ON TEE VALUE OF PYTHAGOREANIISM AS REALIZED IN THE

PHYSICAL REAIM OF THE COSMOS

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of Graduate Studies

of

The Universiw of Guelph

In partial fulfillment of requirements

for the degree of

Master of A r t s

August, 1999

Barbara Ludwig, 1999

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ABSTRACT

ON THE VALUE OF PYTHACOREANISM AS REALIZED IN THE PHYSICAL REALM OF THE C O W S

Barbara Ludwig University of Guelph, 1999

Advisor : Professor Kenneth Dorter

The cosmology of the Pythagorean philosophy posits that the u l t imate purpose f o r every human is t o make a commitment t o philosophy, i. e., the contemplation of t he most beautiful things in the cosmos, subsequently eschewing the constraints of h i d h e r corporeal i ty and working towards t he p u r i f i c a t i o n of h i d h e r immortal soul . Thus Pythagoreanism teaches t ha t t h e u l t imate efficacy of the philosophy occurs i n the div ine world, upon the absolute l i b e r a t i o n of the individual's soul from the physical realm of t h e cosmos.

T h i s pa r t i cu l a r examination o f the Pythagorean philosophy demonstrates t h e value of Pythagoreanisrn that e x i s t s i n the physical realm of the cosmos, as ind iv idua l s adopt t h e philosophy, and engage i n the philosophical process. Such an examination enables us t o consider the cosmology from one p a r t i c u l a r standpoint; one t h a t allows f o r pa r t i cu l a r ins igh t s about t h e benef i t s of adopting Pythagoreanisrn as a way of l i f e .

I would like t o thank my advisor, Professor Kenneth Dorter,

for a l l of the sincere advice t h a t he has provided m e w i t h

over the last year. I must a l s o acknowledge Niall

Robertson, f o r taking such a keen and steadfast interest in

th i s piece o f w o r k . Thank-you.

Chapter

Introduction

C h a p t e r I: Background: A aistory of Pythagoras t h e individual and the Origins of the Pythagorean School

C h a p t e r 11: All Is Number 22 - 46

C h a p t e r 111: Metempsychosis: The Transmigration o f t h e Soul 47 - 79 C h a p t e r IV: Just and Virtuous Action

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

Pythagoreanism p o s i t s a cosmological s t r u c t u r e i n which t h e

u l t i m a t e purpose f o r every human being is t o make a l i f e l o n g

commitment t o t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n of h i s / h e r immortal soul .

Such an endeavour is undertaken by t h e i n d i v i d u a l with t h e

i n t e n t i o n o f e v e n t u a l l y reaching t h e u l t i m a t e goal , t h a t is.

a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e s o u l with t h e d i v i n e and immater ia l na tu re

of t h e universe.

Assimi la t ion wi th t h e d iv ine i s c o r r e c t l y taken t o be

paramount t o Pythagoreanisrn, and Pythagoras t a u g h t it t o h i s

s t u d e n t s as t h e f i rs t p r i n c i p l e of h i s phi losophy. H e

p rofessed a h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e un ive r se i n which

t h e co rporea l o r m a t e r i a l realm was f i n i t e and e x i s t e d a t

t h e lowest l e v e l of t h e universe, beneath t h e g r e a t e r

i n t e l l i g i b l e realm t h a t is t h e d i v i n e world o f numbers.

Ul t imate ly then , Pythagoras taught t h a t t h e e f f i c a c y ( t h e

d e s i r e d o r in tended r e s u l t ) of h i s phi losophy is a c t u a l i z e d

i n t h e d i v i n e world, upon abso lu te p u r i f i c a t i o n of a being 's

s o u l .

Humans. a s microcosms i n and of themse.lves, are

e s s e n t i a l t o t h e e f f i c a c y of t h e Pythagorean s t r u c t u r e .

They e x i s t i n t h e phys i ca l realm, t h e on ly realm t h a t

con ta ins a l l o f t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e s of t h e universe,

i .e . , t h e a b i l i t y t o reason, t h e nature of t h e elements, and

the ability to move, grow, and reproduce. The intention of

this project is to demonstrate that there is a further

efficacy of Pythagoreanism that is actualized in the

physical world. Specifically, that the process that is the

individual commitment to the divine is efficacious for both

the individual and for the corporeal world at large. This

process occurs only in the physical realm, and thus is

worthy of examination as a consequential effect of the

Pythagorean cosmology. When such an examination is

performed we are able to recognize the comprehensive role

that the physical world fulfills for Pythagoreanism, and

ultimately understand that many aspects of the Pythagorean

philosophy are rendered efficacious in the physical realm

only,

As with much cosmology Pythagoreanism is, in part, a

self-serving philosophy. This is inevitable given that it

is concerned with humanityrs place and action within the

greater cosmos. Pythagoras provided his students with a

self-contained cosmological perspective and a specific

determination about the individual human role in the

universe. By demonstrating to his students that human

existence, Le., corporeal existence, lies at the bottom of

the universal hierarchy, he ensured the humility of his

disciples. He taught them that they must look beyond their

corporeality in order to find their purpose in life.

Furthermore, he taught them that their physical body was

their prison, trapping their soul and thus preventing it

from existing in the heavens as a divine being. These

teachings are crucial in order for Pythagoreans to learn to

make the cormitment to the purification process . They

enable the student to understand the value of eschewing

hidher corporeality in order to assimilate hidherself with

the true essence of the cosmos, the divine. This doctrine

does not, however, preclude the relevance of the

purification process itself. Essentially, the purification

process is of contingent value for the individual. The

efficacy that will be demonstrated in this examination is

consequential. It results from and depends upon the

Pythagoreanrs commitment to learning about the cosmos and

attempting to participate in it, i.e., attempting to purify

him/herself.

It is certainly the case that assigning oneself to a

life that is primarily concerned with attempting an escape

from one's physical embodiment is a difficult task. This is

precisely the reason that it is crucial to recognize the

efficacy that exists in the physical realm. There is value

to be appreciated in the pursuit as well as the achievement

of a goal. Indeed, in Pythagoreanism, the physical realm is

where the philosophical process occurs. Such an examination

of Pythagoreanism enables us to consider the cosmology from

one p a r t i c u l a r standpoint; it i s one t h a t r e s u l t s i n a

p a r t i c u l a r i n s i g h t about t h e cont ingent b e n e f i t s of adopt ing

t h i s philosophy a s a way o f l i fe .

F ina l ly , Pythagoreanism i s a cosmological philosophy.

The p r i n c i p l e s of t h e d o c t r i n e a r e both universa l and

cohesive, and they deserve t o be examined a s such. Thus

t h e y should not be considered i n i s o l a t i o n from one another.

Pythagoras believed t h a t eve ry th ing e x i s t e d i n one s i n g u l a r

cosmos. H e taught t h a t while a l l t h i n g s conta in t h e i r own

p r o p e r t i e s , they are nonethe less a k i n t o one another. A l l

t h i n g s a r e r e l a t e d by common q u a l i t i e s , e x i s t i n g a s

i n d i v i d u a l pieces of t h e g r e a t e r u n i v e r s a l s t r u c t u r e . Thus

Pythagoras w a s considered t o b e both a n a t u r a l phi losopher

and a s p i r i t u a l philosopher, a s c i e n t i s t and a r e l i g i o u s

th inker . ' For him, t h e s e f a c e t s of t h e cosmos w e r e e n t i r e l y

insepa rab le from one another .

That t h e Pythagorean p r i n c i p l e s should not be

considered i n i s o l a t i o n from one another i s i t s e l f an

argument i n favour of seeking o u t t h e i r e f f i c a c y i n t h e

phys ica l world. We ought no t cons ider t h e r e s u l t of t h e

p u r i f i e d soul without concur ren t ly consider ing t h e ongoing

e f f e c t s of the phys ica l being who e x i s t s i n a s t a t e of

p u r i f i c a t i o n . I agree completely w i t h David F i d e l e r f s

David Fideler, introduction, T h e Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library, by Kenneth Sylvan Guthr ie (Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 1988) 19.

4

a s s e r t i o n i n t h e in t roduc t ion t o Kenneth Sylvan G u t h r i e r s

The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. H e w r i t e s t h a t

"...man i s most happi ly a t home i n t h e universe as long a s

he can r e l a t e h i s experiences t o both t h e u n i v e r s a l and the

p a r t i c u l a r , t h e e t e r n a l and t h e temporal levels of beingsM2

Thus one of t h e primary goals f o r t h i s p iece o f work

present a comprehensive and p r e c i s e ana lys i s o f t h e

Pythagorean philosophy a t large.

The Pythagorean p r i n c i p l e s a r e deep, broad, and

cohesive; thus they deserve t o be examined a s such.

do so would r e s u l t i n an u n f a i r representa t ion and

overs impl i f ica t ion of the philosophy. This p r o j e c t ,

i s t o

Not t o

t o

demonstrate t h e e f f i c a c y of Pythagoreanism t h a t is r e a l i z e d

i n t h e physical realm, w a s chosen p a r t i a l l y because it w i l l

ensure t h a t each of t h e main p r i n c i p l e s of t h e cosmological

s t r u c t u r e a r e included i n t h e analysis.

Fideler 4 3 .

CHAPTER I Background: A History of Pythagoras the Individual - - --

and the Otiqins of the Pythrqoxean School

The h i s t o r y of the Pythagorean era is extremely obscure, and

very l i t t l e is known f o r c e r t a i n about Pythagoras a s an

indiv idual . However, centuries of p i ec ing toge the r small

b i t s of information, p robab i l i t i e s , and Legends, has

r e s u l t e d i n a composite of l eg i t ima te conclusions.

Pythagorasr dates of b i r t h and dea th can n o t be fixed

exact ly , bu t it i s thought t h a t he Lived from c i r c a 570B.C.

t o 490B.C. H e was t h e son of a gem-engraver, Mnesarchus

and h i s wife Pythias , and t h e e a r l y years of Pythagorasr

l i f e w e r e spen t i n Samos, an Aegean i s l a n d o f f t h e coas t of

Asia minor ( I o n i a ) , Pythagoras spent many of h i s e a r l y

years t r a v e l i n g widely i n the pu r su i t of wisdom, both

s c i e n t i f i c and r e l i g ious , from t h e d i f f e r e n t cu l tu res h e

encountered. H e repor tedly spent 22 years i n Egypt,

s tudying t h e r e amongst p r i e s t s before r e t u r n i n g home t o

W i l l i a m Keith Chambers Guthrie, A His tory of Greek Philosophy, Volume I (London: The Syndics of The Cambridge Univers i ty P r e s s , 1962) 173. The accounts of Pythagoras' l i f e span vary. K.S. Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourceboook and Library, (Grand Rapids: Phanes P r e s s , 1988) 20, i s i n agreement with W-K.C. Guthrie t h a t Pythagoras l ived from 570B.C. t o ~ ~ o B - c . In Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism, (Netherlands: Van Gorcu & Company)however, Cornel ia J. D e Vogel, allows f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Pythagoras l ived t o be 100 years old, dying i n 47OB .C. (p.24) . Lastly, Pe ter Gorman, Pythagoras: A Life , (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1979) documents the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Pythagoras committed s u i c i d e c i rca 500 t o 508 B.C. a t t h e time of Cylonr s persecut ion of the Pythagorean Society. This is, however, unl ikely. Although t h e events surrounding Pythagorasr death are l a r g e l y unknown, the most widely he ld be l ie f i s t h a t Pythagoras l ived t o be a very o l d m a n . This being t h e case, he must have survived past 500 o r 508 B.C.

~ a m o s .* However, it is believed t h a t Pythagoras f l e d Samos

around t h e age of f o r t y (530 B. C) t o escape t h e tyranny of

t h e Pers ians who had invaded t h e island. Pythagoras ended

up in Croton, a s m a l l colony i n southern Italy. It i s here

t h a t he founded his soc ie ty , p resen t ly r e f e r r e d t o as The

Pythagorean Socie ty . 5

The na tu re of The Pythagorean Soc ie ty w a s very broad,

encompassing both r e l i g i o u s and scientific schools of

thought. It w a s called t h e Komacoion, o r t h e Auditorium, a

p lace f o r people t o gather t o hear t h e phi losophy of

~ y t h a ~ o r a s . The s t r u c t u r e of the s o c i e t y w a s h ie ra rch ica l .

Pythagoras, t h e sole l eade r , was cons idered a daimon o r god

whose r o l e was t o t e a c h h i s s tudents , t h e Pythagoreans, h i s

7 doct r ines . H e be l i eved t h a t

... t h e p u r e s t and most unadul terated c h a r a c t e r is t h a t of t h e man who devoted himself t o t h e contemplation of the most beautiful t h i n g s , and he may p roper ly be c a l l e d a philosopher. 8

Thus t h e p u r s u i t o f wisdom i s t h e foundat ion o f

Pythagoreanism and w a s t h e c e n t r a l way o f life of The

Pythagorean Socie ty .

Kenneth Sylvan G u t h r i e , T h e Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids: Phanes P r e s s , 1988) 20.

John Burnet, Greek Philosophy: T h a l e s t o Plato (London: Macmillan & Co. L t d , , 1914) 38-39.

Peter Gorman, Pythagoras: A Life, (London: Routledge & Kefzn Paul Ltd., 1979) 115.

' Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, trans- Thomas Taylor (London: John M. Warkins, 1926) 14-

lamblichus 28.

It i s very d i f f i c u l t t o accura te ly a s c e r t a i n how much

of t h e Pythagorean philosophy can be credited d i r e c t l y t o

Pythagoras himself and how much i s owed t o t h e Pythagorean

s o c i e t y as a whole. It i s known, however, that a l l m e m b e r s

of the s o c i e t y w e r e completely subordinate t o Pythagoras.

They considered him t o be divine, and h i s a u t h o r i t y i n t h e

s o c i e t y was a t t r i b u t e d t o him by h i s members. Fur themore,

t h e members l i v e d a communal l i f e s t y l e amongst themselves.

Everything was shared equal ly , s o t h e r e w a s never t h e need

t o claim e i t h e r material belongings o r ideas a s o n e r s own.

Consequently, a l l ph i losophica l strides made wi th in t h e

s o c i e t y w e r e a t t r i b u t e d t o Pythagoras t h e ind iv idua l . I n

f a c t , it is be l ieved t h a t n e w ph i losophica l d o c t r i n e s w e r e

c r ed i t ed t o Pythagoras even a f t e r his death. 9

Nonetheless, it i s worthwhile t o make e x p l i c i t t h e f a c t

t h a t Pythagoras did n o t w r i t e anything himself . Much of t h e

mystery surrounding Pythagoreanism is owed t o t h e f a c t that

Pythagoras' t eachings w e r e o r a l i n na ture . 'O H e pursued h i s

phi losophical i n q u i r y through conversation and teaching,

revea l ing h i s d o c t r i n e s t o h i s s t u d e n t s only as they became

enl ightened enough t o a s s i m i l a t e them. Presumably

Pythagoras, l i k e Socra tes , recognized philosophy as a

process o r d i scuss ion t h a t people must a c t i v e l y engage i n ,

- --

Gorman 117. K.S. Guthrie 19-

i n order t o understand and l ea rn . A phi losophica l p u r s u i t

of t h i s kind cannot be undertaken properly through

reading. 11

The h i s t o r y of philosophy has demonstrated t h a t

advances i n human knowledge a r e t y p i c a l l y a s c r i b e d t o an

indiv idual r a t h e r than a c o l l e c t i v e school. Indeed,

philosophies a r e o f t e n s t ronger and l e s s fragmented when

a t t r i b u t e d t o one person. Typically, it is p r e f e r e n t i a l t o

t a k e the risk of a s c r i b i n g a l i t t l e too much credit t o t h e

founder than t o l o s e s i g h t of him among t h e crowd of h i s

disciples.12 Thus t r a d i t i o n a l exposi t ion and a n a l y s i s of

t h e Pythagorean e r a has been subsumed under Pythagoras t h e

individual . This is a s a f e l i b e r t y t o t ake f o r t w o reasons.

Firstly, t h e t a s k of untangl ing Pythagoras from h i s many

s tudents would be impossible. There simply i s n o t enough

information t o do so. Secondly, given t h a t Pythagoras'

s tudents a t t r i b u t e d t h e i r ideas t o him, t h e r e is l i t t l e

danger i n cont inuing t h e t rend . Thus f o r t h e purposes of

t h i s piece of work, s ta tements m a d e about Pythagorean

philosophy should be understood a s encompassing t h e

philosophy of t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e .

Nonetheless, i n o r d e r t o s tudy t h e Pythagorean

doctr ines , w e must r e l y on t h e wri t ings t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e

'I K.S . Guthrie 19. l2 Burnet 37.

from Pythagoras' disciples. Suf f i c i en t information is

ava i l ab le t o put t oge the r a composite of Pythagoreanism.

Naturally, any and a l l fragments and t e s t imonia of

indiv idual Pythagoreans t h a t a r e examined deserve t o be

referenced t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r author . The ideas w i l l ,

however. be taken a s r ep resen ta t ive of Pythagoreanism r a t h e r

than belonging t o t h e ind iv idua l himself .

There i s a tremendous amount of well-documented

scholarship a v a i l a b l e on Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism,

da t ing from a s e a r l y as 250 - 325 C.E. through t o t h e

present , as t h e b ib l iography ind ica tes . T h e dates and

au then t i c i t y of primary Pythagorean sources, however, a r e

somewhat more d i f f i c u l t t o a sce r t a in . Kenneth Sylvan

Guthrie 's Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library o f f e r s t h e most

comprehensive anthology of t he Ancient sources r e l a t i n g t o

t h e Pythagorean philosophy. While many of t h e s e sources a r e

ava i l ab l e elsewhere, Gu th r i e f s book i s t h e on ly complete

co l l e c t i on of a l l o f t h e surviving Pythagorean fragments.

The following i s a brief l i s t i n g of t h e primary Pythagorean

sources t h a t I found t o be he lpfu l and informat ive t o my

research.

" T h e Fragments o f Archytas", preserved by Diogenes Laer t ius . Archytas w a s a f o u r t h century BCE Pythagorean mathematikos, whose work includes: Metaphysical Fragments, Physical and Mathematical Fragments, E th ica l Fragments, and Logical Fragments, a l l r e l a t i n g t o t h e Pythagorean cosmology.

" T h e Fragments o f Philolaus". Philolaus of Croton w a s a mathematikos 5 th cen tu ry B.C .E . ) , and t e ache r t o Archytas.

H e was t h e f i r s t Pythagorean known t o record t h e ph i losoph ica l teachings, and his work covers the e n t i r e philosophy, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e M a t h e m a t i c s and Metaphysics..

"The Pythagorean Symbols and Maxims", and "The Golden Verses of Pythagoras", These s e l e c t i o n s a r e found i n Guthrier s Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. Both of these a r e convent ional ly c r e d i t e d t o Pythagoras himself, and a r e -

cons idered t o be p a r t o f h i s l e s s o n s t o h i s s tudents . Given t h a t Pythagoras did not record any of h i s philosophy, convent ional thought i s t h a t these fragments have survived and been recorded by i n d i v i d u a l s tuden t s .

Metopus, Polus, C l i n i a s , and Sextus, each provide us with l i m i t e d E t h i c a l Fragments, t h a t w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l t o t h i s examination. These fragments are a l s o ava i l ab le i n The Pythagorean Sourcebook and L ib ra ry . Unfortunately, t h e d a t e s and a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e s e w r i t i n g s a r e somewhat uncer ta in ; thus they are examples o f wr i t ings t h a t a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o the Pythagorean phi losophy ra ther than t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

"The Anonymous Life o f Pythagoras" preserved by Photius (c. 820-891 C. E. ) and Iamblichusf "The Life of Pythagoras" (250 - 325 C.E.) a r e t h e e a r l i e s t accounts of scholarship on Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism.

Reportedly, Pythagoras did n o t immediately accept any

and a l l people who came t o him d e s i r i n g t o become h i s

s tuden t . Instead, he sub jec ted a l l ind iv iduals t o a

r igorous t e s t i n g per iod i n which i n q u i r i e s were made with

r e s p e c t t o t h e i r k insfolk, t h e i r d e s i r e s , t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s ,

and what were t h e causes of t h e i r joy and/or g r i e f . l3 A t

t h i s p o i n t Pythagoras neglec ted t h e indiv idual f o r t h r e e

years, d i s c r e e t l y s tudying h i s o r h e r d i spos i t ion towards

Iamblichus 37.

s t a b i l i t y and i n c l i n a t i o n towards studiousness. Next

Pythagoras compelled t h e s tudent t o commit t o a vow of

s i l e n c e f o r f ive years i n order t h a t proper cont inence of

speech was thoroughly learnedmL4 During t h e s e beginning

s tages of l e a r n i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l members of t h e s o c i e t y w e r e

taught some of Pythagoras' doc t r ines through hear ing alone,

a s Pythagoras l e c t u r e d t o them from behind a v e i l . A t t h e

end of t h e f i v e y e a r s i l e n c e , however, Pythagoras' new

d i s c i p l e s both heard and saw t h e i r teacher. They had w o n

h i s approval and w e r e considered worthy of f u l l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the e s o t e r i c soc ie ty .

The resulting members of t h e Pythagorean school w e r e

twofold, some known a s akousmatikoi and some a s

mathematikoi. T h e d i s t i n c t i o n here r e f e r s t o t h e

phi losophical c a p a c i t y of t h e member. l5 The smal l e r cumber

of Pythagoreans w e r e t h e mathematikoi, o r t r u e phi losophers .

These m e m b e r s w e r e a b l e t o understand the o r i g i n s and

formulations of a l l Pythagorasr phi losophical ideas , and

consequently p r a c t i c e d h i s pure mathematical philosophy.

The akousmatikoi, on t h e o t h e r hand, focused p r imar i ly on

l4 Iamblichus 38. *Note t h a t i n the Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library Fideler asserts t h a t it was only the mathematikoi who took a f i v e year vow of s i l ence . For t h e akousmatikoi the requirement was only three years. See following page f o r explanation of the two d i f f e r e n t members of t h e school.

L5 Gorman 120 . Akousmatikoi is t rans la ted as l i s t e n e r s , from the verb akouo ( t o hear) - Mathematikoi is t rans la ted a s learners , from the verb manthano, t o l e a r n o r understand.

t h e r e l i g i o u s foundat ions of t h e school and on more general

summaries of Pythagorean wisdom.

Pythagoras' broad spectrum of thought r e s u l t e d i n members from a l l d i f f e r e n t sides of t h e community. The genius o f Pythagoras must have possessed both a r a t i o n a l and a r e l i g i o u s q u a l i t y such as are r a r e l y uni ted i n t h e same man. It is not s u r p r i s i n g that he and h i s schoo l attracted two d i f f e r e n t types, on the one hand e n t h u s i a s t s f o r t h e promotion o f mathematical philosophy and on t h e o t h e r r e l i g i o u s devotees whose i d e a l was t h e 'Pythagorean way o f l i f ef , the l i f e of a r e l i g i o u s sect. . . 16

Clear ly , Pythagoreanism he ld value i n d i f f e r e n t areas f o r

d i f f e r e n t people. For t h e akousmatikoi it w a s a form of

r e l i g i o n t o l i v e by, whi le f o r t h e mathematikoi i t w a s a

pure body of s c i e n t i f i c , mathematical, and ph i losoph ica l

teaching,

Evidently Pythagoras saw b e n e f i t t o both of h i s

schools. Given t h a t a l l of h i s s tuden t s had n a t u r a l

d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s , it would have been i m p r a c t i c a l f o r each

ind iv idua l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a l l t h ings equa l ly , and

l ikewise, equa l ly u n j u s t f o r some t o miss o u t on the deeper

r eve la t ions . l7 Pythagoras recognized t h e va ry ing

phi losophical c a p a c i t i e s of h i s members and l e t them

approach h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l teachings from d i f f e r e n t angles .

Thus h i s r u l e s and expec ta t ions var ied f o r d i f f e r e n t

members, depending on t h e i r r o l e i n t h e s o c i e t y . The

mathematikoi, who rep resen ted a smal le r p o r t i o n of t h e

l6 W.K.C. Guthrie 192. l7 Iamblichus 41-42,

society, have been labeled t h e 'genuine' Pythagoreans . Their l i f e s t y l e w a s much stricter than t h e m a s s of

akousmatikoi. '* The mathernatikoi l i v e d together i n t he

Pythagorean community. Their l i f e w a s centered around

learning and coming t o terms with Pythagorean doctrines.

This resu l ted i n an extremely humble and community or iented

l i f e s t y l e . They were not permitted t o indulge themselves i n

luxury i n any form, thus a l l mater ia l possessions w e r e

shared communally by members of t h e soc ie ty , and t h e i r dress

consisted of simple white l inen c lo th ing. l9 The

akousmatikoi, on t h e o ther hand, r e t a ined t h e i r pr ivate

property, coming t o t h e society on a regu la r bas i s t o a t t end

lec tures , a s groups today might a t t end church. While they

embraced t h e Pythagorean re l ig ion, t h e i r day t o day

a c t i v i t i e s were not necessar i ly centered around the e x p l i c i t

p rac t i ce of it.

T h e debate about t he Pythagorean rules concerning d i e t

i s ongoing. However, some conclusions can be legi t imate ly

drawn. Pythagoras was a s t r i c t vegetar ian. H e was opposed

t o t h e k i l l i n g of animals. T o h i s way of thinking, t h e

animal kingdom w a s a sacred p a r t o f t h e universe a t la rge .

Thus p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e i r death, p a r t i c u l a r l y for t he

purpose of human consumption, was a cr iminal d is rupt ion of

Gorman 121- Gorman 125-

the natural balance of the world. Indeed, it has been

suggested that Pythagoras not only abstained from animal

food but would also not associate with cooks or hunters. 20

Tradition suggests that this strict vegetarian regime was

only enforced on the mathematikoi. These true philosophers

were encouraged neither to hurt animals not to sacrifice

them to the gods, The akousmatikoi, on the other hand,

followed a partially different set of rules. For them some

meat was permitted. Some animals were considered

sacrificial, thus eaten as an offering to the gods.

Specifically, Pythagoras taught that there were certain

animals into which the soul of a human being will not enter.

These meats were acceptable as part of the akousmatikoi

diet, 2 2

It is somewhat difficult to understand why the diet

would be different for the akousmatikoi and the

mathematikoi. Pythagorasr philosophy behind his vegetarian

mandate was directly related to his philosophy of the soul

and his doctrine of metempsychosis. 23 'Animals were men's

brothers, having the same elements and the same

constitution. "24 Many animals, although not all, were

20 W.K,C, Guthrie 187. 21 Gorman 126. ** Gorman 126. 23 Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume I: G r e e c e

and Rome. From t h e Presocratics t o P l o t i n u s ( N e w York: Banton Doubleday Dell Publishing Group Inc., 1962) 31.

2 4 Gorman 126.

thought to nave a Thus their contribution to the

cosmos was directly relevant to humanity. Furthermore, it

was a means to maintaining the proper order of the universe.

Killing animals led to a disruption of the natural process

of reincarnation of souls within the universe,

At first glance, it may seem odd that the akousmatikoi

were permitted to eat animals that did not have soul as a

sacrificial offering to the gods, but the mathematikoi were

not. However, one must consider the intent of a sacrificial

act. An offering to the gods is performed as an act of

respect for the daimon. It is an acknowledgment of the

hierarchical structure between humans and the divine. It

has been made clear that the life of the akousmatikoi was

not as 'purely' philosophical as that of the mathematikoi.

Consequently, sacrificial offerings did not have a role in

the mathematikoirs commitment to assimilation with the

divine. Indeed, they separated the humans from the gods

rather than bringing them together as two elements of the

same universe. On the other hand, the sacrifice of animals

was justifiable for the akousmatikoi. For them, a

sacrificial act was representative of respect for the order

of the world. It was a statement about the hierarchical

structure of the universe. Their lives were not solely

based on a commitment to purification and recognition of the

2 5 W.K.C. Guthrie 202.

immortal soul , When examined as such, Pythagoras' d i f f e r e n t

r u l e s f o r h i s two schools are understandable. The i s s u e s

surrounding these types of d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e

akousrnatikoi and t h e mathematikoi w i l l become much c l e a r e r ,

however, a s t h e s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s of Pythagoreanism a r e

laid ou t .

A s a r e l ig ious phi losopher Pythagoras was tremendously

i n s p i r e d by Orphism. This e s o t e r i c r e l i g i o n of anc ien t

Greece had an evident in f luence on Pythagoreanism.

According t o Orphism, t h e phys ica l body a c t s a s a tomb f o r

t h e sou l , which i s a p i e c e of t h e g r e a t e r d iv ine being,

Dionysus. The soul i s immortal, and re incarna tes i t s e l f i n

t h e phys ica l being. Each i n c a r n a t i o n i s an at tempt a t

p u r i f i c a t i o n through r e l i g i o u s rite, and the s o u l cont inues

t o i n h a b i t a body u n t i l it p u r i f i e s completely. A t t h i s

po in t , it i s released from t h e phys ica l world permanently,

and exists e t e r n a l l y a s a d i v i n e being. 26 Orphisrn provides

t h e foundation f o r Pythagoreanism, where every ind iv idua l i s

i n h a b i t e d by a sou l that i s seeking p u r i f i c a t i o n , o r

a s s i m i l a t i o n with t h e d i v i n e being. The fea tu re t h a t

d i s t i n g u i s h e s Pythagoreanism from Orphism i s t h a t , f o r t h e

former, p u r i f i c a t i o n i s obta ined through phi losophical

' 6 Fideler 31.

pursu i t , i. e., t h e contemplation of t h e un ive r s a l p r i nc ip l e s

t h a t s t r u c t u r e t h e world. '' For Pythagoras, p u r i f i c a t i o n , t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n with t h e

divine, w a s m a d e p o s s i b l e by the f a c t t h a t each human was a

microcosm of t h e universe. Human beings w e r e i nd iv idua l

compendiums of t h e l a r g e r cosmos, containing a l l of t h e

powers of t h e universe- 'a Contained i n t h e human i s God,

t h e four elements, animals and plants, Spec i f i c a l l y , humans

have t he a b i l i t y t o reason (a divine power), t h e physical

na ture of t h e elements, and t h e power t o move, grow, and

reproduce. 29 Ultimately, then, t h e human i s a micro-

r e f l e c t i o n of t h e universe . These four e s s e n t i a l powers

provide t h e i nd iv idua l being with t h e a b i l i t y t o

philosophize. C lea r ly , t h i s i s a major premise of

Pythagorean philosophy. It i s t he foundation of t h e

c r i t i c a l assessment t h a t w i l l be undertaken throughout t h i s

t h e s i s . The above summary i s provided merely t o ga in

i n s igh t i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of the Pythagorean school.

Naturally, the p u r i f i c a t i o n of t h e sou l is an

overwhelming process. When understood as such, t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e Pythagorean school becomes m u c h c l e a r e r .

Basic human nature d i c t a t e s t h a t not everyone w i l l be ab le

27 Fideler 31. "The L i f e o f Pythagoras, " Preserved by Photius in The

Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library, (Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 1988) 139.

29 P h o t i u s 139.

to fulfill the demands of the Pythagorean doctrine, The

structure of the human animal is very complex, Every person

is comprised of very different physical and intellectual

capabilities and limitations. It is fair to assert that the

person who is able to both understand and commit him or

herself to Pythagoras' philosophy of assimilation with the

divine is both intelligent and self-controlled, Again, this

group of individuals is the mathematikoi, the m e m b e r s of his

scientific school of thought and students of Pythagoras'

mathematical teachings. It is not surprising that they

formed only a small percentage of the entire number of

members. Pythagoras was very wise to recognize t h e nature

of human limitations. Furthermore, he must have made a

conscious decision not to restrict his teachings to one

small, elite percentage of the entire population. Instead,

he recognized the benefit to be gained f r o m educating as

many people as he could, to whatever extent possible. This

is the essence of the akousmatikoi, the members of his

religious school of thought.

This is not to suggest that the mathematical

Pythagoreans did not benefit from their higher level of

understanding of philosophy, Indeed, the mathematikoi were

able to embrace a certain enlightenment about the nature of

death. They lived their life according to a particular

goal, that is, to become divine. Thus they could be content

i n f u l l y understanding and be l iev ing i n t h e i r r o l e i n t h e

cosmos, through a commitment t o t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e i r

sou l w i l l c a r r y on even after t h e i r phys ica l body per i shes .

Ultimately, t h i s understanding p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a l l e v i a t i n g

t h e n a t u r a l human tendency both t o f e a r dea th and t o wonder

abo ~t t h e a f t e r l i f e . Furthermore, t h e mathematikoi e x i s t e d

i n the p resen t wi th t h e peace of mind t h a t , i f t hey attained

the i r goal , t h e y came one s t e p c l o s e r t o movement towards a

more s i g n i f i c a n t , more profound l e v e l of t h e universe.

There is no h igher goa l than t h i s ; it i s t h e u l t i m a t e

reward.

The g r e a t e s t o b s c u r i t y of t h e Pythagorean e r a surrounds

t h e downfall of t h e o r i g i n a l Pythagorean s o c i e t y a t Croton.

Circa 500 B.C. a r e v o l t aga ins t t h e school w a s l e d by Cylon,

a Crotonian noble. It is speculated t h a t Cylon revo l t ed

a f t e r being denied admission i n t o t h e school. The a t t a c k s

w e r e widespread, d i r e c t e d a t many of t h e Pythagorean meeting

houses. Many Pythagoreans w e r e k i l l e d by t h e fires set t o

the houses3'. Upon t h e a t t ack , Pythagoras f l e d Croton fo r

Metapontium. It i s been suggested t h a t Pythagoras committed

su ic ide s h o r t l y a f t e r a r r i v i n g i n Metapontium. 3Z However,

- -

30 This account i s by Fideler i n The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library 37. Gorrnan is i n agreement with t h i s account. However, he also dacuments Apolloniusr account where t h e a t t a c k took place c i r c a 508 B.C., . 171, 178-180- '' Goman r e p o r t s t h i s poss ib i l i t y . Be notes, however, t h a t i f Pythagoras had committed su ic ide i n 508 B.C. he would have died a t the age of 60, whereas most anc ient au thor i t i e s cite him as being very o ld when he died.

there i s g r ea t e r evidence t o sugges t t h a t Pythagoras

continued l i v i n g i n Metapontiurn u n t i l h i s death c i r c a

B.C. A f t e r t h e a t t a c k on t h e o r i g i n a l school, t h e

Pythagoreans became

remained i n Croton,

fragmented geographical ly - Some

while o t h e r s carried on their work

Greece. Some of the l a t e r Pythagoreans began t o

phi losophica l doc t r ines t o writing, providing us

specific mate r i a l t o work with when studying t h e

commit t h e

with some

philosophy-

CHAPTER I1 All 18 Number

Mathematics plays a large and significant role in the

history of Greek thought and philosophy. In A History of

Greek Mathematics, Sir Thomas Heath attributes this to the

fact that Greek philosophers were concerned with discovering

the hidden mysteries of t he universe. He writes that 'It

was not enough for them to know the fact; they wanted to

know the why and wherefore, and they never rested until they

were able to give a rational explanation ... of every fact or phenomenon. "32 Pythagoras is credited with initiating the

first substantial theory of numbers, and from as early as

t h e sixth century B.C.E., mathematics played a role in Greek

education. 33 AS this chapter will demonstrate,

mathematical contemplation was fundamental to the

Pythagorean philosophy and way of life.

Break- Of me Pythagofeaa &cad

The first principle of Pythagoreanism is that t h e structure

of the universe is determined by a series of divine numbers.

This is a foundational premise of Pythagorean metaphysics,

and it governs all of Pythagorasr philosophical doctrines

concerning the transmigration of the soul and the harmonia

32 S i r Thomas Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume I (London: Oxford University Press, 1921) 7.

33 Heath, 2 - 18.

of the cosmos, Numbers were immaterial and divine, and

representative of the ultimate and fundamental virtues

essential to the universe, The material elements w e r e a

subsidiary of the numbers and existed as participants in and

imitators of the fundamental immaterial essences, 34

The Pythagorean number theory is understood as a

q u a l i t a t i v e reality, much different from the g u a n t i t a tive

dimension of number that prevails today. 35 In order to

properly understand Pythagorean mathematics we must avoid

the natural tendency to think of numbers as useful only for

numbering objects, We must form the concept of a number in

and of i t s e l f rather than as a quantitative manifestation of

some particular thing.36 Numbers were not merely symbols

used to represent quantities of things, but rather abstract

objects in and of themselves, in the form of universal

principles. Furthermore, all numbers had their own

individual significance to the cosmos. Each one had its own

particular properties and characteristics and thus was a

self-subsistent entity, representative of unique universal

qualities, 3 7

3' Goman 134. 35 Fide le r 20-21, 36 W.K.C Guthrie 225.

37 J.A. Phi l ip , Pythagoras and E a r l y Pythagoreanism (Toronto: Universi ty of Toronto Press, 1966) 76-79, Note that P h i l i p r epor t s A x i s t o t l e i s account t h a t Pythagoras was the first t o pursue mathematical s tud ie s . A s ind ica ted above, he is speaking of mathematics i n t h e metaphysical r a t h e r than s c i e n t i f i c sense.

The Pythagorean number system w a s based on t h e numbers

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, t h o s e being the numbers t h a t comprised

and included t h e Decad o r ten . While t h e G r e e k number

system did extend beyond t h e Decad, t h e h i g h e r numbers w e r e

considered t o be u n i v e r s a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t . Pythagoras was

concerned p r imar i ly wi th numbers as p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a

l imi t ed cosmological s t r u c t u r e . The f i r s t f a c t o r i n t h e

Decad, t h e One, w a s r ep resen ta t ive of t h e l i m i t o f all

universa l th ings . Thus t h e most important numbers w e r e t h e

n ine t h a t followed t h e One and w e r e c l o s e s t t o t h e

Limited. 38

The f i r s t and most important f a c t o r i n t h e number

theory was t h e One, o r Monad. I n a c t u a l i t y , however,

Pythagoras d i d not cons ide r t h e One t o be a number l i k e t h e

o thers comprising t h e Decad. Instead, t h e One a c t e d with

t h e Dyad o r number Two ( a l s o not a t r u e number) t o produce

all subsequent numbers. 39 The One w a s cons ide red t h e

primary agent r e spons ib le f o r producing a l l o t h e r elements

of the cosmos. Pythagoras believed t h a t t h e One and t h e

Dyad contained oppos i t e p rope r t i e s . Thus the One acted on

i t s opposite ( t h e Dyad) t o c r e a t e t h e cosmos. Pythagoras

was i n t e r e s t e d i n how t h e universe w a s l i m i t e d and allowed

f o r a world i n which a l l t h e elements w e r e i n t e n s i o n with

one another due to their finite and infinite principles,

thereby creating a balanced universal harmony. 40 The

following Pythagorean "Table of Opposites" shown below was

preserved by Aristotle in his Metaphysics. 4 1

The Pythaqorean T a b l e of Opposites

Limit Odd One Right Male

At Rest Straight Light Good Square

Unlimited Even

Plurality Left Female

In Motion Crooked Darkness Evil Oblong

As the table indicates, the One was a limited entity.

It represented cosmological unity and everything that is

good. It had an indivisible power that can be illustrated

by the following equation: 1 divided by 1 is still one.

Furthermore, it was immutable, i-e., because 1 x

could never depart from its true nature. 42 Given

One was the perfect cosmological form from which

1 =1 it

that the

all other

things arose, all subsequent elements of the universe were

limited by its form.

4L Aristotle, The Metaphysics, Trans. Rev. John H. M'Mahon- (London: George Bell and Sons, 1891) 23.

As s t a t e d , t he f irst d e r i v a t i v e of the One i s t h e Dyad,

which rep resen t s t h e direct oppos i t e of the One. Rather

than uni ty , t h e Dyad symbolizes d u a l i t y , mul t ip l i c i ty , t h e

unlimited, and eve ry th ing t h a t is bad. The One is f i n i t e

and Limited, t h e Dyad i n f i n i t e and Unlimited. Thus t h e

Dyad, being o p p o s i t e t o a l l t h a t i s good, was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of evi l . However, t h e Dyad a l s o provided the ex i s t ence o f a

second un ive r sa l p r i n c i p l e , thus a l lowing for t h e f i r s t

p o s s i b i l i t y of logos, which i s t h e r e l a t i o n between

elements. 43 Ult imately, t h e Limited and the Unlimited are

t h e most b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e Pythagorean cosmos. It i s

t h e opposed n a t u r e s of t h e One and t h e Dyad together t h a t

s e e k a balanced cosmology o r harmonia that compose t h e

Pythagorean world-order.

This harmonia i s a c t u a l i z e d when t h e One and t h e Dyad

create t h e f i r s t t r u e number, t h e Triad. If t h e One is t h e

form of every th ing and t h e Dyad i t s opposite, m a t t e r , t h e n

t h e t r i a d i s t h e actualization of form and m a t t e r . " I t

binds t h e L i m i t e d and t h e Unlimited together and thus is

represen ta t ive o f t h e logos, o r re la t ionship , between form

and matter . The T r i a d i s symbolized by the t h r e e p o i n t s of

a t r i a n g l e . It is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e Pythagorean s o u l

which i s an immaterial, u n i v e r s a l form tha t i s dependent on

43 Fideler 21-22. 4 4 Fideler 21-22.

t h e mater ia l world f o r animation.45 The s o u l and the body

r e l y on one another t o func t ion i n t h e universe. When t h e

sou l incorporates i tself i n t o a physical being i n t h e

material, realm it ensures a s t ruc tu red world o rde r ,

synthesizing t h e Unity and the Duality o f t h e universe .

The number four , t h e Tetraktys, w a s considered by

Pythagoras t o be t h e most valuable of a l l t h e t r u e numbers

i n t h e Decad. Its symbolic value w a s tremendous. Firstly,

Pythagoras taught t h a t t h e number four w a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of

t h e Decad a t l a rge , t h a t is, a l l t h a t symbolized t h e numbers

One through Ten. Pythagoras believed t h i s t o be t h e case

because t h e sum of t h e f o u r in t ege r s up t o and inc lud ing t h e

Tetraktys equals t e n (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 1 0 ) . Thus t h e number

four embraced a l l t h e va r ious elements of na tu re a n d was

pos i ted a s symbolic o f t h e pe r fec t ion of number. 4 6

Furthermore, t h e T e t r a k t y s had a moral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - Four

i s derived f r o m 2 x 2, and thus s i g n i f i e d a balanced sca le .

Consequently, t h e T e t r a k t y s was the number of j u s t i c e . 47

The concept of j u s t i c e i s immensely re levant t o

Pythagoreanism, p a r t i c u l a r l y t o the e f f i c a c y of the

philosophy as it e x i s t s i n t h e physical worid. Thus it w i l l

be c r i t i c a l l y analyzed i n much more d e t a i l later on i n t h e

f i n a l chapter of t h i s work.

45 G o r m a n 1 4 3 . ' 6 G o r m a n 144. 47 Margaret Wertheim, Pythagorasr Trousers (London: W - W . Norton &

CO-, 1997) 25.

The f i r s t four i n t e g e r s comprising t h e Decad e x i s t

c l o s e s t t o t h e i r c rea tor , t h e O n e , and t h u s are considered

t h e most r e l e v a n t t o the philosophy. The remaining f i v e

numbers w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t nonethe less , each embodying

p a r t i c u l a r universa l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Five and s ix w e r e t h e

numbers of marriage. Five w a s comprised of both a male

(odd) and a female (even) number, i - e , 2 + 3 = 5. 48 In t h e

case of s ix , the m a l e and female are m u l t i p l i e d r a t h e r than

added, i .e . , 2 x 3 =6.49 Furthermore, f i v e and s i x w e r e t h e

first two c i r c u l a r numbers. In e a c h case, when mul t ip l ied

by i t s e l f , it produces a number that ends i n f i v e and s i x

r e spec t ive ly , f o r example, 5 x 5 = 25 , 6 x 6 = 3 6 , and 6 x

6 x 6 = 216.

T h e number seven symbolized v i r g i n i t y . I t i s t h e only

number t h a t cannot be generated by mul t ip ly ing two numbers

from t h e Decad together. The number e i g h t was t h e number of

harmonia. This i s a r e s u l t of t h e f a c t t h a t it i s t h e first

cube of t h e Decad. When t h e cube i s broken down, i t s

components a r e 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 (= 8 ) , i n d i c a t i n g harmony

between t h e p a r t s of t h e number. Nine, one of the odd

numbers, was symbolic of l i m i t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t it

d i r e c t l y preceded ten, t h e Decad. 5 0

48 Gorman 149. '' Wertheirn 25. 50 Gorman 151.

Final ly , t h e number Tenrs s i g n i f i c a n c e is as t h e l a s t

in tege r of t h e Decad. A s s t a t e d above, a l l of t he paramount

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the u n i v e r s e exist i n t h e f i r s t Decad-

Beyond ten , t h e i n t e g e r is too f a r removed from t h e One t o

be of s i g n i f i c a n t universa l re levance. Consequently,

numbers g r e a t e r t han t e n w e r e no t thought of as s i g n i f i c a n t

from a cosmological perspect ive. Thus Pythagoras considered

the Decad t o be t h e bas ic u n i t of counting. Once t e n i s

reached, subsequent in tege r s a r e counted a l s o i n q u a n t i t i e s

of t en . Ultimately, then, t e n w a s symbolic of the sum of

a l l of t h e d i v i n e u n i t s t h a t preceded it. I n the Table of

Opposites p resen ted above, t h e r e are t e n opposi tes l i s t e d .

Thus t e n i s cosmologically s i g n i f i c a n t a s it holds a l l o f

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s produced from t h e One and the Dyad as

w e l l as a l l of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e numbers t h a t they

produce toge the r .

Nimbef Theory as an &cheegpr for the Corpoteal Woxld

With t h e number theory i n p lace w e can begin a n examination

o f i t s e f f i c a c y i n t h e physical wor ld . For Pythagoras

numbers served as archetypes f o r a l l m a t e r i a l exis tence.

Numbers w e r e t h e pure forms of a l l phys i ca l things. 51 T h e

in ten t ion of this chapter i s twofold. I t w i l l demonstrate

t h a t t h e phys i ca l realm of t h e cosmos i s necessary t o t h e

51 Wertheim 26.

Pythagorean philosophical process. This being the case,

there are particular aspects of the philosophy that occur

only in this realm. Thus this chapter will also demonstrate

what I take to be one of the most important effects of

Pythagoreanism to occur in the physical world, resulting

from the individual's comprehension of the structure of the

cosmos; the potentiality for the individual to participate

in the divine features of the cosmos,

Recall that everything in the universe was created by

the One; it is the source of everything, Thus it is

reasonable to conclude that the essence of physical beings

is a replication or imitation of the characteristics of the

numbers. This being the case, it is reasonable to further

conclude that characteristics present in the physical world

exist in a less pure form than in the immaterial world where

they are divine.

Pythagoras taught that the primary purpose for every

person was to engage in the process of purifying their

existence by assimilating themselves with the universal

divine. This purification process was undertaken through

the study of philosophy. It is believed that Pythagoras was

the first to call himself a philosopher, literally

translated as a lover of wisdom.52 He believed philosophy

to be more than merely an intellectual pursuit. Instead, it

52 Fideler 30.

dictated an unequivocal way of life for the philosopher.

The philosopherr s study, philosophia, was the contemplation

of reality. The ultimate reality is the pure and divine

numbers. Thus physical beings purify themselves by

contemplating the mathematical truths of the cosmos.

Iamblichus of Chalcis, a second/third century

Pythagorean philosopher believed Pythagoras to be the Father

of Philosophy, and subsequently composed several works on

Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism, thus providing us with a

composite of the most authentic Pythagorean ideas. In his

Life of Pvthaaoras he writes:

But the purest and most genuine character is that of the man who devotes himself to the contemplation of the most beautiful things, and he may properly be called a philosopher. 5 3

In accordance with the structure of the cosmos, the most

beautiful things are those that exist in their purest form.

Thus the individual purifies his/her character by

contemplating the numbers, the most beautiful principles of

the universe, In this way, he/she is assimilating

him/herself with the divine reality, the One.

Iamblichus further reports that Pythagoras referred to

philosophy as the science of objectified truth:

Beings he defined as immaterial and eternal natures, alone possessing a power that is efficacious, as are incorporeal essences. The rest of things are beings only figuratively, and considered such only

53 Iamblichus 28.

31

through the participation of real beings; such are corporeal and material forms, which arise and decay without ever truly existing. 5 4

In this passage Iamblichus makes explicit Pythagoras'

distinction between the real being and the physical being.

The real being is itself the nature of existence. The

physical exists as a being onlythrough its participation in

reality; it does not exist in and of itself. The lesson for

the human then is that their essence lies in their

incorporeal existence rather than in their physical matter.

Thus in order to contemplate the reality of their own

existence, they must examine the part of their being that is

closest to the ultimate reality, namely the divine essences

of the numbers.

Pythagoras believed that if we contemplate the numbers

thoroughly and philosophically we can ultimately come to

know the actual essence of the number. If this happens, we

are finally capable of understanding the reflection of the

number as it exists in us, a mere physical microcosm of the

universe. It is as if the divine will finally reveal to us

the existence of our true essence. 5 5

It is precisely this contemplation of the divine

reality and assimilation with the numerical archetype that I

54 Iamblichus 85. 55 Kenneth Hack, God In Greek Philosophy To The Time of Socrates

(New York: Burt Franklin, 1931) 54.

believe to be efficacious for the physical individual. The

Pythagorean cosmos is structured in such a way that our

contemplation of the numbers is the means by which we, as

physical beings, begin to participate in the divine process.

However, there is also value in considering the way in which

the divine principles of the universe participate in the

individual. While the ultimate purpose of the physical

being is to assimilate with the divine, the divine has a

tremendous effect on the physical being's existence

throughout the purification process. It is only by

identifying the impure reflections of the divine principles

in ourselves (in our physical existence) that we can

understand our individual potential to philosophize about

the true nature of the universe.

Consider one of the Pythagorean Maxims. As has been

stated, Pythagoras did not commit his lessons to writing.

These maxims are thought to be amongst the Pythagorean

akousmata, or things heard. In total there have been

seventy-five maxims preserved, and they are thought to be

Pythagorean teachings concerning the proper conduct for the

typical Pythagorean individual. 56 Furthermore, they were

intentionally comprised in such a way that their meaning is

not initially obvious to the learner. Instead, their true

56 "The Pythagorean Symbols or M a x i m s , " i n T h e Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library ( G r a n d Rapids: Phanes Press, 1988) 159.

meaning must be sought o u t i n keeping with the theme of t h e

Pythagorean i n t e l l e c t u a l pu r su i t .

One of t he Pythagorean Maxims is w r i t t e n as follows:

"One, Two. " This has been i n t e r p r e t e d by K. S. Guthr ie as

"God and Nature; all th ings are known i n G o d . rr57

S p e c i f i c a l l y , a l l t h i n g s a r e known i n God a s G o d i s t h e

c r e a t o r o f all t h ings , inc luding na ture . This being t h e

case, t h e oppos i t e is a l s o t r u e ; t h a t God is known i n all

t h i n g s . The p u r s u i t of coming t o recognize t h e p a r t of our

be ing t h a t i s God i s e n t i r e l y dependent upon t h e p r a c t i c e of

philosophy t h a t can only be undertaken i n t h e phys ica l

world. The e f f i c a c y of t h e philosophy then, t o come t o know

t h e divine, takes p lace i n t h e phys ica l cosmos, wi th t h e

contemplation of t h e most b e a u t i f u l t h ings . From a

p r a c t i c a l s tandpoin t , knowledge i s acquired by our m a t e r i a l

and immaterial beings t o g e t h e r . Knowledge e x i s t s dur ing o u r

corporea l e x i s t e n c e and w e b u i l d upon it throughout our many

subsequent co rporea l ex i s t ences . It i s only a t t h e poin t o f

a b s o l u t e p u r i f i c a t i o n of ourselves , i .e . , a b s o l u t e knowledge

of t h e ultimate r e a l i t y , t h a t w e no longer depend on our

phys ica l bodies and consequently are r e l e a s e d from them.

To f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h i s pos i t ion , l e t u s cons ider two

fragments of Archytas. Archytas of Tarenturn w a s a fou r th

cen tu ry BCE Pythagorean; unfor tunately . t h e r e i s some doubt

'' "The Pythagorean Symbols or Maxims" 161.

about the authenticity of the work available, alleged to be

by Archytas. The concern is whether or not the fragments

are genuinely Archytasr work or whether they belong to

someone else. There does not seem to be any indication that

the fragments are not Pythagorean, however. Thus there is

little danger in presenting them here. I will keep in line

with the trend that has been to attribute the work to

Archytas while making explicit the fact that it is not

necessarily his own. In his "Metaphysical Fragments"

Archytas writes:

Of all beings, man is the wisest by far. For he is able to contemplate beings, and to acquire knowledge and understanding of all ... Man is born and was created to know the essence of universal nature; and precisely the function of wisdom is to possess and contemplate the intelligence manifested in (all) things ... The function of wisdom is to see all the beings in their totality, and to know their universal attributes, and that is how wisdom discovers the principles of all beings. 58

Archytas provides us with further evidence of the fact

that the individual must seek knowledge of hidher existence

throughout his/her corporeal lives in order to assimilate

him/herself with the first principle of the universe, that

is, the One. Indeed, Archytas reports that it is the

humanr s intention in nature to pursue wisdom. Humans were

created for this role; it is their purpose in the cosmos.

pp-

Diogenes L a e r t i u s , 'The Life of Archytas," in The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids: Phanes P r e s s , 1988) 182.

This being the case, it is evident that the efficacy of the

philosophical process is realized in humans as a physical

entity. "The function of wisdom is to possess and

contemplate. . . ". Evidently, wisdom functions only at the corporeal level; here is where the individual's capacity or

potential to pursue wisdom exists.

Furthermore, Archytas writes that wisdom itself is the

understanding of beings in their totality. Clearly, onef s

physical body must be included in this idea of total being.

It is one of the universal attributes that Archytas refers

to, and it is included in his proclamation that intelligence

manifests itself in all things. Thus it seems evident that

a necessary part of the pursuit of wisdom must be derived

from recognizing the efficacy of the pursuit as it takes

place in the material world and in the material world only.

Once the soul has been released from its physical

imprisonment its final efficacy, to become divine, has been

actualized, Nonetheless, if the soul depends on all of the

universal principles in their totality, then the efficacy of

each particular one has its own unique value to the

cosmology.

Lastly, I take Archytasr fragment to be indicative of

the consequential value to be found in the physical world.

When humans exercise their natural inclination to

contemplate t h e ' . . .essence of u n i v e r s a l nature.. .", they

are f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r in tended r o l e i n t h e cosmos. They are

u t i l i z i n g t h e i r p o t e n t i a l as wise, i n t e l l i g e n c e , and

contemplative beings , i n order t o l e a r n about t h e un ive r sa l

a t t r i b u t e s and p r i n c i p l e s of a l l o t h e r t h i n g s ,

A t t h i s p o i n t it becomes r e l e v a n t t o cons ide r t h e

s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s of one's phys ica l body t h a t con t r ibu te

t o t h e being's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e d i v i n e . If t h e

corporea l world is indeed of cont ingent v a l u e f o r every

person, i. e., as t h e cosmic realm i n which t h e ind iv idua l

phi losophizes about t h e d i v i n e r e a l i t y o f t h e cosmos, then

w e must f u r t h e r unders tand its r o l e i n bo th a pragmatic and

a mechanical sense.

T h e fol lowing passage w a s p reserved by Photius, an

E i g h t h century phi losopher , i n a s h o r t p i e c e o f work

e n t i t l e d "The L i f e o f P y t h a g o r a ~ " . ~ ~ This p i e c e of work i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o an examination o f t h e phys ica l

being. O f a l l t h e s c h o l a r s h i p on Pythagoras t h a t i s

available, "The L i f e o f Pythagoras" is t h e o n l y one t h a t

e x p l i c i t l y breaks down t h e composition o f the phys ica l

being, t hus demonstra t ing t h e c r u c i a l r o l e t h a t t h e human

p lays i n t h e Pythagorean metaphysics and cosmology. T h e

s t r u c t u r e i s as fol lows:

59 Photius 137.

There a r e e i g h t organs o f knowledge: sense, imagination, art , opinion, de l ibe ra t ion , science, wisdom and mind- A r t , prudence, sc ience and mind w e share with t h e Gods; sense and imagination, w i t h t h e i r r a t i o n a l animals; while opin ion a lone is our c h a r a c t e r i s t i c * Sense i s a f a l l a c i o u s knowledge de r ived through t h e body; imagination is a no t ion i n t h e soul; a r t is a h a b i t of cooperating w i t h reason. T h e words 'with reason' a r e h e r e added, f o r even a s p i d e r operates, bu t it l a c k s reason. Del ibera t ion i s a h a b i t s e l e c t i v e of t h e r ightness of planning deeds; sc ience i s a h a b i t of those th ings w h i c h remain ever t h e same , w i th Sameness; wisdom is a knowledge of t h e f i r s t causes; w h i l e Mind is t h e p r i n c i p l e and f o u n t a i n of a l l good t h i n g s . 60

From t h i s passage w e can determine t h a t t h e composite of a

human being can be broken down i n t o three p a r t s ; humans

c o n s i s t of th ings t h a t a r e d iv ine , th ings t h a t e x i s t i n a l l

animal beings, and th ings t h a t are unique t o t h e human

alone. Each of these elements, e i g h t i n t o t a l , func t ion a s

organs of knowledge, t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e human a c q u i s i t i o n

of knowledge.

Spec i f i ca l ly , humans con ta in t h e f a c u l t i e s of sc i ence ,

wisdom, and mind. These are t h e primary elements of t h e

cosmos t h a t e x i s t i n every i n d i v i d u a l , They a r e s t a b l e and

permanent, and comprise t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e human t h a t i s

unchanging. Although t h e y e x i s t i n t h e human, they a r e a l s o

p resen t i n t h e Gods; thus t h e y are not dependent upon t h e

human f o r t h e i r ex is tence . They a r e , however, dependent

upon inhabi tance i n t h e human fonn t o be a c t i v e i n t h e

participation of knowledge. That is to say that these

organs of knowledge must manifest themselves in the human

being in order to be practically useful to the philosophical

process in the cosmos. Thus the Pythagorean organs of

knowledge are of contingent value to the student; he/she

makes use of them when acquiring knowledge, They are tools

that help the human philosophize about the divine.

The remainder of the Pythagorean organs of knowledge

are things that exist in the corporeal world, belonging

specifically to animals. Among t h e s e are sense,

imagination, deliberation, and opinion. These faculties are

tied to the divine realms of the cosmos by the fact that the

divine realm created them. Essentially, they are grounded

in the corporeal realm, and function only in the corporeal

realm. This passage presented by Photius demonstrates that

from a pragmatic perspective, four of the eight organs of

knowledge are intrinsic to the living being, distinguishing

it from the divine. The remaining four, while not intrinsic

to t h e living, nonetheless require it to be useful in

seeking knowledge of the cosmos. Consequently, it can be

concluded that the practical participation in knowledge of

what is beautiful and what is t h e ultimate reality, is

effective only through the individual's corporeal existence.

Thus the efficacy of the acquisition of knowledge takes

place in the physical world.

Final ly, it is worth not ing t h a t the above passage

ind ica tes t h a t humans pa r t i c ipa t ed i n knowledge d i f f e r e n t l y

from a l l o ther animals. "The Li fe of Pythagoras" a s s e r t s

t h a t humans exis ted as t h e only microcosms of t h e universe.

The dis t inguishing f ea tu re of humans from o ther corporeal

beings i s t h e i r f acu l ty of reason. Reason was a d iv ine

power, ascribed t o humans by the Gods. It w a s not, however,

contained i n any other animal- 6 1 The humadanimal

d i s t i n c t i o n is s i g n i f i c a n t t o any study of Pythagoreanism;

hence it w i l l be d e a l t with i n g rea t e r d e t a i l i n t h e next

chapter. What is noteworthy t o t h i s sect ion of work is t h e

fact t h a t animals (he rea f t e r t h e term animal w i l l not

include humans) were not microcosmic representat ions, and

thus ex i s ted i n a r e l a t i v e l y disadvantaged s t a t e i n t h e

cosmic scheme.

I in t e rp re t the above passage a s claiming t h a t animals

were unable t o de l ibe ra t e about t h e i r function i n t h e

universe. They operated according t o sense (derived through

t h e body) and imagination (a funct ion of t h e s o u l ) . Without

reason, however, they remained unable t o synthesize these

two f a c u l t i e s and contemplate t h e ul t imate r e a l i t y and t h e i r

exis tence within it. If animals are unable t o reason, then

they are unable t o philosophize, i . e . , contemplate t h e

mathematical t r u t h s of t h e cosmos. This r e s u l t of t h i s is

" Phot ius 139.

t h a t t h e Pythagorean process of a s s i m i l a t i o n wi th t h e d iv ine

is rendered non-existent i n t h e animal kingdom-

PhotiusC "Life of Pythagoras" a l s o claims t h a t t h e

humanr s physical body acted a s a wi tness and a judge t o t h e

extreme condi t ions of t h e phys ica l realm.

... s i g h t i s t h e judge of t h e t e n c o l o r s , white and black being t h e extremes of a l l o t h e r s between: yellow, tawny, pale , red, blue, green, l i g h t blue, and grey. Hearing i s t h e judge of t h e voice , sha rp and f l a t . Smell is t h e judge o f odors, good and bad, and p u t r i d i t y , humidity, l i qu idness and evaporation. Tas te i s t h e judge of t a s t e s , s w e e t and b i t t e r , and between them f i v e : sharp, a c i d , f r e s h , salt and hot. Touch judges many t h i n g s between t h e extremes of heaviness and l i g h t n e s s , such a s h e a t and cold; and those between them, hardness and so f tness ; and t h o s e between them, dryness and moistness, and t h o s e between them. While t h e f o u r main senses a r e confined t o t h e i r s p e c i a l senses i n the head, touch is d i f fused throughout t h e head and t h e whole body, and is common t o a l l the senses, bu t is spec ia l i zed i n t h e hands- 62

The value of t h i s Pythagorean passage i s i n i t s

demonstration t h a t humans a r e confronted w i t h experiences of

t h e opposites through t h e i r phys ica l s e n s a t i o n s . The five

senses allow t h e phys ica l being t o become aware of the

harmony t h a t e x i s t s amongst t h e va r ious degrees of each

sensa t ion t h a t i s experienced by t h e i n d i v i d u a l . With each

p a r t i c u l a r sense, i. e., s i g h t , hear ing, s m e l l , t a s t e , and

touch, the body uses its sense perception in the same

mechanistic manner; the sensation itself falls somewhere

along a scale that contains an extreme at one end and its

opposite extreme at the other. Each sensation is comprised

of polar opposites- Thus while the process of sensation is

constant, the sensation itself, as it is realized by the

individual, is variable.

The fact that the physical being is structured in this

way is a microcosmic example to the individual that the

universe is structured and harmonized according to opposite

principles. The individual parts, each with their own

particular attributes, exist cohesively, combining well

together into a larger whole, i. e., a hamonia. Likewise in

the individual each of the five senses acts to fulfill a

different particular function for the human being. When

they operate, they illustrate the opposite principles that

are present in the physical world, for example, hot versus

cold or sweet versus bitter, Together, however, they have a

cohesive value in that they comprise the individual's

ability to sense external things in one way or another.

Ultimately then, the individual's ability to sense provides

him/her with the potential to experience various aspects of

the harmonious cosmos, and that hamonia is experienced

continuously with every sensation.

Furthermore, as t h e passage i n d i c a t e s , each of t h e f i v e

human senses u t i l i z e s t h e head. The s e n s a t i o n itself i s

perceived through s i g h t , hearing, t a s t e , touch , o r s m e l l .

The judgment about it, however, is dependent on t h e use of

t h e head, through t h e workings of t h e mind. The f i v e senses

provide t h e d a t a t h a t is sor ted and a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e mind.

Thus t h e judgments made about sensa t ions a r e u l t i m a t e l y

determined i n t h e head, through t h e use of the i n t e l l e c t , a

f a c u l t y of the mind. I n t h i s way then, w e are a b l e t o

a s s i m i l a t e t h e oppos i t e nature of sensa t ions . Without t h e

mind, our a b i l i t y t o sense would be nothing more than t h e

a c t u a l touch, taste, sound, sLght, o r s m e l l i t s e l f . B y

using our i n t e l l e c t , however, w e can de te rmine t h e na tu re of

t h e sensa t ion and t h e harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p between

sensat ions .

I t a k e t h i s passage t o be of metaphorical s i g n i f i c a n c e

i n i l l u s t r a t i n g how t h e ind iv idua l makes u s e of t h e phys ica l

realm i n order t o l e a r n about t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e cosmos

and work towards l i b e r a t i n g him/herself from it.

Spec i f i ca l ly , it i l l u s t r a t e s how w e r e l y on our phys ica l

c a p a b i l i t i e s ( i n t h i s case our f i v e senses) when making

j udgments about things. By combining our i n d i v i d u a l

physical experiences, and further jo in ing t h e m i n the mind,

w e have t h e a b i l i t y t o make judgments about t h i n g s . When

examined i n t h i s way, t h i s passage is i n d i c a t i v e of t h e r o l e

t h a t t h e phys ica l realm p l a y s i n t h e Pythagorean

phi losophica l process. A s Chapter 3 w i l l address, t h e

ind iv idua l would not need t o make use of t he organs o f

knowledge, senses , o r a b i l i t y t o judge i f h i s /he r t r u e

essence, t h e soul , w e r e never imprisoned i n t h e body i n t h e

f i r s t place. The Pythagorean must exe rc i se h i s / h e r

phi losophica l capac i ty i n o r d e r t o eschew t h e co rporea l

being only because it has t rapped h i d h e r essence and

t a i n t e d i t s t r u e na ture t o begin with. Thus t h e p h y s i c a l

body i s of cont ingent va lue t o t he Pythagorean's endeavour

t o become d iv ine . By enabl ing both sensual experience a s

w e l l a s t h e a b i l i t y t o absorb and analyze t h e d a t a provided

by t h e sensat ion, t h e co rporea l realm enables t h e human t o

acqui re knowledge. Thus it is cont ingent ly valuable t o t h e

indiv idual ; it provides h i d h e r with t h e t o o l s t o u t i l i z e

h i d h e r p o t e n t i a l and p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e l ea rn ing process ,

u l t i m a t e l y moving away from c o r p o r e a l i t y , towards t h e

d iv ine .

Conclusion

The i n t e n t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r has been t o demonstrate

t h a t by s tudying t o understand t h e Pythagorean number

theory, Pythagorasr students w e r e exercising t h e i r

p o t e n t i a l i t y a s ind iv idua l s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e cosmos. B y

pursuing philosophy Pythagoras was teaching h i s d i s c i p l e s t o

examine t h e un ive r sa l principles as they e x i s t i n the most

pe r fec t form, t h a t is, as d i v i n e cosmological e lements- I n

doing so, he ensured t h a t h i s students l ea rned the u l t ima te

r e a l i t y o f t h e universe and thus the u l t i m a t e purpose f o r

t h e i r ex is tence . Consequently, t h e ind iv idua l l e a r n s how t o

use h i d h e r capac i ty i n o r d e r t o liberate him/herse l f from

t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of c o r p o r e a l i t y , and move towards t h e

divine. Such a contemplation inevi tab ly t u r n s one towards

self-examination. Self-examination takes p l a c e i n t h e

physical world, and I cons ide r i t s consequences t o be

extremely va luable f o r t h e indiv idual throughout h i d h e r

corporeal ex is tence . Pythagoreans learned t h a t t h e y e x i s t e d

as a composite of m a t e r i a l and immaterial elements,

comprised of both f i n i t e and i n f i n i t e p r o p e r t i e s .

Furthermore, they grasped t h a t they were impure r e f l e c t i o n s

of the un ive r sa l d iv ine* This i s a consequent ia l effect of

studying t h e Pythagorean philosophy. Once t h e i n d i v i d u a l

r e a l i z e s who he/she is, and where he/she f i ts i n t o t h e

cosmic scheme, then he/she a l s o r ea l i zes what he/she has t h e

p o t e n t i a l t o become. Ult imately, t h e Pythagorean learned

that i n o rde r t o a s s i m i l a t e with the d i v i n e realm, he/she

must exe rc i se h i s / h e r p o t e n t i a l i t y (by ph i losoph iz ing) ,

throughout h i s / h e r co rporea l existence.

With t h i s understanding i n place, Pythagoreans could

understand t h a t it was the synthesis of t h e i r L i m i t e d and

Unlimited p roper t i e s together t h a t enabled them t o make t h e

commitment t o assimilating themselves with t h e d iv ine

r e a l i t y , T h e i r p lace i n t h e cosmos e n t a i l e d t h a t they

u t i l i z e a l l aspec ts of t h e i r being t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e

knowledge o f r e a l i t y . Indeed, t h e phi losophica l process

i tself takes place when t h e m a t e r i a l and t h e immaterial are

synthesized, Thus w e can r i g h t l y conclude t h a t i n s t r i v i n g

t o achieve t h e f i n a l outcome of t h e philosophy, (becoming

d i v i n e ) , t h e r e a r e contingent effects experienced i n t h e

corporea l realm, as t h e i n d i v i d u a l exe rc i ses h i d h e r

p o t e n t i a l , contemplating t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y of t h e cosmos.

CHAPTER 1x1 Metepppaychosis: The Tz8ndqtation of the Soul

Chapter 2 demonstrated that the Pythagorean Number Theory

served as an archetype for the corporeal world, consequently

allowing humans to recognize and understand their

potentiality in the cosmos. The goal of this chapter is to

demonstrate further consequences of the archetypal nature of

the divine for the corporeal realm; this chapter will

examine the ethical effects of the philosophy on the

corporeal world. The description of the numbers presented

at the beginning of Chapter 2 reveals that the 'personalityf

characteristics of the divine numbers were typically

virtuous in nature, That is to say that they were

representative of the inherent qualities that are most

important to the cosmos. Recall that the Triad was

representative of harmony, the Tetraktys of perfection and

justice, etc. The numbers existed as the pure forms of what

is ultimately good in the universe, that is, the principles

that are necessary to participate in the divine reality of

the cosmos,

I believe that Pythagoreanism provided a set of virtue

ethics for individuals to adhere to throughout their

physical existence. 63 The divine numbers served as ethical

63 V i r t u e ethics is a term of t en associated w i t h Aristotle, and there seem t o be both similarities and differences between the Artistotelian and Pythagorean ideas concerning v i r t u e ethics. In Book I

archetypes, t h a t is, t h e pure r e a l i t y of t h e p r i nc ip l e s t h a t

e x i s t i n every human. By c o d t t i n g t o Pythagoreanism, thus

committing t o a phi losophica l l i f e s t y l e , the human way of

'beingr o r ' l i v i ng r i n the world i s determined by t h e set of

elements t h a t a r e t h e c rea to r and most important element of

t h e universe, t h a t is , i t s divine v i r t u e s . H e r e again, i s a

contingent value of Pythagoreanism t h a t exists a t the

corporeal l eve l ; the v i r t u e e t h i c s i s a consequent ia l e f f e c t

of t h e i n d i v i d u a l r s work towards reaching a g r e a t e r end-

goal, d i v i n i t y .

me Pythagozeaa SOUL

The concept o f t h e soul i s t h e most comprehensive

dimension of t h e Pythagorean philosophy. Its funct ion i n

both t h e phys ica l and the divine realms of t h e cosmos render

it t h e most ins t rumenta l i n drawing t h e d i f f e r e n t l eve l s o f

t h e universe toge the r . The soul i s a composite of a l l of

of the Ethics, A r i s t o t l e w r i t e s that "Every skill and every inquiry, and s imilar ly, every a c t i o n and choice of ac t ion , i s thought t o have some good as i t s ob jec t , This i s why the good has r i g h t l y been defined a s t h e object of a l l endeavor." T h e Philosophy of A r i s t o t l e - Trans. J-L. Creed and A.E. Wardman, (New York: Penguin Books) 286- A s this Chapter w i l l demonstrate, Pythagoras would c e r t a i n l y agree t h a t t h e good ( i n t h i s case t h e d iv ine v i r t u e s ) , is t h e u l t imate o b j e c t of a l l endeavour. In the Introduct ion t o t h i s piece of work, however, Renford Bambrough wri tes that "Although Pla to w a s r igh t when he r e l a t e d these ends together a s forming a hierarchy, he was wrong i n supposing t h a t knowledge of t h e h ighes t end w a s s u f f i c i e n t f o r virtue- W e must s t a r t a t the o the r end of the sca le : ju s t as t h e doctor t r e a t s individual pa t ien ts , so must t h e mora l i s t remember t h a t human a c t i o n s a r e pa r t i cu la r responses t o p a r t i c u l a r s i tua t ions . " p. 282. I think t h a t Pythagorean v i r t u e e t h i c s would f a l l more along P l a t o n i c l i n e s here; t h e ends do form a hierarchy, and knowledge of t h e h ighes t end is s u f f i c i e n t f o r v i r tue .

t h e fundamentals o f t h e ~ e c a d . ~ ~ It is c rea ted by t h e

divine, and thus e x i s t s as an impure r e f l e c t i o n of t h e

d iv ine p r i nc ip l e s , A s wi th a l l o the r elements o f t h e cosmos

then, the sou l is u l t i m a t e l y a c r ea t i on of t h e One and thus

contains a por t ion of the One wi th in i t s e l f . 65

For Pythagoras, eve ry l i v i n g corporeal being must be

inhabi ted by a s o u l i n o rde r t o e x i s t i n t h e phys ica l world.

With respect t o humans, each person is comprised of both a

mortal and an immortal ex is tence . The body i s mortal but

t h e soul i s immortal, Upon t h e phys ica l birth of every

being the sou l comes t o rest in t h e body, Upon death t h e

physical element of t h e being per i shes , and t h e sou l is

l i be r a t ed from t h e corporea l realm. I n t i m e , it reen te r s

the corporeal r e a l m , r e i nca rna t i ng itself i n another

physical being, Pythagoras c a l l e d t h i s re incarna t ion

process o r t r ansmigra t ion of t h e sou l metempsychosis. I n

t h e Pythagorean cosmos then, t h e body i s mortal and

des t ruc t ib le , and t h e s o u l i s immortal and i nde s t ruc t i b l e . 66

The universe w a s one, e t e r n a l and divine . Men w e r e many and divided, and they w e r e mortal. B u t t h e e s s e n t i a l p a r t of man, h i s soul , was n o t mortal , and it owed i t s immortali ty t o t h i s circumstance, t h a t it was n e i t h e r more nor less than a small fragment o r spa rk of t h e d iv ine and un ive r sa l sou l , c u t o f f and imprisoned i n a pe r i shab le body. 67

" Goman 134-135. 65 Hack 5 5 . 66 Philip 153. 67 W C Guthrie 201,

The idea was presented in Chapter 2 that every human's

true essence lies in their incorporeal existence,

independent of their physical matter. I am now able to

further clarify that the human's true essence is their soul.

As an impure reflection of the divine essence of the

universe then, the essence of every individual human is part

of the essence of the cosmos.

For Pythagoras, recognizing this immortal essence was

the fundamental and most important goal for every human. 68

Committing oneself to one's immortal existence rather than

one's physical existence enabled the individual to

participate in the process of purifying hidher soul.

Furthermore, the understanding of the true essence of the

individual ensures that humans come to understand their

existence as part of a greater cosmological schema; that

their essence is related to the essence of all other beings

in the cosmos, and thus is one small part of a larger

universal essence,

Through the process of incarnation the soul (containing

the property of Limit instilled by the One) binds the body

(containing the Unlimited property of the Dyad) into cosmic

order. 69 In this way the soul is instrumental to ensuring

the attunement or harmonia of the cosmological structure,

68 WKC G u t h r i e 201-203. 69 Rack 55,

The two d i f f e r e n t cosmic realms would e x i s t independently of

one another i f not unified by the soul . T h e soul may be

immortal, bu t it i s trapped i n a mor ta l body. Living

physical beings d i d no t ever come i n t o ex i s t ence without

being i n h a b i t e d by a soul , Consequently, it is t h e s o u l

t h a t c r e a t e s the attunement between t he var ious cosmic

realms. Even when incarnate , however, t h e na ture of t h e

soul remains organized according t o t he d iv ine , rendering

t h e cosmic harmonia an immortal ba lance i n t h e universe. 7 0

iiow the P h y s i c a l Re- &tea an efficacy to Pythagoreanianr

The key t o understanding how t h e phys ica l realm al lows

f o r an e f f i c a c y of Pythagoreanism i n t h e e t h i c a l sense first

requi res t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n be made with r e spec t t o t h e r o l e

of t h e human corporea l body. Such a d i s t i n c t i o n i s c r u c i a l

t o recognizing how it i s t h a t t h e phys ica l realm of t h e

cosmos i s where t h e e t h i c a l e f f i c a c y occurs . As s t a t e d

above, t h e s o u l and t h e body exist cohesively, toge ther

producing a cosmos t h a t is i n order . This being t h e case,

it is f a i r t o assert t h a t t h e co rporea l body has a u n i v e r s a l

purpose.

Pythagorean scholarsh ip on t h e body presents it as a

ma te r i a l p r i s o n t h a t t r a p s t h e s o u l a t b i r t h , cons tan t ly

tempting it wi th g r a t i f i c a t i o n s de r ived from physical

-

'O WKC Guthrie 203.

pleasure throughout i ts l i f e t i m e . The body i s de t r imen t a l

t o t h e essence of every being; i t s purpose is t o imprison

t h e soul. The body acts t o prevent t he sou l from e x i s t i n g

according t o i ts t r u e na ture , its div ine essence. 7L The

sou l i s automat ica l ly attracted t o the body as it is the

only means by which t h e s o u l can rece ive phys ica l p leasure .

And, given t h a t phys ica l g r a t i f i c a t i o n is p leasurable ,

sa t i s fy ing , and se l f - indulgent , it exh ib i t s a hedon i s t i c

p r i nc ip l e that t h e s o u l is n a t u r a l l y a t t r a c t e d t o .

I f t h e body t r a p s t h e soul , imprisoning it a t b i r t h ,

then c l e a r l y t h e sou l would no t have t o eschew t h e body if

it were never t rapped i n t h e f i r s t place. The body i s t h e

cause of t h e impuri ty of t h e soul ; thus t h e i nd iv idua l must

exe rc i se h i s /he r c apac i t y t o philosophize only because

h i s /he r essence has been a l i e n a t e d from its d iv ine wisdom by

t h e corporeal realm o f t h e cosmos. This n a t u r a l l y l e a d s t o

t h e question: why is the sou l ever imprisoned by

corporea l i ty t o begin with? Why must w e r e l y on our

physical c a p a c i t i e s t o he lp us philosophize, i f it i s our

physical na ture t h a t has t a i n t e d our t r u e knowledge?

An answer t o why w e are imprisoned i n t h e first p lace

i s unprovable given t h e a v a i l a b l e Pythagorean l i t e r a t u r e .

The Pythagorean doc t r i ne s t h a t have been committed t o

wr i t ing are concerned p r ima r i l y with t h e Pythagorean

. -

'I WKC Guthrie 201.

l i f e s t y l e . They deal w i t h h i s teachings o f how t o l i v e as a

Pythagorean, i. e., how t o assess t h e n a t u r e o f the cosmos,

and how t o l i v e a ph i losoph ica l l i f e wi th in it, i n order t o

u l t i m a t e l y escape from it. In shor t , Pythagorasf teachings

s e e m to be more abou t t h e na ture of t h e cosmos, and how to

become d i v i n e ( g i v e n t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e ) t h a n with why

w e have been t a i n t e d by it.

For t h e purpose o f t h i s p r o j e c t then, I am r e s t r i c t i n g

m y examination t o these same fac to r s . T h e q u e s t i o n o f why

w e a r e he re t o b e g i n wi th is beyond t h e scope o f t h i s paper,

and, un fo r tuna te ly , inconc lus ive from a s t u d y of

Pythagoreanism. Nonetheless, t h i s ques t ion does i n d i c a t e

t h a t any value r e a l i z e d through t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

ph i losophica l p r o c e s s i s merely consequent ia l . T h e e f f e c t s

of Pythagoreanism t h a t occur i n t h e p h y s i c a l r e a l m a r e

r e a l i z e d only because w e are trapped he re t o begin with.

Furthermore, any v a l u e t h a t t h e ind iv idua l r e a l i z e s a s

he/she makes his/her way through t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l process

is cont ingent va lue . It i s only va lue ach ieved as w e make

ou r way towards the t r u e goal . I t is v a l u a b l e t o us because

it w i l l further enable us t o u l t ima te ly eschew t h e body and

r e e n t e r t h e d i v i n e realm of t h e universe. E s s e n t i a l l y , any

s t r i d e s t h a t t h e Pythagorean takes t h a t enhance h i d h e r

l i f e s t y l e , are a consequen t i a l e f f e c t of t h e Pythagorean

cosmology.

This examination then , starts from t h e hypothes i s t h a t

t h e s o u l w i l l be imprisoned by t h e body, and t h a t

occurrences i n t h e p h y s i c a l realm are consequent ia l e f f e c t s

of t h a t f a c t . This be ing t h e case, w e can examine t h e r o l e

t h a t t h e phys i ca l r o l e p l a y s f o r t h e ind iv idua l throughout

h i s /he r ph i lo soph ica l p rocess . I think t h a t it is a l s o

worthwhile t o t h i n k o f t h e corporea l body as bo th a h o s t and

a school f o r t h e s o u l , T h i s i s a func t iona l r o l e o f t h e

body wi th r e s p e c t t o t h e cosmic scheme. R e c a l l from Chapter

2 (p.36) Archytas' p o s i t i o n t h a t "...Man i s born and was

c rea t ed t o know t h e e s sence o f un ive r sa l na ture . . . w72 H e r e

then, a f t e r t han t r a p p i n g t h e soul , t h e body a c t s as a h o s t

t o t h e sou l , providing it w i t h a veh ic l e through which t o

l ea rn . This idea does no t i n any w a y c o n t r a d i c t t h e

p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e body is i n p l ace t o tempt t h e s o u l wi th

phys ica l p leasures ; indeed, t h i s is a fundamental element of

t h e cohesive r e l a t i o n s h i p between body and sou l . In s t ead ,

it clarifies t h e po in t : g iven t h e r e a l i t y t h a t t h e s o u l i s

t rapped i n t h e body, t h e i n d i v i d u a l must make t h e b e s t

p o s s i b l e use of h i d h e r c o r p o r e a l i t y i n o rde r l e a r n about

t h e cosmos. The i n d i v i d u a l must use h i s / h e r body as a h o s t

and school i n o rde r t o undo t h e damage t h a t t h e imprisonment

causes.

T h e Life of Archytas" 182.

The body, by acting as a host to the soul, has

instrumental value in the cosmos. It acts as a medium for

the individual to philosophize. The soul depends on the

body to fulfill its cosmic purpose- Unlike the soul, the

physical world is not a reflection of all the divine virtues

that the soul assimilates itself with. Instead, it exhibits

all the elements of the cosmos that the soul must repel in

order to purify. The individual's comprehension of this

simple principle is itself part of the learning process. By

resting incarnate for a lifetime the soul is made aware of

what is evil in the universe. The fact that the individual

recognizes that his/her composition (body & soul) is twofold

but that his/her true essence is singular is the first step

in understanding the Pythagorean philosophy.

Next consider the way in which the body can act as a

school for the soul. I think that the body can help teach

the individual his/her true nature. Once again, the need

that the individual has to utilize hidher body as a school

is a consequence of the fact that he/she is imprisoned; any

and all 'lessonsf that the body might teach the individual

are a result of this entrapment. As stated in Chapter Two,

the physical realm is representative of evil in Pythagorean

cosmology. When this is illustrated to the individual and

subsequently understood, the individual can make explicit

attempts to eschew it. It is often by examining what is bad

that we are then able to deternine what is better and what

is best,

Furthermore, it is safe to assume that most individuals

easily and readily grasp the fact that their corporeality is

mortal. This reality is learned as individuals watch

physical existence break down over the course of time. In

this way then, the physical realm teaches this principle to

us. I think that this too can bring us closer to realizing

our true essence. At the very least it forces us to

contemplate the idea that our entire self does not end when

our body perishes. The philosophical process that

Pythagoras demands of his students is made easier by their

ability to see the dichotomy between what is evil and what

is good, what is mortal and what is immortal, and eventually

what is their body and what is their essence. The cosmic

reality is that we are trapped in the corporeal realm; for

humans, it is our starting point. Consequently, we must use

the means available to us to escape this life.

Ultimately, with this construct of the corporeal realm

in place we can conclude that through the process of

philosophy, the body works both with and against the soul

concurrently. This is the key to its efficacy for the

greater cosmos. The individual, by fighting physical

temptations that result from corporeal entrapment, has begun

the learning process. This is the beginning of a commitment

t o t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n wi th t h e d iv ine numbers. B y f i g h t i n g

t h e phys ica l t h e i n d i v i d u a l is p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e cosmic

learn ing process, t h u s moving away from t h e corporeal . and

towards t h e r e a l i t y of t h e cosmos.

Final ly , t o unders tand how t h e corporeal entrapment of

t h e sou l leads t o e f f i c a c y i n t h e e t h i c a l sense, w e must

address t h e idea t h a t humans e x i s t as microcosms of t h e

universe. This i d e a is preserved by Photius i n "The L i f e of

Pythagoras". This fo l lowing passage is an examination of

how t h e microcosmic s t r u c t u r e , where humans a r e imperfect

r e f l e c t i o n s of every th ing t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e cosmos, works

both t o prevent and t o enable t h e human t o know him/herself .

Pythagoras said t h a t man was a microcosm, which means a compendium of t h e universe; not because, l i k e o t h e r animals, even t h e l e a s t , he i s c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e four elements, but because he con ta ins a l l t h e powers of t h e cosmos. For t h e universe contains Gods, t h e four elements, animals and p lan t s . A l l o f these powers a r e contained i n man. H e has reason, which i s a d iv ine power; he has t h e na ture of t h e elements, and t he powers of moving, growing, and reproduction. However, i n each o f t h e s e he i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r s . For example, an a t h l e t e who p r a c t i c e s f i v e kinds of s p o r t s , d ive r t ing h i s powers i n t o f i v e channels, i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e a t h l e t e who p r a c t i c e s a s i n g l e s p o r t w e l l ; so man, having a l l o f t h e powers, i s inferior i n each. W e have less reasoning powers than t h e Gods, and less of each of t h e elements than t h e elements themselves. Our anger and d e s i r e a r e i n f e r i o r t o those passions i n t h e i r r a t i o n a l animal, while our powess of n u t r i t i o n and growth a r e i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e i n p l a n t s . Cons t i tu t ed the re fo re of d i f f e r e n t

powers, w e have a d i f f i c u l t l i f e t o lead. While a l l o t h e r th ings a r e r u l e d by one na tu re only, w e a r e drawn by d i f f e r e n t powers; as f o r ins tance, when by God w e are drawn t o b e t t e r th ings , o r when w e are drawn t o e v i l courses by t h e p reva i l ing of t h e lower powers. H e who, l i k e a v i g i l a n t and exper t cha r io tee r , wi thin himself c u l t i v a t e s t h e divine element, w i l l be a b l e t o u t i l i z e t h e o t h e r powers by a mingling of t h e elements, by anger , desire and habi t , j u s t a s f a r as may be necessary. Though it s e e m s easy t o know yoarse l f , t h i s is t h e most d i f f i c u l t of a l l th ings . . , t o discover ou r own power, which amounts t o learn ing t h e na ture of the whole e x t a n t world which, as God advises us, i s impossible without philosophy. 73

This i n f e r i o r i t y means t h a t f o r humans, acqui r ing t r u e

knowledge i s a d i f f i c u l t task; our power t o reason i s

i n f e r i o r t o t h e Gods, and our passion i n f e r i o r t o t h e

i r r a t i o n a l animals. Thus t o discover t h e d iv ine power

wi th in ourse lves we must first recognize t h i s i n f e r i o r i t y

r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r elements of t h e cosmos. W e must then

understand t h a t t h e p rope r t i e s of our own exis tence a re

fo reve r s t r u g g l i n g with one another, cons tan t ly drawing US

i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . E s s e n t i a l l y t h e s t r u g g l e i s

between our d iv ine s e l f t h a t w i l l l e ad us towards t h e

d iv ine , and our phys ica l s e l f t h a t w i l l draw us towards

sensua l g r a t i f i c a t i o n and prevent us from pursuing

knowledge. F ina l ly , w e must reject a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

ourse lves t h a t might t a i n t our p u r s u i t of knowledge; t h e s e

phys ica l d e s i r e s a r e far too dangerous f o r us. I n t h i s way

t h e human l i f e is a difficult one, and t r u l y knowing

ourselves becomes a tremendous challenge.

This passage i s f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of t h e e v i l

imprisonment of t h e s o u l by t h e body, as '...by God w e are

drawn t o b e t t e r t h i n g s , o r when w e a r e drawn t o e v i l courses

by t h e p r e v a i l i n g of t h e lower powers." Consequently, t h e

microcosmic e x i s t e n c e must be u t i l i z e d t o empower t h e human.

A s t h e passage s t a t e s , once w e c u l t i v a t e our divine element,

w e a r e a b l e t o m a k e u s e of o u r o ther , lower powers, i .e- ,

anger, d e s i r e , and h a b i t . Humans a r e t h e o n l y microcosms of

t h e universe . This t r u t h a l lows humans t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

t h e cosmos d i f f e r e n t l y from all o the r beings. Given t h a t w e

a r e imprisoned, w e must make use of a l l of our powers

together , i n o rde r t o " . . .d i scover our own power, which

amounts t o l e a r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of the whole e x t a n t world ..." Spec i f i ca l ly , it is t h e f a c u l t y of reason t h a t s e p a r a t e s

humans from a l l o t h e r phys ica l beings. A s d i scussed i n

Chapter 2, reason w a s considered t o be a d iv ine power,

ascr ibed t o humans by t h e Gods. It was not conta ined i n any

o the r animal. And, a l though human reason i s an i n f e r i o r

power r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i v i n e reason, it nonethe less

represents p o t e n t i a l i t y f o r t h e indiv idual . This

p o t e n t i a l i t y i s twofold.

F i r s t l y , t h e f a c u l t y of reason is what al lows t h e human

t o become aware of t h e f a c t t h a t a s s imi la t ion wi th t h e Gods

is the true purpose of their existence- It gives us the

capacity to understand that what is virtuous in life (what

is good and right in the universe) exists as immortal and

immaterial and is entirely separate from our corporeal life.

Thus we determine that we achieve a virtuous existence

ourselves, by coming to know the universal virtues of the

cosmos. Without reason, this personal enlightenment will

not occur for the individual, Although we all have an

understanding about the nature of reason, it is a difficult

concept to define, I take the faculty of reason to be the

ability to make logical, well thought-out, justifiable

connections between principles. It is the ability to

assimilate information or evidence and use that information

to draw legitimate conclusions about things. When one uses

reason, one is able to make logical determinations about

things. For these reasons the faculty of reason is also of

contingent value in the cosmic scheme; it is the element of

the individual that gives hidher the potential to

assimilate themselves to the Gods, and the understanding

that such a commitment is purposeful in life.

Secondly, reason gives humans the capacity to

philosophize; philosophy requires reason. For Pythagoras,

to philosophize was to contemplate those things in the

cosmos that are the purest, and consequently the most

beautiful. This requires that the philosopher be able to

make determinat ions about what is good and what i s evil,

what i s immortal and what is per i shab le , what i s t r u e

essence and what is mere e x i s t e n c e , Determinations o f t h i s

kind cannot be m a d e unless the i nd iv idua l unders tands t h e

importance of making them and i s a b l e t o reasonably assess

t h e d i f f e r e n t concepts. Our reason shows us t h a t w e have

r e f l e c t i o n s of t h e d i v i n e v i r t u e s contained w i t h i n

ourselves . Although they are imprisoned by our bodies, when

w e reason about them w e r e a l i z e t h a t w e must use a l l o f ou r

i n t e l l e c t u a l and p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s i n o r d e r t o s e e k them

out . By ph i losophiz ing about them we l e a r n t o eschew a l l

t h a t i s e v i l i n o rde r t o contemplate our t r u e v i r t u e . AS

t h e above passage argues , "...to discover o u r own power,

which amounts t o l e a r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of the whole e x t a n t

world ... i s impossible wi thout philosophy." I n t h i s way

philosophy e n l i g h t e n s us as t o whac our t r u e e x i s t e n c e i s

about i n o r d e r t h a t w e make determinat ions about how t o l i v e

a l i f e s t y l e t h a t a l lows u s t o contemplate o u r t r u e e x i s t e n c e

i n t he b e s t way.

Here too, then, w e are a b l e t o understand how t h e body

w i l l a c t as both a h o s t and a school f o r t h e impure s o u l .

The ind iv idua l must recognize h i d h e r entrapment, and then

u t i l i z e t h e bodyrs a b i l i t i e s i n o rde r t o ph i losophize . The

human a b i l i t y t o reason i s n o t i t s e l f a phys i ca l c a p a b i l i t y .

Ins tead, it e x i s t s i n t h e mind, as p a r t of t h e human

i n t e l l e c t . Nonetheless, the f a c u l t y of r eason relies on t h e

body t o func t ion , The human i n t e l l e c t , i tself an immaterial

property, can use t h e body as a mechanism t o employ it. The

body a c t s as a medium f o r reason; it i s t h e subs t ance t h a t

al lows the s o u l and reason t o be e f f e c t u a l i n t h e l ea rn ing

process.

When presen ted t h i s w a y , it becomes e a s y t o cons t ruc t

t h e idea of t h e body as a hos t t o t h e immaterial elements of

t h e cosmos. It is c e r t a i n l y t h e case t h a t t h e physical

realm of t h e cosmos w a s e v i l ; one of i t s pr imary func t ions

was t o tempt t h e s o u l with physical g r a t i f i c a t i o n , thus

th rea t en ing t h e s o u l r s p u r i f i c a t i o n p rocess , When we

examine t h e body beyond t h i s f ac t , however, w e a r e a b l e t o

recognize a consequen t i a l funct ion. If r eason w a s a d iv ine

g i f t provided o n l y t o humans, then t h e human body w a s t h e

only place f o r the s o u l and t h e i n t e l l e c t t o j o i n toge ther .

I have argued above that when one uses reason one i s a b l e t o

make r a t i o n a l de t e rmina t ions about th ings ; consequent ly t h e

f a c u l t y of reason is t h e element o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t

g ives him/her t h e p o t e n t i a l t o a s s i m i l a t e t o t h e Gods. This

being t h e case , it is c l e a r t h a t reason a l lows t h e sou l t o

engage i n t h e l e a r n i n g process , i-e. , t o ph i losophize . Once

again , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l process i s only necessary because

t h e phys ica l world has imprisoned t h e s o u l . If such

entrapment had never occurred, t h e s o u l s would exis t a s

i n f i n i t e l y w i s e , never contemplating the t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e

cosmos. Indeed, they would a l ready e x i s t i n t h a t state.

E s s e n t i a l l y then, philosophy i s a consequence o f t h e

imprisonment. Thus t h e funct ion of t h e body t h a t i s most

re levant t o t h e philosophical process , i s t h a t it provides

t h e soul and t h e i n t e l l e c t with a temple t h a t makes t h i s

engagement poss ib le .

This l i n e of examination demonstrates a problem wi th

Pythagoreanism t h a t deserves t o be examined, a l though it

cannot be resolved. Spec i f i ca l ly , i f animals ( t h e animal

kingdom here does not include humans) a r e n o t reasonable,

then they a r e rendered unable t o p u r i f y their sou l s .

Consider t h e fo l lowing passage from Diogenes Laer t ius ' "The

L i f e of Pythagoras":

They say t h a t once, as passing by he (Pythagoras) s a w

A dog s e v e r e l y beaten, he did p i t y him; And spoke as follows t o t h e man who bea t him 'Stop now, and bea t h i m not; s ince i n h i s body Abides t h e s o u l of a dea r f r i e n d of mine, Whose v o i c e I recognized as he w a s crying."74

This passage provides evidence of Pythagoras' b e l i e f t h a t

t h e sou l may r e i n c a r n a t e i t s e l f i n t h e body of an animal.

A s will be c l a r i f i e d f u r t h e r on, r e i n c a r n a t i o n i n t h e animal

kingdom would be cons idered a punishment t o be i n c u r r e d f o r

72 Diogenes Laertius, "The L i f e of Pythagoras" i n The Pythagorean Sourcebook and L i b r a r y (Grand R a p i d s : P h a n e s Press, 1988) 151.

e v i l behaviour i n a previous life. If, however, the animal

i s unable t o reason, t h e n it lacks t h e capac i ty t o

philosophize. Thus it is unable t o pur i fy i ts soul , and t h e

s o u l would remain t r apped i n the body of an animal f o r e v e r ,

i n a l l subsequent i n c a r n a t i o n s .

It is easy t o recognize t h a t some animals e x h i b i t

b e t t e r behaviour than o t h e r s ; they might be g e n t l e r o r less

vic ious , i. e., u l t i m a t e l y less evil. One might readily

at tempt t o conclude from t h i s t h a t they are pur i fy ing t h e i r

s o u l s by leading a v i r t u o u s l i f e s t y l e . However, t h i s

conclusion does not p r o p e r l y f i t t h e Pythagorean philosophy.

The foundation of Pythagoreanism p o s i t s t h a t one has t o

learn the s t r u c t u r e of t h e cosmos and t h e i r place i n it,

acquire true knowledge of i t s d i v i n e p r inc ip les , and make an

explicit commitment t o a s s i m i l a t i n g oneself with those

p r i n c i p l e s . These t h r e e t a s k s a r e enabled through t h e

phi losophica l process, a process t h a t animals, with the i r

i r r a t i o n a l na ture , a r e unable t o engage i n .

The E t h i c a l E f f i c a c y of Pythagoxeanium

To t h i s p o i n t t h e argument i n t h i s chapter has been

concerned with demonstrat ing how t h e physical realm allowed

f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n e t h i c a l e f f i cacy t o t h e

Pythagorean philosophy. This final sec t ion w i l l exp lo re t h e

na tu re of t h e e f f i c a c y i t s e l f . Spec i f i ca l ly , t h i s s e c t i o n

will demonstrate that the microcosmic human existence leads

to a system of virtue ethics for the individual Pythagorean

throughout hisfher corporeal life. When Pythagoreans

contemplate their place in the cosmos, recognizing that

their divine essence is being tainted by the body, the

result is a change in attitude towards the cosmos and

towards themselves. The virtue ethics that ensues is a

consequence of the individual's imprisonment. It develops

as a means by which the individual liberates him/herself

from the constraints of the corporeal realm.

The assimilation of the immortal soul with the divine

is the ultimate purpose for every mortal being. The primary

step is to recognize the limitations of the physical being

and then work to separate the soul from these constraints.

Humans can never escape their soul (it is their essence),

but they can escape from the physical constraints of their

body. The Pythagorean theory of metempsychosis is the path

that the soul follows throughout its purification process.

Metempsychosis allows for there to be punishments and

rewards to be experienced by a person based on their past

lives.

Consider, for example, an individual who leads an

unjust, self-indulgent lifestyle that is detrimental both to

him/herself as well as to others. Eventually that

i nd iv idua l w i l l p e r i s h and in due course, through

metempsychosis, h i s / h e r s o u l w i l l r e inca rna te i tself . T h e

i nd iv idua l w i l l be punished f o r the poor l i f e s t y l e i n the

p a s t and t hus might be r e i n c a r n a t e d i n the body o f an animal

(a lower spec ies be ing i n t h e Pythagorean h i e r a r c h y ) . A t

t h e o t h e r extreme, t h e i n d i v i d u a l who makes a serious

commitment t o phi losophy and i s working t o p u r i f y h i s / h e r

s o u l w i l l r e i n c a r n a t e as a more enl ightened being i n t h e

f u t u r e . S imi la r ly , t h e i n d i v i d u a l who leads a l i f e s t y l e

t h a t f a l l s somewhere between t h e s e two extremes, i e . , is

n e i t h e r e n t i r e l y bad nor e n t i r e l y committed t o p u r i f y i n g

h i d h e r soul , w i l l l i k e l y be n e i t h e r punished nor rewarded

i n the fu tu re . I n s t e a d he/she w i l l l i k e l y s t a g n a t e , h i s / h e r

s o u l coming t o rest i n a new body, yet l ead ing a l i f e s t y l e

equiva len t t o t h e one experienced by t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e

p a s t l i f e .

From t h i s system of punishments and rewards w e can

e a s i l y understand t h a t t h e r e is a n e f f i c a c y of t h e

philosophy ( i n t h e p h y s i c a l r e a l m ) t h a t may be a c t u a l i z e d i n

t h e form of rewards th rough a l l f u t u r e i n c a r n a t i o n s over t h e

course of t i m e as t h e s o u l p u r i f i e s i t s e l f . S i m i l a r l y , t h a t

t h e r e is an e f f i c a c y of t h e philosophy t h a t may t a k e t h e

form of punishments t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n subsequent l i v e s

based on a c t i o n s performed i n t h e presen t l i fe . The

l i f e s t y l e t h a t one w i l l lead i n t h e f u t u r e is con t ingen t

upon their philosophical pursuits in past incarnations.

Thus the individual strives to be virtuous in nature in

order to move closer to divinity in the next incarnation.

Metempsychosis ensures that it is the essence of every

being, that is, the soul of every being that experiences the

efficacy of the purification process. I consider this to be

extremely relevant to the philosophy. If the efficacy of

the philosophy here is aimed at the soul, and the soul is

the attunement between the material and immaterial worlds,

then the results of the philosophy that are realized

throughout the soul's commitment to purification target all

of the most important elements of the cosmos. In this way

the efficacy of the Pythagorean philosophy becomes

universal. Nonetheless, the physical realm is where these

particular effects of metempsychosis are realized. The soul

experiences the punishments and rewards of metempsychosis

through its inhabitance in the corporeal realm. The soul

itself does not experience; instead it learns through its

relationship to the body that does exist at the experiential

level of the cosmos. In this way, after imprisoning the

soul, the physical realm is further utilized to fulfill the

process of metempsychosis, i . e . , rewarding or punishing the

soul for its lifestyle.

It is crucial i n t h i s ana ly s i s t o make t h e d i s t i n c t i o n

between becoming v i r tuous and a c t i n g v i r t uous ly . Leading

one's l i f e according t o pure and v i r t u o u s ac t i on should not

be equated wi th pur i fy ing one's soul . The e t h i c a l efficacy

presented i n t h i s chapter is concerned wi th becoming

v i r tuous by recognizing t h e v i r t u e i n onese l f and

participating i n t h e vir tuous r e a l i t y o f t h e cosmos i n order

t o l i b e r a t e onese l f from the body and become divine. A s t h e

Pythagorean Metopus w r i t e s : 'Man' s v i r t u e i s t he pe r fec t ion

o f h i s na ture . "75 This is achieved by the philosophical

process, where knowledge of the cosmos i s learned through

contemplation of t h e most beau t i f u l t h i n g s . Virtuous

behaviour may be an inev i t ab le r e s u l t of t h i s process, b u t

being t r u l y v i r t u o u s does not n e c e s s a r i l y r e s u l t from

vi r tuous a c t i o n . A s Archytas a r t i c u l a t e s , " W e praise a man

because of h i s vir tue. . .The good man is such because of

(emphasis mine) t h e goods t h a t come f r o m na ture . "" ~ h u s it

is my pos i t i on t h a t vir tuous ac t i on a lone would not d i r e c t l y

inf luence the Pythagorean process of metempsychosis,

There are, t o be sure, many va luab le bene f i t s of

Pythagoreanism r e a l i z e d through virtuous a c t i o n and a

vir tuous l i f e s t y l e , a s w i l l be addressed i n t h e chapter t h a t

follows. They are extremely re levan t t o any examination of

'' Metopus, in The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids: Phanes press, 1988) 249.

76 "The Life of Archytas, " 185.

t h e consequences of t h e philosophical process t h a t occur i n

t h e physical realm during t h e l ibe ra t ion process. They

must, however, be understood a s t he behavioural e f f e c t o r

consequence of adopting the philosophy t h a t they are. I do

not believe t h a t v i r tuous ac t ion , i n and o f i tself, is

instrumental t o t h e process of metempsychosis, i.e., t o t h e

ul t imate l i be ra t i on o f t h e individual 's sou l from h i d h e r

body.

In h i s L i f e of Pythaqoras Iamblichus has preserved a

composite o f questions, of t h e kind posed by Pythagoras t o

h i s s tudents , They a r e as follows:

What is the m o s t j u s t t h i n g ? To s a c r i f i c e .

What i s the w i s e s t thing? Number, T h e next w i s e s t i s t h e naming power.

What is the m o s t b e a u t i f u l ? Harmony.

W h a t is the m o s t p o w e r f u l ? Mental decision.

What is the m o s t excellent? F e l i c i t y . 7 7

I equate t h e v i r tuous na ture of the immaterial realm

with a d is t inguishable set of moral q u a l i t i e s o r moral

goodness t h a t can be adhered t o through the Pythagorean

philosophical process. The above passage i s evidence that

7 7 Iamblichus 43.

Pythagoras t augh t h i s s tudents t o contemplate t h e cosmic

v i r tues , i . e , , t h e most jus t , t h e wisest, t h e most

beaut i fu l , most powerful, and most e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s of

t h e universe. I understand t h i s t o mean that th ings l i k e

j us t i ce , wisdom, beauty, power, and exce l l ence w e r e t h e

idea l s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l was t o focus h i d h e r

phi losophical contemplation on throughout h i d h e r corporeal

exis tence. These ideals represented t h e t r u e nature of t h e

cosmos; they w e r e t h e immaterial essences of the universe.

A s microcosmic representa t ions of t h e cosmos, these

v i r t u e s w e r e r e f l e c t e d i n a l l humans, thus enabl ing a v i r t u e

e t h i c s f o r every ind iv idua l throughout h i s /her physical

exis tence. When t h e indiv idual engages i n t h e phi losophical

process t o determine t h e reality of both t h e universe and of

themselves, t h e s e v i r t u e s a r e r ea l i zed . They demonstrate t o

t h e ind iv idua l t h e proper way of e x i s t i n g i n t h e world, t h a t

i s , t h e t r u e nature of t h e universe t h a t ought t o be adhered

t o . Vi r tue e t h i c s i s thus a consequence of engaging i n t h e

phi losophical process . I n shor t , virtue e t h i c s provide a

be l i e f system f o r t h e indiv idual throughout h i d h e r

corporea l i ty , and it i s upheld through phi losophica l

contemplation. It is usefu l and va luab le t o t h e Pythagorean

i n h is /her a t tempt t o l i b e r a t e h i d h e r s e l f from t h e

cons t ra in t s of t h e body.

In this way, there is an efficacy of Pythagoreanism

that comes from the contemplation of the virtuous or ethical

nature of the cosmos, This is an individual process; it

takes place in the individual microcosm, distinct from all

other microcosms, and it is realized in the physical world

only, over the course of the individual's corporeal

lifetime. Philosophical contemplation is how we become

virtuous beings. It is a process that is undertaken in the

corporeal world, and the virtue ethics that ensues is

realized in the corporeal realm, as the Pythagorean works

towards liberating him/herself from it.

With this idea in place it becomes easier to recognize

how the individual will influence the metempsychosis of

hidher soul. Virtue ethics are valuable because they are

enlightening; by comprehending the virtuous nature of the

cosmos the individual has reached a higher level of

understanding about the cosmos. We are able to grasp how

things are in the universe, the world and our relevance to

it. This enlightenment is what affects the reincarnation

process for the individual soul. It is through

contemplation of the divine virtues that the individual

becomes enlightened.

This is the process of purification; it comes from

philosophy, as a result of the individual's need to escape

from the constraints of the corporeal realm. Furthermore,

it is what determines the individual soul's cycle of

metempsychosis. It seems evident that once the Pythagorean

student reaches these natural and fundamental universal

ideals hidher lifestyle will be enhanced. Revelations of

this nature bring people closer to reality, and heighten

their awareness of how the universe exists. Once this is

realized, they no longer need to be questioned; thus they

are never reversed. Once this certainty is understood, the

individual has moved towards the divine, and consequently

enhanced hisher corporeal lifestyle,

I demonstrated at the beginning of this chapter, (p .

51), that the individual soul is the link between the

material and the immaterial cosmic realms. It is the

attunement between the various universal realms; it binds

the universe together. When it purifies and reincarnates in

a new corporeal body the entire being, material and

immaterial, are affected. Recall from pages 70 - 73, that

the pxocess of metempsychosis is rewarding in that it allows

for an enhanced lifestyle in future incarnations. In this

way, metempsychosis ensures that the enlightenment achieved

in a previous life continues on in subsequent lives. This

is a direct consequence of the Pythagorean philosophical

process that occurs in the corporeal realm. The steps that

the individual takes to enlighten him/herself, and escape

from hidher corporeality, carry over to the soul's future

i nca rna t ions . A s the soul becomes liberated, the indiv idual

i s rewarded throughout i ts lifetime,

The v i r tuous na ture of t h e universe , bo th mater ia l and

immaterial, is summarized w e l l i n Archytas' Ethical

Fragments. H e w r i t e s :

W e p ra i se a man because of h i s v i r t u e ... The good man i s such because of t h e goods t h a t proceed from vir tue, . ,From t h e good man you cannot t ake h i s v i r t u e ,

God differs from t h e good man i n t h a t God no t only possesses a p e r f e c t v i r t u e , p u r i f i e d from a l l mortal a f fec t ion , b u t enjoys a v i r t u e whose power i s f a u l t l e s s and independent, a s s u i t s t h e majesty and magnificence of h i s works,

Man, on the contrary, n o t only possesses an i n f e r i o r v i r tue , because o f t h e mortal c o n s t i t u t i o n of h i s nature , b u t even sometimes by t h e very abundance of h i s goods, now by the f o r c e of habi t , by t h e v i c e of nature, o r f r o m o t h e r causes, h e i s inca a b l e of a t t a i n i n g the p e r f e c t i o n of the good. 78

This passage is extremely poignant; it accurately

cap tu res t h e d i f f e r e n c e between material and immaterial,

between t h e human r e a l m and t h e d i v i n e realm. I t dep ic t s

how th ings a r e i n t h e universe, e . , t h e na ture of a

universe that is pure ly vir tuous i n God, and impurely

r e f l e c t e d i n corporea l beings.

Archytas' E t h i c a l Fragments demonstrate t o the

i n d i v i d u a l that t h e i d e a l v i r t u e s e x i s t i n the Gods.

Furthermore, t h e y demonstrate t h a t f o r humans, their

"The L i f e of Archytas," 185.

physical na tu re i s t h e vice t h a t prevents them from e x i s t i n g

as p e r f e c t l y v i r tuous beings. T h i s vice then, is what makes

humans i n f e r i o r . When I read t h i s fragment I unders tand

t h a t t h e t a s k o f t h e Pythagoreans i s t o use t h e i r

p o t e n t i a l i t y as p h y s i c a l beings i n order t o seek o u t t h e

v i r t u e r e f l e c t e d i n themselves- It is t o make v i r t u e t h e

cen te r o r s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r the ind iv idual , a s it is f o r

t h e d iv ine , To do t h i s i s t o eschew everything that i s no t

vir tuous, i. e., t h e co rporea l elements. Thus t h e l i f e

process for t h e human i s about using t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y

granted t o them by t h e d i v i n e i n order t o achieve d i v i n i t y

and v i r t u e , This is t h e means of l i b e r a t i o n for the

individual . By engaging i n t h e phi losophical process t o

understand t h e d iv ine , t h e ind iv idua l consequently becomes a

vir tuous being even when inca rna te .

The E t h i c a l Fragments of Archytas demonstrate t h a t t h e

goal i s t o p e r f e c t one's v i r t u o u s nature, t o l i b e r a t e

oneself and become l i k e t h e d iv ine . From here t h e

Pythagorear. must l e a r n how t o become v i r tuous . He/she must

begin t o a s s i m i l a t e God by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e d i v i n e

process. I have inc luded t h e E t h i c a l Sentences of t h e

Pythagorean Sextus, which are thought t o have been compiled

c i r c a t he second cen tu ry AD." This p iece of work i s qu i t e

lengthy, thus I have selected only a f e w p a r t i c u l a r l y

r e l evan t l i ne s .

5 . You have i n yourse l f something similar t o God, and the re fo re u s e yourse l f as the temple of God, on account of t h a t which i n you resembles God. 6. Honor God above a l l things t h a t he may r u l e over you . 8. The g r e a t e s t honor which can be pa id t o God i s t o know and i m i t a t e him. 14. A good i n t e l l e c t is t h e cho i r o f d i v i n i t y . 23. Before you do anything think of God, t h a t h i s l i g h t may precede your energies . 2 4 . T h e sou l i s i l luminated by t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n of God. 39. He is dear t o d i v i n i t y who cons iders those things a l o n e precious which are esteemed t o be s o by d i v i n i t y . 46. The knowledge and imi ta t ion of d i v i n i t y are alone s u f f i c i e n t t o bea t i t ude . 58. I n a l l your a c t i o n s keep God before your eyes. 70. The w i s e m a n p a r t i c i p a t e s i n God. 86. He best honors God who makes h i s i n t e l l e c t a s l i k e God as poss ib le . 90. Recognize what God is, and t h a t i n you which recognizes God. 93. Accustom yourse l f always t o look t o the D i v i n i t y . 80

I consider these e t h i c a l sayings t o be a va luable

source f o r summarizing how t h e indiv idual is t o p a r t i c i p a t e

i n the divine v i r t u e s . T h e message s e e m s t o be t h a t t he

t a s k of t h e ind iv idua l is t o honour d i v i n i t y always, by

putting God a t t h e c e n t e r of everything. The goa l is t o

ensure t h a t f o r each i nd iv idua l a l l thoughts and ac t i ons a r e

i n accordance with an ex i s t ence t h a t i s undertaken i n t h e

'' Sextus, "Selected Sentences of Sextus the Pythagoras, in The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 1988) 267-268.

80 "Selected Sentence of Sextus the Pythagorean" 267.

r e f l e c t i o n of God, I n t h i s way, a s t h e philosopher is

escaping h i d h e r co rporea l entrapment, hefshe consequently

becomes a v i r tuous i n d i v i d u a l throughout t h e course of

h i d h e r l i f e , The v i r t u o u s n a t u r e of t h e indiv idual is of

contingent va lue t o t h e cosmos; he/she i s working towards

t h e g r e a t e r goal , d i v i n e v i r t u e .

According t o Sextus, t h e Pythagorean s tudent becomes

v i r tuous by meeting a p resc r ibed l i f e s t y l e . He/she must

work t o fulfill d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e t a s k s . When t h e above

sentences are c l o s e l y examined, it becomes evident t h a t

t h e r e is a sense of o r d e r t o t h e ind iv idua l ' s becoming

vir tuous, al though they a r e n o t necessa r i ly presented i n

order by Sextus. I n o r d e r t o comprehend and begin t o adhere

t o a system of v i r t u e e t h i c s t h e s tuden t must first be

wi l l ing t o ab ide by t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t what i s d iv ine i s of

t h e h ighes t p o s s i b l e of va lue i n t h e cosmos. Next, he/she

must r e a l i z e t h a t w e a l l have some of t h a t d iv ine n a t u r e i n

ourselves; t h a t it i s r e f l e c t e d i n our souls , and t h a t it is

reached by i m i t a t i n g t h e d iv ine . Imi ta t ing t h e d iv ine is

made poss ib le through t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l pursu i t of r e a l i t y ,

and it w i l l l e a d us t o be d i v i n e i n a l l o f our a c t i o n s -

Final ly , t h e Pythagorean s t u d e n t must become accustomed t o

these p r i n c i p l e s , making a s i n c e r e commitment t o them as a

h o l i s t i c and unwavering way of l i f e .

Sextus' e t h i c a l sentences are somewhat broad. I take

t h i s t o be because t h e y are in tended t o be all-encompassing

and a p p l i c a b l e t o any and a l l i n d i v i d u a l s . Thus while t h e y

m a y be cons ide red broad, they should i n no way be thought o f

as vague o r unc l ea r . Each fragment i s a p p l i c a b l e t o

every th ing t h a t t h e i nd iv idua l is and does, i .e. , their

e n t i r e essence, e x i s t e n c e , and l i f e s t y l e . I be l i eve t h a t

this is a neces sa ry factor i n any system o f v i r t u e ethics.

E a r l i e r on i n t h i s chap te r I d e s c r i b e v i r t u e e t h i c s as

a way of 'being' o r ' l iv ing ' in t h e world. I be l i eve t h a t

it must r e s u l t i n a h o l i s t i c l i f e s t y l e , where a l l th ings a r e

understood as related. I n t h i s way, one's l i f e s t y l e is

e n t i r e l y directed towards one p a r t i c u l a r c e n t e r of value,

t h e d i v i n e v i r t u e s . The d i f f e r e n t e lements o f any

ind iv idua l ' s l i f e s t y l e cannot be s e p a r a t e d from one another;

all t h i n g s are cons ide red as t hey r e l a t e t o t h e v i r t u e s . I n

Pythagoreanism, these v i r t u e s a r e t h e d i v i n e and immaterial

essence of t h e cosmos. Everything t h a t t h e Pythagorean

becomes i s as a means to t h e h ighes t p o s s i b l e end:

l i b e r a t i o n . The u n i v e r s a l v i r t u e s n e c e s s a r i l y a f f e c t

every th ing about t h e i nd iv idua l . V i r t u e e t h i c s is, i n l a r g e

p a r t , about acting and e x i s t i n g c o n s i s t e n t l y over the course

of t i m e .

Conclusion

The goal of this chapter has been to demonstrate a

contingent benefit realized from the individual's attempt to

eschew the body and liberate the soul from its corporeal

entrapment. Specifically, that when contemplating the

virtuous nature of the cosmos, the Pythagorean doctrine of

divine numbers served as an ethical archetype in the

corporeal world, This ethical archetype ultimately led to a

system of virtue ethLcs for any individual who made the

commitment to contemplating the cosmos philosophically.

By considering how the individual's body acts as a host

and school for the soul, we are able to understand t h a t the

Pythagorean must make use of the corporeal world to aid in

the contemplative process. The physical realm illustrates

to the individual t h e difference between the Limited and the

Unlimited, what is good and what is evil, After realizing

that the body has trapped the soul, the individual must

allow the corporeal realm to be empowering; he/she must use

it in order to become free and divine, Specifically, the

corporeal realm is where the philosophy exists; it is

realized in the physical realm only, through t h e

individual's use of reason. The result is that the

individual learns what to value, namely hidher soul, and

subsequently to eschew sensual gratification.

Ultimately then t h i s process l eads Pythagoreans t o

examine t h e v i r tuous na tu re of t h e Pythagorean number

theory. They r e a l i z e t h a t metempsychosis will ensure t h a t

t h e i r soul i s rewarded i n future i nca rna t ions i f it works

towards jo in ing t h e divine essence of t h e cosmos. This is ,

f o r every i nd iv idua l , t h e process of becoming vi r tuous , and

it occurs i n t h e corporea l realm, through phi losophical

contemplation of t he most b e a u t i f u l p r i n c i p l e s of t h e

universe. I b e l i e v e that t h e v i r t u e e t h i c s t h a t ensue from

such contemplation necessarily lead t o v i r tuous a c t i o n on

behalf of every ind iv idua l . Thus v i r t u o u s ac t ion is the

f i n a l consequence of Pythagoreanism t h a t occurs i n t h e

physical realm of t h e cosmos t h a t w i l l be addressed i n t h i s

examination, i n the fol lowing chapter .

Just and Virtuous Action

As touched on in the previous chapter, there are many

valuable consequences to the Pythagorean virtue ethics that

are realized through virtuous action and lifestyle. A

system of virtue ethics becomes the code of conduct

according to which individuals live their lives; thus

virtuous action necessarily results from the virtuous

individual. This is a further consequence of the

Pythagorean philosophy that is realized in the physical

realm of the cosmos (where action and experience occur), as

a result of the philosophical process.

Among the available written Pythagorean doctrines are

several testimonials of the fact that justice is the

paramount virtue to Pythagorean ethics. The

is from "The Golden Verses of Pythagoras".

are considered to be instructions, intended

"...the principles of daily conduct leading

divinization of the soul. "81

Let justice be practiced in words

following piece

These fragments

to indicate

to the

as deeds; Then make the habit, never inconsiderately to act; Neither forget that death is appointed to all8"

K . S . G u t h r i e , The Golden Verses of Pythagoras 163. '* K. S. Guthrie, The Golden Verses of Pythagoras 163.

This passage provides us with evidence of the

importance of just action to the Pythagorean philosophy. I

take it to be representative of individualism in the

cosmology. To behave justly towards others is an individual

choice and task. As demonstrated in Chapter 3, to become

(a) virtuous (being) and adhere to a set of virtue ethics is

an individual endeavour; every Pythagorean makes a personal

commitment to discover hisfher own virtuous nature and

purify that virtue in him/herself.

It is important to note, however, that acting justly is

the individualr s means of respecting the virtuous nature of

others. Part of adhering to a system of virtue ethics

involves examining factors outside of oneself. In order for

any Pythagorean to strive to assimilate him/herself with the

divine, he/she must necessarily examine hidher position in

the cosmos. Thus he/she inevitably learns that the virtuous

nature of the divine numbers are reflected in all others, as

well as in him/herself. Throughout his/her corporeal

existence then, he/she will consistently respect the

virtuous essence of other individuals. Consequently,

Pythagoreans will always behave justly towards one another,

understanding that they are all equal participants in the

same cosmos. A just society then, is the cumulative effect

of virtuous action on behalf of each member of the group.

It is the natural result of virtuous individuals interacting

with one another, according to the Pythagorean doctrines.

Specifically, it is a consequence of the individualsf

endeavour to become divine,

Consider the following passage from Polus, entitled "On

Justicer' :

I think that justice which subsists among men may be called the mother and nurse of the other v i r t u e s - Without it no man can be temperate, brave, or prudent. In conjunction with elegance it is the harmony and peace of the whole soul. This virtue's strength will become more manifest if we compare it to the other habits. They have a partial utility, and refer to one thing only. while this refers to a multitude and to whole systems, It conducts the whole world-government and is called providence, harmony ...In a city it is justly called peace, and equitable legislation. In a house it is the concord between husband and wife,,.In the body, likewise, which to all animals is the first and dearest thing, it is the health and wholeness of each part. In the soul it is the wisdom that depends from science and justice. As therefore t h i s virtue disciplines and saves both the whole and parts of everything, mutually tuning and familiarizing all things, it surely deserves, by universal consensus, to be called the mother and nurse of all things, 8 3

This passage is extremely useful to exhibiting how the

virtuous Pythagorean comes to behaves or act virtuously. In

the first half of the passage Polus is concerned with

demonstrating justice as the most important of all other

virtues; it is the foundation of all others, This is

c e r t a i n l y i n keeping with t h e Pythagorean b e l i e f t h a t the

div ine number 4, t h e Tetraktys , i s t h e most important true

number i n t h e cosmos84 ( r e c a l l t h a t a l though One and Two

were p a r t of the Decad Pythagoras d i d n o t cons ide r them t o

be t r u e numbers) . Recall from Chapter 2 t h a t t h e number 4

encompassed a l l o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e Decad a t la rge .

Polus c l e a r l y t a k e s j u s t i c e t o be t h e paramount v i r t u e ,

descr ibing it as "...the mother and n u r s e of t h e o the r

v i r t u e s , "

More r e l e v a n t t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a p t e r , however, i s

t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e passage. H e r e , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n moves

towards t h e idea of j u s t ac t ion . Polus asserts t h a t ju s t i ce

i s t o be valued f o r i ts funct ion i n t h e co rporea l realm of

t h e cosmos. H e breaks down j u s t i c e ' s s t r u c t u r e moving from

the c i t y , t o the family, t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l body, and f i n a l l y

t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l soul . A s he demonstrates, j u s t i c e causes

peace, equ i ty , k ind l iness , care , h e a l t h and wholeness, and

wisdom, These are t h e f a c t o r s t h a t h e l p t o create a just

soc ie ty , and t h e y are dependent upon j u s t i c e as a divine

v i r t u e . I n s h o r t , Polus' ideas about justice demonstrate a

valuable e f f i c a c y of Pythagoreanism t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e

physical r e a l m , as t h e indiv idual works t o liberate

him/herself from corporea l i ty and e n t e r t h e realm of

ul t imate v i r t u e and d i v i n i t y . S p e c i f i c a l l y , he presents t h e

i d e a t h a t j u s t i c e is paramount t o t h e philosophy i n p a r t

because o f how it manifests i t se l f i n t o a code o f e t h i c s f o r

eve ry ind iv idua l Pythagorean throughout t h e i r corporeal

ex i s t ence , a s mor ta l beings.

I be l i eve t h a t t h e just behaviour i n t h e co rporea l

realm descr ibed h e r e i n "On J u s t i c e " i s va luab le because, as

Polus submits, just conduct i s t h e na tu ra l consequence of

t h e Pythagorean system of virtue e t h i c s examined i n Chapter

3. Once w e become v i r t u o u s beings , w e w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y act

i n a j u s t fashion. This be ing t h e case , j u s t and v i r t u o u s

a c t i o n a r e of d e r i v a t i v e v a l u e t o Pythagoreanism. They

r e s u l t from t h e d i v i n e v i r t u e s t o which t h e Pythagorean

adheres . They are con t ingen t upon t h e ind iv idua l commitment

t o philosophy and d i v i n i t y . V i r t u e e t h i c s e x i s t as a v a l u e

system. Thus t h e Pythagorean beg ins t o consider t h e effects

of h i d h e r ac t ions towards h i m i h e r s e l f , o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s ,

and s o c i e t y a t l a r g e , He/she acts j u s t l y and virtuously

because doing so i s understood t o be o f t h e h i g h e s t value

and s i g n i f i c a n t t o h i s / h e r set o f b e l i e f s about t h e cosmos.

Clear ly , t h e evidence provided by Polus p o i n t s t o a

d e r i v a t i v e e f f i c a c y of t h e Pythagorean philosophy t h a t is

r e a l i z e d i n t h e p h y s i c a l realm of t h e cosmos. H e r e i s where

a c t i o n and experience occur; thus it i s t h e p l a c e where

one's v i r t u e e t h i c s become e f f e c t i v e , by being b e n e f i c i a l t o

o t h e r s . I consider t h i s i dea t o be o f tremendous importance

to any examination of Py-thagoreanism. According to the

Pythagorean doctrines, when people make s commitment to this

philosophy, they center their existence around principles

that require eschewing the body and reaching a higher goal,

i.e., to leave the physical world behind and become divine.

A discussion of just action demonstrates that throughout the

course of this practice, a commitment to-the physical world

is crucial. Part of understanding the Pythagorean doctrines

entails learning to value all other individuals in their own

right. Each member of the cosmos is significant and

representative of the divine. Thus part of assimilating

with the divine and becoming virtuous, is to value others by

treating them justly. In this way the Pythagorean is both a

virtuous individual and a virtuous participant in the

cosmos.

CONCLUSION

To conclude, I have selected another section of "The Golden

Verses of Pythagoras". These Verses epitomize the

Pythagorean lifestyle that will lead to the purification of

the individual' s soul. 85 Furthermore, they address each of

the ideas touched on in this examination. This passage is

quite lengthy, thus I have selected a few lines that I

consider to be particularly poignant and relevant to

concluding this examination.

Specifically, "The Golden Verses of Pythagoras" explain

that as Nature reveals, even mortals contain the divine

principles. I take this to be indicative of the individual

potentiality explained in Chapter 2; upon self-examination

we come to understand that, by using our Limited and

Unlimited properties together, we are able to engage in the

philosophical process. We are able to realize that impure

reflections of the divine principles exist in each of us,

Thus throughout our corporeal lives, we exist as

potentiality, i .e. , with the potential to liberate our souls

from their corporeal constraints and assimilate ourselves

with the pure and immortal universal essence.

Furthermore, these Verses demonstrate that with the

gift of reason, the Pythagorean is able to separate

hidherself from the body, and embrace hidher divine and

-

as K.S. Guthrie, T h e Golden V e r s e s of Pythagoras, 163.

immortal essence. H e r e then , the ind iv idua l works towards

pur i fy ing himlherself by eschewing h i s /he r c o r p o r e a l i t y . In

order t o do so, the Pythagorean must contemplate t h e t r u e

na ture of t h e cosmos, i- e- , t h e pure and v i r tuous n a t u r e of

t h e d iv ine p r i n c i p l e s . He/she w i l l embrace t h e s e v i r t u e s ,

u l t imate ly becoming v i r t u o u s subsequently adhering t o a

universal system of virtue e t h i c s and l i v i n g a j u s t and

v i r tuous l i f e s t y l e - Final ly , t h e i n i t i a l f o u r l i n e s of t h e Pythagorean

Verses dictate that a l l conduct i s t o be taken with t h e

b less ing of God and t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e cosmos i n mind-

The t r u e Nature of t h e u n i v e r s e i s greater than our

indiv idual se lves , and o u r co rporea l exis tence. Ins t ead , it

i s about t h e t r ansmigra t ion of our sou l s and a c t i n g i n

accordance with t h e d iv ine . W e are t o conduct our l i v e s

according t o t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s , with t h e knowledge t h a t

everything i n t h e cosmos is c y c l i c a l and e t e r n a l , pass ing

and re turn ing .

Never s t a r t on your t a s k u n t i l you have implored t h e b l e s s i n g o f t h e Gods. I f t h i s you hold fas t , soon w i l l you recognize of Gods and mortal m e n The t r u e na tu re o f ex i s t ence , how every th ing passes and returns. Then w i l l you see what i s t r u e , how Nature i n a l l i s most equal.

Y e t do not fear, f o r t h e mortals a r e d iv ine by race,

To whom holy Nature everything will revea l and demonstrate;

Healing your soul, you shall remain i n su red from manifold e v i l , Avoid foods forbidden; r e f l e c t t h a t t h i s cont r ibutes t o t h e c leanl iness And redemption o f your soul . Consider a l l things w e l l : L e t reason, the gift divine, be t h y h ighes t guide; Then should you be separated from t h e body, and soar i n the aether , You w i l l be imperishable, a d i v i n i t y , a mortal no more. 86

K.S. Guthrie, The Golden V e r s e s of Pythagoras 164 -

88

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