on teaching 4

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On University Teaching

Charles J. Higgins, Ph.D.

Dept. of Finance/AIMS née CIS

Loyola Marymount University

1 LMU Dr.

Los Angeles, CA 90045-8385

[email protected]

310 338 7344

September 17, 2011

4th draft²for preliminary review and comment.



On University Teaching

Charles J. Higgins, Ph.D.

Chuck Higgins has taught graduate and undergraduate courses in the College of Business Administration at Loyola Marymount University Los Angeles since 1982. He

was the first member of the faculty to receive a second Graduate Faculty Member of theYear Award.

WHEN I started teaching at LMU some thirty years ago, I made a

substantial review of the literature associated with teaching at the university

level. As contrasted to the abundant literature for elementary and secondarylevel education, there was a relative paucity of literature examining the

pedagogy of teaching at the collegiate level. That has changed within the

last decade. However, this newer literature has often examined specific

aspects, procedures, or methods instead of teaching as a whole or as a

gestalt.

Preparation

Syllabus as a Contract

Each course has a syllabus which serves as a contract for a givencourse. As such, it should be binding upon the scheduled requirements and

presentations as well as describing some possibly foreseen exigencies. The

former would include date specific requirements as to examinations, meeting

times, other performance measurements, grading procedure, readings, and

office hours. For the latter, one can specify the consequences and

procedures regarding missed work, behavior, and any contingencies/

reservations regarding possible changes to the syllabus. It may include

warnings and/or proscriptions regarding testing procedures, attendance, and

behavior and/or classroom decorum. It is my practice to prohibit

alphanumeric display devices during examinations, to warn about cell

phones, beepers, chewing gum for undergraduates, and to note specifically

the final examination time and date.

Linear Language and Time/Non Linear Learning



A classroom presentation and a syllabus are usually both constructed

and delivered in some order which is linear. Recognition that some learning

may be stymied by such a paradigm is warranted. Some topics require more

than one pass; some require previews and revisits in different contexts. It is

my practice to provide some review on the first, introductory class meeting.

Likewise, I provide a terse preview of some of the more difficult material to

be seen later in the semester²it provides a sufficient warning to students

who are in need of such a warning and likewise acts diminish anxiety when

such material is dealt with later.

A course¶s text usually is linear in format as found in the table of

contents and may provide an outline for course syllabi. A sequence other

than that (perhaps with some omitted chapters and/or repetition of others)

may be better for teaching purposes. Do contemplate that many topics,

chapters, and class meetings will include revisits and summaries of past

materials and previews of materials to come. Included in the planning for each class meeting is a likely summary of the last meeting¶s topic and

materials and a likelihood that the class meeting will end with a preview of

the next topic including ³thought problems´ (in lieu of and/or in addition to

homework) which provoke a basis/foundation for the next topic.

Teaching the Tough Stuff FirstAn approach I¶ve grown to prefer is to tackle the difficult material

early as possible. The teacher who gets to the crux of the material the class

meeting shortly before the final examination reminds me of the librarianwho will does everything to keep you from getting the book you want. I¶ve

found that the learning from the difficult material tackled earlier is bettered

by the numerous mistakes encountered therein. I do statistics and the

Capital Asset Pricing Model early; in learning languages I seek the faux

amis (false friends or misleading cognates) and irregular usages early on.

PresentationFirst Day

The first class meeting is a student¶s first impression of you. Be it

MacGregor¶s theory X and Y, a military-officer training model, or bad

cop/good cop, the transition from the initially formal and firm to the

subsequently informal and relaxed should be considered. The initial

perception should be that of clear boundaries, expectations, and behavior

resulting in a confident student and faculty. Only after such a confidence is

established, can rewarding deviations flow there from. Rules and negative



consequences promote stress and stress does not promote learning. Thus a

firm/formal first impression promotes confidence in both student and

faculty, and a subsequent stress free learning can occur only after such

confidence has been established. Minor, but relevant considerations also

include how one dresses, where one is vis-à-vis the lectern, and what will be

the range of terminology. These are all relevant for a formal-then-informal

presentational shift. One can start the semester in a suit and tie and end the

semester in a sports shirt and jeans. This applies not only across the

semester, but also to each class meeting¶s presentation. If one relies on the

lectern, then leave it to make important points (or vice versa). The opening

remarks should/could be formal and centered and then deviate there from.

I do something else on the first day of class. Not only do I explain

what is expected of each student, but I also explain what they should expect

of me. These include an explanation that I lecture to complement the text²

instead of merely regurgitating the text, that I provide my expertise, and thatI use a Socratic teaching method²with an explanation of what that entails.

I note that I do speak rapidly and that we will cover a lot of material, but that

I also repeat material frequently in different terminologies/examples and that

students should not hesitate to ask for further explanations which still counts

positively toward class discussion. The reader here will note that I am trying

to convey a similar experience herein by using other similar words/phrases/

terms seamlessly, back to back.

Attendance/Behavior/Exp

ectationsI do not tell students that I do not regularly take up class time for

attendance or role call (save the obligatory confirmation of the registrar¶s

class lists)²I let them quietly consider as a possibility. It is my teaching

philosophy that the ³test will out,´ that I am dealing with adults, and that

attendance is their prerogative²although I don¶t tell them that. Moreover, I

view it as my job to provide a teaching environment that should make a

student want to attend each class meeting. The paramount task is to provide

an exciting and enjoyable teaching environment. For the Socratic discussion

aspect, I explain that any student contribution and/or question will be viewed

positively as long as it is relevant and not disruptive.

WarningsSometimes students test one¶s boundaries and push one¶s buttons²

whether they intend to do so or not. And consider that sometimes the more

vexatious students may just be reflecting one¶s own hidden aspects or

concerns. They need a warning instead of scolding the first and second time



for each occurrence of concern. Sometimes positive humor instead of

negative scolding is more beneficial. Some examples follow: if a student is

reading material not relevant to the class, try a gentle joke²for a student

reading a newspaper, ask the student for a sports score or the weather in

some obscure locale, for a second occurrence just pick up the material²

without missing a beat or other acknowledgment²and move it to the lectern

for later return to the student.

If a student talks often with a neighbor, I do not act unless I can hear

it. But if can hear it, I do act because not only is it rude and non business

like, but also interrupts my train of thought²and on the third occurrence I

will say so as such. The first occurrence of annoying student talking, I will

complete a humorous response for the neighbor or given the circumstances I

will say ³a question perhaps´²more as a statement, subsequently I will just

merely say ³up here please.´ The third time, I just merely say ³that¶s three´

and just continue. For those instances beyond three, I try other types of unexpected behavior²being out of character really catches their attention.

Study TechniquesOne might presume it to be too late to teach study techniques to

college students²both undergraduates and graduates. These techniques

include mnemonics which I utilize throughout the semester, other memory

tricks, and even limericks. I suggest that they consider that kinesthetic

(muscle) memory in that the act of writing stores information, that simple

cue cards are still effective in college (even opposite the morning throne), as

well as verbal rehearsal which stores information in yet another memory

location, and that reverse order review, and reviewing what you do not know

are all effective study techniques.

Studies have shown that approximately one quarter of students learn

respectively better by: doing, in groups, visually, and/or on their own.

Bright students learn better often on their own and vice versa for group

learning. I make a point of using various methods. I¶ll have them

temporarily group in twos (or threes) assisting each other; another time

individually perform calculations by hand; another by watching a video I

made; and another time by distributing graphics of various results or requisite equations.



Opening/Overlap TopicsThe opening of each class meeting should have some hook, reference,

or method of entering a student¶s world. It can easily be an observation

upon a recent news event, a joke, or interplay with some of students

prompting the interest/envy of other students. Then shift to review of the

material from the previous class meeting; it may include a solution to the

previously assigned ³thought problem.´ Likewise, at the end of each class

meeting, allow enough time to preview and prompt interest in the next

meeting¶s material. It is often here that I unofficially ³assign´ the next

period¶s ³thought problem.´ This process allows three passes at set of topics

on three different occasions²the preview, the main course, and then the

review.

Old School Graphics/Chalk/Font Shift

I have tried nearly every type of aid to instruction. Prepared videotapes²often thirty to sixty minutes in length²provide the same material

that can be summarized in far less time²and if the video is effective then

the professor is made useless. Assign the video outside of class time. I have

made my own shorter internet video summaries.

³Friends don¶t let friends use PowerPoint´ is a phrase I have used.

There is little difference between (and little benefit beyond) a first grade

reading class and PowerPoint presentation read word for word. If there are

bullet points, they should be headings or topics, not sentences. I like to point

out that in a twenty part plus video series I made (DrCinvests) that runs

some two hours and has easily some 100 graphics, there are only four

graphics therein containing lists. Further, consider that PowerPoint be

replaced entirely by handouts as such.

The blackboard ³chalk talk,´ still seems tried and true. The real time

parallel to the student¶s note taking is timed to the professor¶s writing on the

blackboard. This is not the case with overhead projections including both

PowerPoint and prepared slides, either of which is comprised of text and

graphic projections. The text and graphics can/should be provided in the

form of handouts, and thus you continue to maintain eye-to-eye contact and

the lights stay on!There is a predilection to start in the center of the blackboard²don¶t!

Start at the left (if the written language does so as in European languages)

and sequentially move to the right allowing, and noting, spaces/gaps as is

appropriate. I ask the students whether they are ready before I erase

previous blackboard portions while leaving the remaining later portions still

visible. The usage of the blackboard can be more effectively utilized with



the usage of well printed lettering, the shifting of fonts or size for major and

minor topics, and the usage of a different blackboards (or space) for

digressions.

Count in Threes/Thrice Told/Third Time¶s the CharmEvery main point, idea, equation, and so on should be summarized

three times using different terminology at each iteration²at introduction,

during the main idea, and then at summation. Likewise, for each new term I

try to use three different wordings²formal, informal, and slang or comic.

Freedom from NotesReading from prepared notes is not teaching. On one occasion, I

accidentally took the wrong set of notes to a class. Afterwards, both my

better and lesser students noted that it was one of the best lectured classes

that they had attended. I still take my prepared materials to class, but now Ihave weaned myself from the hoary notes. This is not easy until one has

built up a sufficient repertoire. But do try to get away from the lectern and

from the prepared notes. It obviously makes one more communicative.

Interactions/Socratic/³Did I Answer Your Question´The Socratic approach is more than the asking of yet another

question²it is the give and take, the ferreting out, and the profound

pondering providing an efficacious Socratic teaching method. I have seen a

study which notes that the Socratic method increases recall by a factor of

six. But the approach requires focus and more than posing even more

questions, but answers as well. It requires the professor to tease out the shy,

to tame the boisterous, and the ability to steer the interplay to the required

understanding. Some students always raise their hands for recognition,

some others rarely do. I permit rapid interplay of students who do not raise

their hands. However I give primary recognition to those who raise their

hands first with a statement to that effect.

One should allow three seconds for any major question pause²one

second for the student to ponder a question, another second for the student to

formulate a response, and a third second for the student to initiate thevolition to implement a reaction. During these three second pauses, look

each student¶s face²the reasons why become self evident. I find it

beneficial to ask the student whether I did indeed answer/respond to the

inquiry if it was particularly important to me or them.



20 Minute Breaks/Pauses/Digressions

Studies have shown that the mind needs a break or pause

approximately every twenty minutes to digest new information. This has not

been lost on media advertising²radio and television has shifted from

shorter commercial breaks toward this longer cycling of twenty minute

breaks. I periodically pause to provide major summary and/or digression (I

label them as such) and/or joke or to make other observations. I have seen

another study that says that humor increases recall by a factor of three.

Gestures/Position/Voice-EnunciationA good teaching experience can/should be good theater. Each gesture

should contain informational content. When I make major topic shifts, I

announce them as such. As previously noted, counting items/topics is very

useful. And when counting items from some list, display the respectivenumber of digits. Likewise, aimless/repetitive gestures are

counterproductive. Consider using one hand instead of two hands for

gesturing. Let each hand convey very specific informational content.

Indeed I have very specific points in certain lectures where I direct the

student¶s attention to my hands in order to convey a very specific concept

(namely company A¶s debt and equity as thumb and little finger versus

company B¶s debt and equity on the other hand).

One¶s position in the classroom is noteworthy. I return to the center

front, a formal position, when making major points, summaries, and

assignments. Verbal enunciation is easily underestimated in terms of its

importance to one¶s teaching effectiveness. A good practice is to generally

make a point of fully pronouncing every consonant, vowel, and thus syllable

of every word. Consider how you or another would/should pronounce the

following words: etcetera, interest, amateur, nuclear, and so on.

Ad Hoc/Unexpected/UnpredictableDon¶t be too predictable. It keeps things interesting and benefits both

extremes of the student profile. It is particularly useful both with the

recalcitrant or bored and as well with the motivated or smug. Treat eachstudent fresh and anew at each class meeting; don¶t carry previous

interactions on to the next class meeting.

Real Time Approximations/With vs. Not AtFor presentations using numbers, I try to use fresh/realistic/current

numbers each time a computation is to be demonstrated. This requires



sufficient familiarity so that feasible answers are forthcoming and that the

computation is not too cumbersome. I share with my students the real time

computational procedures/shortcuts/tricks while computing an answer. Thus

the presentation is not merely a transcription of previous and thus tedious

computations. And if a previous set of computations merits review, then

provide it in a handout. Likewise, real time fresh numbers provide a

corresponding parallel real time student writing experience. Note this

approach means the presentation is done with students²not at the students.

Forthright/Open/WhyRightly or wrongly, I chose to be open with my students regarding my

disposition, why some material was treated in a certain manner/fashion as

opposed to another, and how and why I am using a certain teaching

technique/method/procedure instead of another. In other words, I try to

make the experience transparent which also accrues some empathy and trust.

Politically CorrectThe English language, particularly in academic settings, needs careful

attention. Gender neutral or fair third person usage can be problematic.

While it takes a bit of practice, I sometimes use the alternating he/she

hers/his format, shifting back and forth, as in: ³When the stock brokerage

client finds the SIPC sign, she is insured against the loss of the invested

securities, but he is not insured against the loss of the value of the invested

securities.´

Positive Restatement and Listening³Class is style under pressure´ (attributed to John F. Kennedy) is a

guiding principle when dealing with problem students²of both extremes.

Miscommunication is often a root many difficulties; the miscues being a

likely fault of both sender and receiver. It is human nature that we often

construe the most negative/threatening interpretation to any

communication²be it correctly comprehended or otherwise. Thus an effort

to find a positive interpretation and to repeat, in different words/

terminology, the other person¶s words will often minimize any potentialnegative spiral and likewise ameliorates the learning experience. Of course

this also inculcates student trust.



ExaminationsHow to Study/What You Don¶t Know/Study Backwards

Advising students what is a likely examination question is self

evident. As previously noted students can be advised of how to study.

Repeating variations thereof are meritorious during any review sessions.These include a number of multiple approaches. The act of writing notes

and rewriting the relevant components thereof stores the information/

knowledge in the kinesthetic (muscle) memory and visual memory. For

certain students, I suggest that they might sub vocalize (say to themselves)

the items thus storing the stuff in another memory site. Other suggestions

are to further study/review only the material that the student does not know,

and then to repeat this process iteratively until completion. Another

suggestion is to review the material in reverse a chronology; it provides a

different perspective starting with the freshest material first.

MnemonicsA mnemonic device is an aid/trick/reminder/association which jogs

one¶s memory. Some these include familiar abbreviations, analogies,

pictograms, rhymes, and even melodies. I use them on particularly difficult

material.

Non Repetitive RepetitionThe assiduous reader will note my usage of multiple terms in this

piece. It is intentional as a demonstrative tool/device/exemplar. In theclassroom such a device is particularly helpful, and as noted previously, I

strive to use three approaches²formal, informal, and/or comic, anecdotal, or

slang. I often find that when comprehension has failed, that a different

terminology is not only helpful but necessary.

Multiple Choice Exams vs. Other Testing MethodsMultiple choice exams exist in only two places in the real world: who

you marry and what you order at a bar. Multiple choice exam prompts recall

and not a test of learning. Further they are not realistic in that in the real

world one rarely faces predetermined choices.

Process and Partial CreditMy subject area has a strong mathematical component and thus is

process oriented. Designing examinations to capture the process is a

particularly important aspect in examination design. Thus I note clearly to

the student that a mere arithmetic mistake will not count negatively if all the



precursor work is made evident²and vice versa. This minimizes to a

degree some number/test anxiety and I trust better measures student ability

and comprehension. Likewise for spelling and grammar, I advise the

students before the examination that I do not generally take off for spelling

and grammar, but I that I will still correct such errors. I believe that this

again promotes a better testing environment/evaluation/performance while

the student still benefits from the corrected errors.

GradingFor grading examinations and post test reviews I start with a formal/

authoritarian/theory X approach which slowly transforms to an

informal/friendly/theory Y approach. That is to say, start the examination

review with a formal/theoretic approach and then shift to an

informal/familiar approach later. Thus, grading and the return of

examinations are first approached in a formal manner and then shiftgradually toward an understanding and more humane presentational style.

Teaching after theExamSome material is better dealt with after the examinations. These

include counterintuitive and/or more complex matters and/or the exceptions

to the rules. The examination provides a springboard to a higher level of

understanding beyond the scope of the examination as such. Thus a

judicious postponement of certain matters/materials/concepts/terms may still

be in the lesson plan²but dealt with afterwards.

ConclusionThis article was meant to provide insights into a number of

approaches to teaching in higher education. It was meant to be a gestalt/big

picture as opposed to the educational/pedagogic research which is often too

narrow in scope, dimension, or application. For those in different fields

and/or for those with differing styles, this may or may not be of substantial

benefit²or it may. It may not generalize to all, but at a minimum I believe

it to be beneficial to some²especially to the newer teachers. As one who

has served as a mentor, I have perceived a need for such work as this.

on teaching 4

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