated for the birds were
analyzed in the laboratory that is diet 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 containing 0, 0.5,
1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% levels of inclusion of neem leaf meal respectively.
25
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result of the proximate composition of the Neem
(Azadirachta indica) leaf meal is presented in Table 6.
Table 6:- Proximate Composition of Neem (Azadirachta indica)
leaf meal.
Components Percentage
Crude protein 24.06
Ash 6
Moisture 3.5
Crude fibre 12
Ether extract 6
The result above showed that the Neem leaf meal contains,
24.06% crude protein, 6% ash, 3.5% moisture, 12% crudefibre and 6%
ether extract. This is similar to the result of the proximate composition
of the neem tree leave as presented by Esonu et al. (2006).
26
Table 7: Effects of Varying Levels of Supplemental Neem
(Azadirachta indica) leaf meal On the Performance
of Broiler Birds.
Dietary Treatment
Parameters Control (0%) 2(0.5%) 3(1%) 4(1.5%) 5(2%) SEM
Initial Body
Weight (g). 320 320 310 320 310 -
Avg. Final
Body Weight (g). 2320b 2520
a 2280
c 2270
c 1890
d 0.40
Avg. Daily
Wt. Gain (g). 40.82b 44.80
a 40.20
b 39.80
b 32.36
c 0.77
Avg. Daily
Feed Intake (g). 129.39a 131.71
a 128.24
a 126.56
b 110.60
c 0.85
Feed Conversion
Ratio (g). 3.17b
2.94c 3.19
b 3.18
b 3.43
a 0.05
4:1 Average Daily Weight Gain (g):-
Results presented in Table 7 shows that the highest daily
weight gain (g) was observed in birds fed diet 2 (0.5% NLM), while
the lowest was observed in birds fed diet 5 (2% NLM). It was
observed that the body weight gain of birds decreases with increase in
dietary levels of the NLM. The result agrees with the observation
made by D’Mello and Acamovic (1989), where graded dietary
inclusion of Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal induced cause related
depression in growth of chicken even when maize oil was used to
compensate for low metabolizable energy value of the leaf meal.
Similar observation of decreasing performance of broilers at high
27
levels of leaf meal inclusion have been observed by Nworgu and
Fapohunda (2002) who reported that the body weight gain of broilers
drastically reduced at high levels of mimosal leaf meal incorporation.
Also the work of Ranaweera et al. (1981) follows the same suit with
the incorporation of high levels of Gliricidia sepium leaf meal. The
effect observed above could have resulted from imbalance nutrient
value and improper metabolism associated with the neem leaf meal as
reported by Esonu et al. (2005). Other workers (Amaefule and Obioha,
2001 and Iheukwumere et al., 2002) have also reported the effect of
nutrient imbalance on monogastric animals fed high levels of
unconventional feed ingredients. This could also be probably due to
the effects of incomplete elimination of toxic factors as reported by
Udedibie et al. (1994) and Siddhuraju et al. (1996).
4:2 Average Daily Feed Intake:-
The analysis of variance conducted on the daily feed intake
shows that there was significant (P<0.05) differences among the
treatment means. The feed consumption of birds fed diet 1, 2 and 3
were similar (P>0.05) but significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of
birds fed diets 4 and 5. However the feed intake of birds fed diet 5 was
significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of birds fed diet 4. The observed
general trend was that of decreasing average feed intake as level of
supplementation increased. This might be attributed to the bitter nature
of the neem leaf which reduced the palatability of the feed. This is in
consonance with the observations of Bawa et al. (2006) who fed
rabbits with raw neem seed cakes and reported reduced feed
consumption among the rabbits on the test diets. Elangovan et al.
28
(2000) has also established the presence of bitter triterpenoids in the
neem seeds. However, debitterization through water washing, alkali
soaking and urea ammoniation to improve palatability has been
recommended (Katiyar et al., 1991). Also the decrease in feed intake
observed could be as a result of antinutritional factors present in the
test ingredient. This agrees with the findings of Nworgu, (2002) who
incorporated different leaf meals noted for their antinutritional factors
in the diets of poultry, and observed decreases in feed intake.
4:3 Feed Conversion Ratio:-
The analysis of variance shows that there were significant
(P<0.05) differences among the treatment means. As shown in table 7,
the amounts of feed consumed by birds fed diet 1(0% NLM), diet 3
(1% NLM) and diet 4 (1.5 % NLM) to gain the same unit (kg) of
bodyweight, were similar (P>0.05). However, birds fed diet 2 (0.5%,
NLM) were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those birds fed diet 5
(2%) to gain the same unit of body weight. The efficiency of feed
conversion of birds fed diets containing more than 0.5% NLM were
significantly (P<0.05) lower when compared to those of birds fed diet
2 (0.5%, NLM). The poor utilization of diets containing higher levels
of NLM might be related to the inability of the birds’ enzyme to break
down the active bitter substance in the NLM and also the imbalance
nutrient value and improper metabolism associated with the neem leaf
meal as reported by Esonu et al. (2005).
29
Table 8: Effect of Supplemental Neem Leaf Meal (Azadirachta
indica) On the Hematological Values of Broiler Birds
Dietary Treatments
Parameters 1 2 3 4 5 SEM
Hb (g/dl) 8.9b
10.8a 8.8
b 9.0
b 10.2
a 0.60
PCV (%) 32c 39
a 30
c 34
b 36
b 1.85
Total Bilirubin
(mg/dl) 2.35a 2.15
ab 2.25
a 2.15
ab 2.05
ab 0.21
AST (Unit/l) 10.05ab
10.15a 10.25
a 9.98
ab 10.10
a 0.24
4.5 Hemoglobin (Hb) Values:-
The result of the hematological values of broiler birds revealed
that there were significant difference (P<0.05) among the treatments.
Hb values of birds fed diets 2 and 5 were similar (P>0.05) but
significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of birds fed diets 1, 3 and 4,
which were themselves similar (P>0.05). The results of the
hemoglobin values of the birds on diet 3 and 1 fall slightly below the
recommended range of 9-13g/dl as reported by Allelo and Mays,
(1998). However, the values obtained for birds on diet 2, 4 and 5 fall
within the accepted range as reported by Allelo and Mays, (1998).
This result implies that including NLM in the diets of broilers as
supplemental feed had little or no effect on the relative quantity of the
complex iron containing the conjugate protein. This gives a clear-cut
reason why the redness of the broiler bird’s blood was not impaired.
30
4.6 Packed cell Volume (PCV) Values:-
The result of the Packed Cell Volume (PCV) revealed that birds
on diet 2, 4 and 5 were similar (P>0.05) but significantly (P<0.05)
higher than those of birds fed diet 1 and 3, which were themselves
similar (P>0.05). The highest value of packed cell volume was
obtained in birds on diet 2 (0.5% NLM). Thus the values obtained for
PCV across the treatment groups were within the normal range of 30-
40% as reported by Allelo and Mays, (1998). This result implies that
including NLM in the diets of broiler birds as supplemental feed
ingredient had little or no effect on the relative quantity of blood cells
as compared with the total volume of blood (Health and Olusanya,
1985).
4.7 Aspartate aminotrasferase (AST) Values:-
The result of the hematological values for Aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) shows that, there was no significant
difference (P>0.05) among the treatments. The result obtained for
AST across the treatment groups were within the accepted normal
range of 3-45 units/l as reported by Allelo and Mays (1998) and
Merk’s Veterinary Manual (1979). This is also in accordance to the
findings of Zinkl (1986) who reported that usually low levels of AST
are normally found in the blood of Poultry birds, but when high levels
are found (400-4,000unit/1) then there is likely to be cases such as
viral hepatitis and carbon tetrachloride poisoning.
31
4.8 Bilirubin Values:-
The result of the hematological values for total bilirubin shows that
there was no significant difference (P>0.05) among the treatments.
The low level of bilirubin obtained across the treatment groups is an
indication of the normalcy of the blood level of the birds. High levels
of bilirubin usually reveal that too much is being produced ( usually
due to increased destruction of red blood cells or that the liver is
incapable of adequately removing bilirubin in a timely manner ( due to
blockage of bile ducts and liver diseases such as cirrhosis and acute
hepatitis) (Aka, 2004).
32
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
An experiment was conducted with Ninety “ROSS” unsexed day
old chicks to determine the optimum level of supplementation of neem
leaf meal in broiler diets. The experiment was laid-out in a completely
randomized design (CRD). The birds were randomly allocated to five
treatment groups of eighteen birds per treatment. Each treatment was
replicated twice with nine birds per replicate. The five groups were
randomly allocation to five diets containing varying levels of Neem
leaf meal (NLM) of 0% (diet 1), 0.5% (diet 2), 1.0% (diet 3), 1.5%
(diet 4) and 2.0% (diet 5). The bird’s performances were measured and
calculated on daily basis in terms of body weight gain, feed intake and
feed conversion ratio. At the end of the experiment the hematological
values were determined. The parameters determined for include
hemoglobin (Hg), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), bilirubin and
packed cell volume (PCV).
The results of this study showed that there were significant
(P<0.05) difference among the performance of birds across the various
treatments in terms of average body weight gain, feed intake, and feed
conversion ratio. Further supplementation of NLM beyond 0.5%
showed decrease in average bodyweight gain and average final weight
of the birds. This study also showed that the supplementation of NLM
had little or no effect on the hematological values of the birds, as the
parameters evaluated for across the treatment groups fell within the
accepted normal ranges for poultry birds.
33
The results of this study showed that the Neem leaf meal
supplementation in broiler diets could be effectively utilized at 0.5%
to obtain reasonably good growth rate and reduced disease infection
risk in the finished broiler birds.
5.2 SUGGESTION
It is strongly suggested that more research work be carried out or
undertaken with other species of poultry birds (like pullets, ducks,
geese, guinea fowl e.t.c) and other classes of monogastric and
ruminant animals as well. Also debitterization techniques as stated
earlier could improve feed intake when employed.
34
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APPENDIX. I
Average Daily Feed Intake
Treatments
Replicates 1 2 3 4 5
1 128.63 130.89 128.40 126.10 110.40
2 130.15 132.53 128.08 127.02 110.80
Sum 258.78 263.42 256.48 253.12 221.20
Mean 129.39 131.71 128.24 126.56 110.60
ANOVA TABLE
Sources of
variation
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
square
Mean
square
Fcal. Ftab.
Total sum
of square
9 571.3292
Treatment
sum of
square
4 568.2748 142.0687 232.56 5.19
Error sum
of square
5 3.0544 0.61088
42
APPENDIX. II
Average Daily weight gain
Treatments
Replicates 1 2 3 4 5
1 40.60 44.50 40.35 39.25 31.80
2 41.04 45.10 40.05 40.35 32.92
Sum 81.64 89.60 80.40 79.60 64.72
Mean 40.82 44.80 40.20 39.80 32.36
ANOVA TABLE
Sources of
variation
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
squares
Mean
square
Fcal. Ftab.
Total sum
of square
9 164.246
Treatment
sum of
square
4 162.692 40.673 130.866 5.19
Error sum
of square
5 1.554 0.3108
43
APPENDIX. III
Feed Conversion Ratio
Treatments
Replicates 1 2 3 4 5
1 3.17 2.94 3.18 3.21 3.48
2 3.17 2.94 3.20 3.15 3.37
Sum 6.34 5.88 6.38 6.36 6.85
Mean 3.17 2.94 3.19 3.18 3.43
ANOVA TABLE
Sources of
variation
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
square
Mean
square
Fcal. Ftab.
Total sum
of square
9 0.2437
Treatment
sum of
square
4 0.23565 0.0589 36.58 5.19
Error sum
of square
5 0.00805 0.00161
44