onmyōdō in the muromachi period

8/10/2019 Onmyd in the Muromachi Period

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Tis article argues that the significance o the Muromachi period within thehistory o Onmyd has been seriously undervalued and understudied, anddemonstrates the importance o the period through a discussion o the careerso the leading onmyjio the time. It discusses the policies o Ashikaga Yoshi-mitsu and his promotion o numerous onmyjito high court ranks, and hisperormance o various Onmyd rituals, such as the Great Esoteric Rite atKitayama villa. It then looks at the decline o onmyjiactivities afer the deatho Yoshimitsu and during the administrations o Yoshimochi and Yoshinori. Itconcludes that the Muromachi period, especially during the reign o AshikagaYoshimitsu, was the golden age o Onmyd, and speculates on why this hasbeen overlooked by scholars.

: Muromachi periodAshikaga YoshimitsuAbe no Ariyocourtranksesoteric ritesAshikaga YoshimochiAshikaga Yoshinori

Y oshiaki is a proessor in the Faculty o Arts and Letters, ohoku University.

Japanese Journal of Religious Studies/: Nanzan Institute or Religion and Culture

Y oshiaki

Onmyd in the Muromachi Period


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H we understand the Muromachi period within the his-

tory of Onmyd (yin-yang divination) as a whole? If we consult the

largest dictionary o Japanese history, the Kokushi daijiten, we find that

the entry on Onmyd begins with theperiod in the sixth and seventh centuries

prior to the aika reorm and touches on the Medieval period, but devotes an

overwhelming majority o space to Onmyd in the Heian period. For the Kama-

kura period, we find the shogunates avoring o Onmyd set out extremely sim-

ply, and or the Muromachi period the entry merely touches on the Onmyd

texts produced around that time. urning to the entry on onmyji(yin-yang

diviners, Onmyd practitioners), we find an exposition on the subject rom the

Asuka period to the time o the Meiji Restoration, but it makes absolutely no

mention o onmyjiin the Muromachi period. Even i the Muromachi period

was a period o decline or Onmyd, there must surely be issues concerning the

onmyjio the time that need to be taken into consideration.

I we put preconceived ideas to one side and approach the historical materials

with an open mind, a historical image o Onmydcomes into view that is radi-cally different to the one described above. Tis article presents a discussion o the

relationship between Onmydand the Muromachi regime during the admin-

istrations o the shoguns Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (), Ashikaga

Yoshimochi (), and Ashikaga Yoshinori().

Tis is said to have been a relatively stable era even amid the repeated uprisings

and upheavals o the Muromachi period as a whole.1

* Note on the translation: this article was originally published in H and K (),

a work that aimed to provide an up-to-date introduction to Onmyd, including important yetofen overlooked aspects, to the general reader. It was translated or theJJRSby Jon Morris. Somereerence page numbers have been added or this English version o the article. Further discus-sions o the points raised in this article may be ound in the authors other works on the subject,upon which this work is based (see ootnote ). Te translator wishes to thank the author orproviding answers, corrections, and assistance throughout the process o translation, especiallyconcerning readings o personal names. It is not possible to confirm the readings o many othe personal names given in this article, and the readings given should thereore be regarded asbest suggestions. Te translator also grateully acknowledges the valuable comments and adviceprovided by Hayashi Makoto, Orion Klautau, and Sebastian Maslow.

. Tis article is based on earlier works by the author: see Y ; a; b;; ; . Tese works are not reerenced ully in later parts o the article. Furthermore,presentation o historical materials in support o the arguments made in this article has beenkept to a minimum.


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Te Period of Ashikaga Yoshimitsus Administration

A large number o onmyjiappear in the historical materials o the Muromachi

period. It is o great interest that the ranks held by the onmyjio this periodare unusually high. We even find some who have progressed to the Tird CourtRank and higher, that is to say, to the highest aristocratic echelon, known asthe court nobles (kugy;see ). Tere is no example o this prior tothe Muromachi period. Court rank is a direct indication o the holders positionwithin the state. Tus we can say that the position o onmyjiwithin the statehad become higher than had previously been the case. From what point in time,then, did onmyjibecome able to rise to the Tird Court Rank? Moreover, whatwas the historical background o this elevation?

Abe no Ariyo () was the first onmyjito rise to the Tird CourtRank(without Imperial Advisor status [sangi]), a position he achieved inthe first month o the ourth year o the Eitoku era () (see the Kugy buninoicial list o court appointments in ). Ariyo was born in ,the second year o the Karyaku era. While still young he served as commissionero ceremonies or the kishimai ritual dance which was part o the Daije

(the banquet on the occasion o the Daijsai, enthronement ritesin which the first o the rice harvest is ceremonially offered by a newly-enthroned

emperor) in , the third year o the Bunna [Bunwa] era (Northern Courtdatation). He was then appointed ony no kami (Chie Oicial o the

Onyry, the Yin-Yang Bureau) in , the ourth year o the Bunna era.From that point on he was an onmyjio the very highest standing in the ser-

vice o the retired and current emperors and the sekkankeamilies romwhich regents and chancellors were chosen. Nevertheless, Ariyos activities up to

that point in time did not differ greatly rom those that onmyjihad typically per-

ormed, and his rank was also entirely in line with precedent. It was his associationwith Ashikaga Yoshimitsu that was to change his lie undamentally.

Te first contact between Ariyo and Yoshimitsu that we can confirm romthe historical materials was on the twenty-third day o the ourth month o theourth year o the Eiwa era (). Tis was the occasion o Yoshimitsus wieHino Narikos chakutai (putting on o a maternity sash, a ritualcarried out in the fifh month o pregnancy), at which Ariyo perormed prayerrites (see, or example, Gukanki, in ). It is also possible that Ariyoserved as oiciant priest at the celebration o an Onmydrite (the aizan

Fukun sai, which celebrates aizan Fukun, a divine being with powerover longevity) that is described by the Kaei sandaiki(see , zatsubu) as having been heldby the shogunateon the twenty-third day o the sixth


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Abe no Ariyo (Eitoku ei , ) Junior Second Rank Abe no Yasunobu (Meitoku ei , ) Junior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akihiro (ei ei , ) Junior Tird Rank

Abe no Moritsune (ei ei , ) Senior Tird Rank

Abe no Yasuie (ei ei , ) Junior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akikata (ei Bunan , ) Senior Tird Rank

Abe no Arimori (ei Eiky , ; ormerlyknown as Yasutsugu, written or)

Junior Tird Rank

Abe no Arishige (Eiky Htoku , ; later

known as Arinaka

)

Senior Tird Rank

Abe no Aritomi (Bunan Bunan , ) Junior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akisada a (Bunan Bunmei , ; a.k.a.Aritoyo/Arinari)

Junior Second Rank

Abe no Arikiyo (Bunan Kansh , ) Junior Second Rank

Kamo no Akiyasu b (Bunan Kansh , ) Senior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akinaga (Ksh Bunmei , ) Senior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akimori (Ksh Bunmei , ) Junior Second Rank

Abe no Arisue (Ksh Kansh , ) Senior Tird Rank

Abe no Arinobu (Bunmei Eish , ) Junior Second Rank

Abe no Yasukiyo (Bunmei Eish , ) Junior Second Rank Kamo no Akimune (Bunmei Bunmei , ) Junior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akimichi (Bunmei Eish , ) Junior Second Rank

Kamo no Akimoto (Eish Kyroku , ) Senior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akishige (Eish Eish , ) Junior Tird Rank

Kamo no Akitomi (Eiroku Eiroku , ) Junior Second Rank

Kamo no Akiyasu (enbun (enmon) enbun ,)

Junior Tird Rank

Abe no Ariharu c (enbun Eiroku , ) Junior Second Rank

Abe no Arinobu d Abe no Arinobu Junior Tird Rank

a. His activities as an onmyjibetween do not appear in the Kugy bunin.b. His activities as an onmyjibetween cannot be confirmed with reerence

to historical materials.c. A large amount o this time was spent in his territories in Wakasa province.d. From this point on there are no extant records until Abe no Arinobu in the sev-

enth year o the Genna era ().

. Onmyjiwho rose to the Tird Court Rank and above.

Te inormation in this table is based on the Kugy bunin.


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month o the second year o the Eiwa era (),ollowing a kanmon(offi-cial report) rom the Abe amily.

It would seem, then, that the relationship between Ariyo and Yoshimitsubegan around the beginning o the Eiwa era. At this juncture, let us take a brielook at Yoshimitsus connection with Onmydbeore his coming into contactwith Ariyo. First, though Abe no Munetoki and Kamo no Sadahidewere onmyjiassociated with Yoshimitsu, their ranks were not particu-larly high, there being a disparity between their ranks and those o onmyjiinthe service o the retired and current emperors and the sekkanke. Furthermore,the services that Munetoki and Sadahide provided to Yoshimitsu were mainlylimited to preparing official reports concerning dates and times relating to polit-

ical and administrative affairs, and as such were nothing outside the boundarieso the usual work o onmyji. Teir significance with regard to our investigationis that with their roles being an extension o those established under Ashikagaakauji (), Ashikaga adayoshi (), andAshikaga Yoshiakira (), we may conclude that no special sta-tus was attributed to Onmydat that time.

However, afer coming into contact with Ariyo, Yoshimitsus mode o associa-tion with Onmydtook a dramatic new turn. First, it is important to recognizethat Ariyo was the leading onmyjio his generation. Te discrimination against

those onmyjiwho were not in the service o the Retired Emperor, emperor, andhigh-ranking court nobleswas to disappear. Next, it is significant that Yoshi-mitsu ceased to have onmyjiother than Ariyo perorm prayers and draw upofficial reports. At the same time, Ariyos connection with the Imperial house-hold and the sekkanke weakened until his sole affiliation was to Yoshimitsu.

Te course o Ariyos exceptional rise in status was as ollows. First, he wasgranted access to the Imperial Courtat the end o the first year o the Kryakuera () ollowing a bukeshis(a political request from the AshikagaShogunate to the Northern Court; in effect, Yoshimitsus personal recommen-

dation). Tis was the first time access to the court was granted to an onmyji,according to an entry in the Gukankiof the fourth day of the first month,

second year of Kryaku (). Next, in the first month of the fourth year of

Eitoku (), Ariyo was promoted to the Junior Tird Rank mentioned above.

here is, of course, no prior example of such an elevation. o borrow the

words of Yoshimitsu himself, this was indeed an unprecedented award (fujino sh ).2Tis can only have been brought about as a result o Yoshi-mitsus administration having secured control over the rights o state investiture.Yoshimitsu had raised the position o onmyjiwithin the state.

. See Yoshidake Hinamiki , twenty-first day o the third month o the eighthyear o the ei era (), .


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| Japanese Journal of Religious Studies / ()

So why did Yoshimitsu change his attitude toward the onmyji? It would be

too superficial to simply assume that Yoshimitsu was influenced by Ariyo, or that

Yoshimitsu himsel had become preoccupied with Onmyd. It is necessary,

rather, to explain Yoshimitsus attitudinal shif in relation to the political issues

acing him at that time. Yoshimitsus political concerns were, briefly put, his desire

to usurp a range o powers that had previously been in the hands o the court

nobles and to render the nobles subservient to him (S a, ). More

specifically, this involved the acquisition not only o worldly powers such as the

rights to control the police, courts, and taxation in Kyoto, but also o more con-

ceptual aspects o state lie such as the rights to change era names, coner court

ranks, award commissions, and perorm prayer rites (I , ).

Yoshimitsu became shogun in the first year o the an era (). However, ashe was still only a boy o eleven years, the powers o the shogun were held in his

stead byHosokawa Yoriyuki (). It is thought that Yoshimitsu

achieved his political independence and began to exercise power in his own right

around the first year o the Eiwa era (). Hosokawa Yoriyuki ell rom power

in the first year o theKryaku era (), and Shiba Yoshiyuki (

) took control (in the Kryaku coup detat). Tis was the point at which the

seizure o the various rights and powers held by the court nobles began in ear-

nest (M , ). Ariyos rise to high appointments under Yoshimitsu

took place more or less during the same period, and it is surely no coincidencethat the period was also one in which Yoshimitsus relationship with Onmyd

changed dramatically. Ariyo and Onmydwere elements within Yoshimitsus

greater strategy. o what use, then, was Ariyo put by Yoshimitsu?

On the fifh day o thesixth month o the fifh year o the Meitoku era (o the

reunified state, ), theesoteric Buddhist Godanhrite was perormed at

the Muromachi Dai palace. On the same occasion, the OnmydriteSanman-rokusenjinsai was carried out by Ariyo (Tese events are recorded

in the Kyto gosho higashiyama gobunkokiroku,

). From that point onward, prayer rites consisting o esoteric Buddhist ritu-

als perormed alongside Onmydrituals appear intermittently in the histori-

cal materials. In the sixth year o the ei era () Yoshimitsu completed the

Kitayama Villa (modern day Rokuonji ). Te prayer rites were carried

out without ail on the seventh day o each month rom his taking up residence

there. Let us take a look at the specifics o those rituals.3

. Regarding prayer rites under Yoshimitsus regime, see , ; I .For historical materials in urther detail, consult the Kanenobu kki, .


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First, the esoteric Buddhist prayer rite was perormed by the Dai Ajari, the highest-ranking Buddhist clergyman. It was a large-scale prayer rite,complete with a money offering o two hundred kanmon. Tose involvedwith itsorganization were all noblemen. Te last day o the rite (kechigan)was attended by the kugycourt nobles, who were, as a rule, direct retainerso the Imperial household. he prayers were oered under headings relect-ing state or public votive concerns such as: peace under heaven (tenka annei); universal tranquility (itten taihei); and peace without inci-dent throughout the world (shikai buji). Onmydrites conducted byAriyo were carried out in tandem with these esoteric Buddhist ritual practices.

On the first day o the ceremonies Ariyo came to the Kitayama Villa bear-

ing the saimon

, the text o his prayerul address to the gods; this was dulysigned by Yoshimitsu. Ten a migatameprayer rite or the strengthening othe body was perormed or Yoshimitsu. Afer a nademonorite (in which[ritual] impurity [kegare] is removed rom the body by stroking actions) hadbeen perormed, Ariyo received the object into which the impurity had beentranserred and returned to his residence, where he perormed Onmydritualsover seven nights. Te days and times o the prayer rites were chosen based onAriyos divinations.

In this article I will use the phrase the Great Esoteric Rites at Kitayama Villa

(Kitayamadai daih) to denote the esoteric Buddhist rites held atthat place, and the event as a whole, including the Onmydrites, I will callthe Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa (Kitayamadai kit ). Certainly,these did not account or all the prayer rites carried out under Yoshimitsusregime. Tere were also comparatively small scale rites, known as megurikit, carried out in the intervals between the perormances o the Prayer Ritesat Kitayama Villa. Tus official prayer rites under Yoshimitsu were structured insuch a way that the Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa constituted the zenith, and themegurikitrites were distributed around it, in multiple layers.

No other statesman or potentate in Japanese history put on impressive andelaborate religious rituals to the extent to which this was done by Yoshimitsu.At the time, Yoshimitsu had resigned as shogun and prime minister (dajdaijin) and gone orth rom home to homelessness as a Buddhist ordinate.Tis, however, did not actually mean that he had renounced the world and goneinto seclusion. It was a strategy designed to allow him to build a power base awayrom all restrictions, circumventing and superseding the influences o the samuraiand nobles. In the eighth year o the ei era (), emissaries were dispatched tothe Ming court in China. In a very well-known historical episode rom the ol-

lowing year, an edict was brought rom the Ming emperor designating Yoshimitsuthe king o Japan (Ch. Riben Guowang; Jp. Nihon koku ). Te PrayerRites at Kitayama Villa were a ceremony which made a display, particularly or


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the benefit o the court nobles, o the whereabouts o the prerogative power

to perorm state prayer rites, and also one which solemniied and ennobled

Yoshimitsus regime through religion; the Onmydrites perormed by Ariyo

constituted an indispensable aspect o this.

Yoshimitsus institution and structuring o this system o prayer rites was part

o his ongoing and steady progress toward achieving complete political indepen-

dence. Te promotion o Ariyo, the highest-ranking onmyjio the time, was a

strategic move reflecting a recognition o the importance o Onmydwithin

that process o achieving complete political dominance. What was it, then, that

Yoshimitsu was expecting Onmydto provide or him? I it was to make a show

o the whereabouts o the prerogative power to perorm state prayer rites, over-

coming the religious authority o the emperor would be a problem. Te religiousauthority o the emperor consisted o Buddhist and kami worship (jingi shink

; the worship o the gods o heaven and earth) elements. As the kami

worship elements were characterized by the ancestral cult o the imperial house,

they were an area into which it would have been difficult indeed or Yoshimitsu

to reach out his hand to interere (I ).

From the tenth century onward, the higher onmyjiranks were made accessi-ble only to members o the Kamo and Abe amilies. Te ormer were in charge

o rekid , the way (study) o the calendar, and the latter were in charge

o tenmond ,astrology. Between the tenth centuryand the Muromachi

period, the lineages o both amilies branched off and increased in number and

complexity. We may understand that there was no decisive hierarchy in place

among the intra-amily lineages rom the act that in neither amily was a single

intra-amily lineage fixed as the one to provide ony no kami. Tere was a signifi-

cant change in this regard, however, in the period o Yoshimitsus administration.

First, rom the time o Abe no Arimochi , ony no kamiin the sec-ond year o the Kakei era (Northern Court datation, ), the lineages that

might provide the Abe amilyony no kamiwere limited to the descendants

o Arimochi and Ariyo. Furthermore, as mentioned above, although onmyjio

the Tird Court Rank and higher do appear afer the time o Ariyo, these were

limited to the two lineages o Arishege and Ariyo.4Tese lineages had come to

stand out rom the others, and above them. However, i we compare the lineage

o Ariyo (the lineage o eldest sons, chakury,o the suchimikado

house) to that o Akishige (the illegitimate amily lineage, shory, o the

. Tough the details o this matter are unclear, the only exception to the rule was Abe noMoritsune .


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suchi-mikado house), it is clear that the superior position was held by the or-

mer, at least in the time o Yoshimitsus regime.

From the eighth to the tenth year o the ei era, (), Arimochi

made repeated applications requesting access to the Imperial Court.5At around

the same time, Ariyo was not only enjoying access to the Imperial Courtbut

had achieved the heights o Junior Second Rank. Moreover, Arimochis ather

Yasunobu was o the Junior Tird Rank. Despite the exceptional cases o

Ariyo and Yasunobu, however, Yoshimitsu made no move to accept Arimochis

petitions. On the other hand, there was at that time an onmyjiwho rather made

a mockery o Arimochis efforts by receiving access to the Imperial Courtwith-

out any great difficulty. Tis was Ariyos son Yasutsugu , who was permitted

access to the court in the first month o the ninth year o the ei era ().6

Ari-mochi was permitted access to the court in the ollowing year. Te legitimate

and illegitimate lineages o the suchimikadohouse were clearly dealt with

differently. Yoshimitsu treated the ormer o the two as the most legitimate, and

the latter o the two in accordance with that judgment.

For the Kamo amily, rom the time o Kamo no Akikata, who is known to have

been ony no kamiin the third year o the ei era (), allony no kami were

appointed rom the Kadenokji

house lineage. Kamo amily onmyji

who rose to the Tird Court Rankor higher were also all o that lineage. In this

manner, the internal hierarchies o the Abe and Kamo amilies came to be com-pletely determined during the Muromachi period, with the ranks held by the

legitimate and illegitimate/secondary lineages o the suchimikado house and the

Kadenokji house lineagehaving risen significantly. Te causal background to

these developments was surely Yoshimitsus policy or the organization o onmyji.

From the Kamakura period onward the Abe amily overwhelmed the Kamo am-

ily in terms o influence and held the predominant position. However, looking at

appointments o (state) ony no kami and promotions to Tird Court Rank and

above we can see no definitive difference between the two amilies.

Te ollowing poem in the Shinshoku kokin wakash( )

is extremely interesting:

Inorikoshi kimi ga megumi ni Kuraiyama yoyo ni mo koete noborinuru kana

. Regarding Arishiges petitions or access to the Imperial Court, see the Yoshidake Hinamiki,.

. Yoshidake Hinamiki, entry or the sixth day o the third month o the ninth year o the eiera (),.


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By the graces o my prayerul lord [have I scaled] Mount Kuraiyama,

unclimbed though it was by generations past.

Ariyo, Junior Second Rank

Te meaning o this poem is: Tanks to my lord who has continuously offered

prayers, I have risen in rank to a level ar higher than that achieved by any onmyji

in the past (Kuraiyama being an alliterative metaphor or rank, kurai). It

goes without saying that the lord o this poem is Yoshimitsu. Few would argue

i we were to find the sentiments a little too brazen or the poetic medium, but it

is not difficult to imagine that these were the heartelt and uneigned eelings o

Ariyo in his last years. According to the Kugy bunin, Ariyo died on the twenty-

ninth day o the first month o the twelfh year o the ei era().

What, then, became o the Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa afer the death oAriyo? In the first instance, it was accepted that Ariyos son Yasutsugu should

succeed to the position o celebrant o the rites. Tis, however, was perhaps done

only in deerence to mourning or Ariyo. In act, it was Kamo no Akihiro who

was given the post (in Mainichi Zatsuzatsuki , ). Te

court rank held by Akihiro deserves our attention as significant to his appoint-

ment. he Kugy bunintells us that he became the irst o the Kamo amily

onmyjito receive the Junior Tird Rank on the sixth day o the first month o

the thirteenth year o the ei era(). Tis rank was conerred on him imme-

diately afer he officiated at the Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa. Te link between

an onmyjis service to Yoshimitsu and promotion in rank is clearly demon-

strated here. Furthermore, Akihiro was a direct descendent o the Kadenokji

house mentioned in the previous section. Te prospering ortunes o that house

were doubtless another actor in Akihiros appointment.

Te Administrations of Ashikaga Yoshimochi and AshikagaYoshinori

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu died suddenly on the sixth day o the first month o the

fifeenth year o the ei era (). An urgent meeting o the chie vassals o the

shogunate was called, with Shiba Yoshiyuki the dominant personality, at which

it was decided that Yoshimochi would succeed to the position o shogun. Tat is

not to say, however, that the decision was accepted as obvious and natural by all

the people o the time. Tough Yoshimochi had indeed been confirmed as heir

to the title o shogun in the first year o the ei era (), it was solely upon his

younger brother Yoshitsugu () that Yoshimitsu poured his affec-

tions. Accordingly, there was some weight to the view that the succession mightgo to Yoshitsugu. Furthermore, in recent years, research has suggested that

Yoshimochi had plans to take over the Imperial house, and that these plans were


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at one stage making steady progress. It is indeed certain that there was a move

among the court nobles to coner on the deceased Ashikaga Yoshimitsu the titleo Retired Emperor, Daijenn. However, as the meeting o the chie

vassals o the shogunate decided to reject the conerral o that title, we must see

the route to the Ashikaga house being merged with the Imperial house as having

been abandoned.7Tis is the political environment in which Yoshimochi inher-ited his power and authority. Was he also to inherit and continue the special

policies toward onmyjiwhich were developed under Yoshimitsu?

-

First, let us consider the direction taken with the Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa.

Many esoteric Buddhist rites were also carried out during Yoshimochis periodin office. However, these were perormed on the seventh o every month, and

none appear that were carried out in conjunction with Onmydrites. Tusthe Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa as they once were ceased to exist, and were

replaced by a substitute system o rites and rituals.

Next, let us take a look at the relationship Yoshimochi held with the onmyji.Yoshimochi was served in the time immediately ollowing his inheritance o

power by Ariyos son Yasutsugu. Onmydrites were perormed or Yoshi-mochis recovery rom illness(byki heiyu) and the aversion o natu-

ral disasters (tenpen kij). Te perormance o these prayers may be

considered to have been very much a matter o standard procedure at the time.

However, historical materials showing the connection between Yoshimochi andYasutsugu can no longer be seen rom the last instance (as in the Shosaimon

kojitsusho, ) on the tenth day o the ninth month o thesixteenth year o the ei era (). It is said that Yoshimochis tendency to go

against the measures enacted by Yoshimitsu (as demonstrated, or example, by his

cutting off o diplomatic engagement with the Ming) became more marked rom

the time o Shiba Yoshiyukis death during the fifh month o the seventeenth yearo the ei era (). It would seem likely that Yasutsugu was kept at a distance as

he was the son o Ariyo, who had been so closely associated with Yoshimitsu.From this point on, Yoshimochi was served by Abe no Yasuie. Te connec-

tion between the two appears in historical materials rom the eleventh month o

the eighteenth year () o the ei era (in the entry in the Kanenobu kkior

the twenty-eighth day o the eleventh month o the same year). Yasuiebecameony no kamiin the nineteenth year o the ei era () and received the Junior

Tird Rank in the first month o the twenty-third year (). Yasutsugu was

appointed ony no kami in the twenty-third year o the ei era and received the

. Tis account is based on I .


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Junior Tird Rank in the first month o the thirty-first year () o that period,

and thus Yasuies promotion was significantly earlier than Yasutsugus. O particu-

lar interest is that Yasuie was an onmyjio the illegitimate/secondary lineage o

the suchimikado house (the son o Abe no Arimochi).Tis lineage, which had

been resigned to a position subordinate to that o the primary/legitimate lineage

under Yoshimitsu, experienced a reversal in their standing under Yoshimochi.

Here, also, we may observe an anti-Yoshimitsu policyon the part o Yoshimochi.

Ater the death o Yasuiein the twenty-ourth year o the ei era (),

Yoshimochi was served byAbe no Yasusada and then by Kamo no

Akikata. Tough it is difficult to accurately place Yasusada on the lineage chart,

there is a possibility that he was one and the same person as Abe no Aritomi (the

brother o Yasuie). Kamo no Akikata was the child o the Kamo no Akihiro whoofficiated at the Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa afer the death o Ariyo. Te act

that Akihiro, who lived until the twenty-sixth year o the ei era (), did not

receive the appointment may also reflect a policy o reversing the arrangements

put in place by Yoshimitsu.

Ashikaga Yoshimochi died on the eighteenth day o the first month o the thirty-

fifh year o the ei era (). As there was no designated successor, lots werecast and Yoshimochis younger brother, endai zasu(chie abbot) Gien

was chosen. Gien returned to secular lie in the third month o the same

year, taking the name Yoshinobu . He began to govern in the ourth month.

Changing his name to Yoshinori in the third month o the ollowing year

(rom this point on I will use Yoshinori to reer to him, including when reer-

ring to the time beore he changed his name), the second o the Shch era, he

was named shogun by the emperor. Te successor to the title o shogun being

chosen by lots, with the added complication o that successor having been o the

Buddhist clergy, was an unorthodox and unusual situation. Tis could hardlydiscourage the emergence o would-be usurpers, and led to political instabil-

ity.8A peasant uprising that began in the eighth month o the first year o the

Shch era () heightened the sense o turmoil. o step back in time again

or a moment, during the third month o the thirty-fifh year o the ei era,

immediately afer Yoshinoris succession was decided, onmyjiwere consulted

regarding the scheduling or the Buddhist rites perormed in conjunction with

Yoshinoris move into the Muromachi Villa (the Hana no Gosho). Te

advice sought was provided in an official report by three men: Kamo no Akikata,

. Regarding the political situation at the time o the accession o Ashikaga Yoshinori, seeS b.


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Abe no Arimori, and Abe no Aritomi (according to the diary Kennaiki; see ).

Official reports and consultations continued to be carried out by those three

individuals or a period o time afer that event.Akikata, Arimori, and Aritomi were, respectively, the heads o the Kadenokji

house, the suchimikado primary lineage, and secondary lineage at that time. As

I have stated above, appointment as ony no kamiand promotion o onmyjito

the Tird Court Rank and above was limited to members o those three houses

under Yoshimitsu. At that time, and until that time, no more than one onmyji

at a time had served at the Muromachi Villa, producing official reports and sur-

veys. It would seem that an attitude o implementing what we might call a gen-

eral mobilization o the leading houses o Onmydwas taken by Yoshinoris

administration in its early years. What, then, was the reason or this?I would suggest that the reasons are very much related to the previously-

mentioned weakness in the shoguns power base and the political instability that

ensued. Command o the onmyjis ability to carry out official reports and sur-

veys was indispensable to the potentate or the maintenance o order and stabil-

ity. I will discuss this in greater detail below. Recognizing the value the onmyji

held or them, Yoshinori and his administration moved to strengthen and

develop the state-ocused organization o the onmyjiand their official reports

and surveys. Tis tripartite reporting system can be observed until the third day

o the first month o the third year o the Eiky era (; seeMansaijug nikkiinZoku gunsho ruij hoi, H ). Tenceorth, reports and surveys were

carried out by Akikata and Arimori. Afer the death o Arimori in the eleventh

month o the fifh year o the Eiky era (), Akikata became solely respon-

sible or the proceedings. Afer the sixth month o the tenth year o the Eiky

era () official reports were carried out by Arimoris younger brother Abe

no Arishige alone. Te political crisis that accompanied Yoshinoris acces-

sion had largely abated by the third year o the Eikyera (; see S b).

We might iner that the reduction in the numbers o onmyjiundertaking offi-

cial reports and surveys came in conjunction with the stabilization o his powerbase. Tis Arimori, however, was one and the same person as Yasutsugu, son o

Ariyo, who had been consigned to obscurity by Yoshimochi. Yoshinori, unlike

Yoshimochi, had no antipathy toward Yoshimitsu and his administration. On

the contrary, he returned Arimori/Yasutsugu to a position o power, surely as

part o his efforts to enlist the help o all the leading onmyjio the day.

In the Middle Ages, the occurrence o extraordinary natural phenomena oheaven and earth was seen as a warning rom heaven brought about by a rulers

maladministration or immorality(this was the tenjin skansetsu ,


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rooted in the classical Chinese view that holds that there is a close relationshipbetween human action or political affairs and natural phenomena). I such anevent occurred, it was then inherent upon the ruler to practice moral and meri-torious governance and perorm prayer rites, thereby restoring the lost order.

According to research on prayer rites perormed in response to extraordi-nary natural phenomena o heaven and earth (called heni kit ), suchrites were presided over exclusively by court nobles during the early part o theperiod o the Northern and Southern Courts. Te first heni kitrites presidedover by samurai occurred in the Bunna era (), and thenceorth the sam-urai gradually suppressed the nobles prerogatives over the rites ( ,; M). Te right to preside over heni kit was thus another area in

which prerogatives held by court nobles passed to the samurai.What role, then, did onmyjihave in the perormance o heni kit? It was,o course, an important unction o the office o onmyjito perorm Onmydrituals, which made up an aspect o the rites perormed to prevent and expungethe occurrence and influence o these natural phenomena. Alongside the per-ormance o such rites, the onmyjiwould discover extraordinary natural phe-nomena through their regular observations o heaven and earth. Tey wouldattribute a meaning to it based on their accumulated knowledge, and indicatethe appropriate measures to be taken in response. Tis was another important

duty o the onmyji. Te role played by the onmyjihere might be compared tothat o an observatory or control tower.

Oicial reports relating extraordinary natural phenomena discovered byonmyjiwere called tenmon miss (that is, secret astronomical mem-oranda). According to the Kinpisho, an early Kamakura period recordo the established ceremonial practices and duties o the Imperial Courtand itsofficers (yshoku kojitsusho ; see ), the orm they took was as ol-lows. Te doctor o astrology (tenmon hakase ) and his assistant (gon nohakase) would write their memorials to the throne (ssho) and carry

these to the regent (sessh) orsenior regent (kanpaku ). Te regent orsenior regent would look over these reports then seal them and return them to thetenmon hakase. Te seal would bear one character o the regent or senior regentsname. Ten, the tenmon hakasewould have the memorial taken to the Imperial

Palace where, via the Chamberlain o the Imperial Archives (kurdo) and theImperial Private Secretary (naishi), it would be delivered to the emperor.

It is well understood that tenmon miss were carried out under conditionso strict and systematic secrecy. Te content o memorials to the throne was animportant state secret. Tey are an important indicator o the authority o those

to whom they were delivered. According to the entry or the seventh day o thetenth month o the second year o the Showa era in the Hanazono tenn nikki(H ),the seal o a memorial to the throne seen by


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Emperor Hanazonoat the time when Mars and Jupiter came into unusual prox-

imity in the tenth month o the second year o the Showa era () bears the

single character initial o the senior regent. From this we can confirm that the

system or the submission o tenmon miss described above was maintained into

the late Kamakura period. Moving into the period o the Northern and Southern

Courts, we can confirm that the system persisted until the first year o the Eitoku

era () in the orm o the (tenmon)misso the Abe amily (via the entry in

the Gukankior the fifeenth day o the eleventh month o the same year). Tis

was to be, however, the last example o tenmon miss to appear in the historical

materials. How, then, were official reports on unusual astronomical phenomena

carried out afer that time?

In the second month o the eleventh year o the Eiky era () a cometappeared. Comets were seen as the most significant o all astronomical phenom-

ena. Abe no Arishige, who was in charge o astronomy, alerted the Te Muro-

machi Palace (Muromachidono),9that is, Ashikaga Yoshinori, to the occurrence

(according to the entry in the Kennaikior the twenty-eighth day o the sec-

ond month o the eleventh year o the Eiky era). It has not been confirmed

whether or not a report was sent to the emperor at that time (for further details,

see , ).We cannot state conclusively that official reports o

unusual astronomical phenomena were not delivered to the emperor at that

time, but it is certainly clear that the main place to which onmyjidelivered theirofficial reports was the Muromachi Villa. We can only conclude that a very great

change had taken place. Furthermore, understood in relation to the situation at

the time at which tenmon misscease to appear in historical records, we may

surmise that the change that occurred was one that began in the time o Yoshi-

mitsu. However, as discussed above, during the time o Yoshimochi, the Yoshi-

mitsu period Prayer Rites at Kitayama Villa were cancelled and regular prayer

rites or the most part cease to appear. Tis changed somewhat under Yoshi-

nori, and it seems that prayer rites were held in the first, sixth, ninth, and twelfh

months (according to the entry in theMansaijug nikkior the twenty-fifh day

o the first month o the Eiky era). Tat said, the requency and scale o these

rites cannot be compared to those o Yoshimitsus time in office. Te numbers o

Onmydrites (presided over by samurai) dropped dramatically under Yoshi-

mochi and Yoshinori.10

. Tis was an appellation o the head o the Ashikaga house. As a general rule the termimplied the shogun himsel, but there were cases o heads o the Ashikaga house that held on toreal power even afer retiring as shogun.

. o give the number o times Onmyd rituals were held under the auspices o the Muro-machi Villa: there were thirty-five instances under Yoshimitsu, seven under Yoshimochi, andeleven under Yoshinori. akauji and Yoshiakira held no Onmyd rituals whatsoever.


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Based on the perspective outlined above, we can only iner that the activi-

ties o onmyjiell off significantly during the administrations o Yoshimochi

and Yoshinori in comparison with the period o Yoshimitsus administration.

However, it would be too hasty a judgment to conclude on that basis that Yoshi-

mochi and Yoshinori placed little value in Onmydas a matter o policy. Te

reason or this is that the highest ranks attained by onmyjio the primary/legit-

imate and secondary/illegitimate lineages o the suchimikado house and the

Kadenokji house lineage remained at the level o Tird Court Rank and above

into the period o Yoshimochisadministration and beyond. Tere was, in act, an

atmosphere o displeasure among the court nobles with regard to the raising o the

status o the Onmydhouses. Also, there were those who declared even Yoshim-

itsus promotion o Ariyo and the others to be an unprecedented and unusual step(according to the Yoshidake Hinamikientry or the twenty-first day o the third

month o the eighth year o the ei era, ; see ). Had they so desired,

Yoshimochi and company would have had precious little difficulty in reducing the

onmyjihouses to the ranks they had previously held. Nonetheless, this was not

done. Tis is because the onmyjihad valuable services to offer Yoshimitsus suc-

cessors. In act, it has been argued that the heni kit discussed in this section had

their heyday under Yoshimochi and Yoshinori (, ). A shif in the

relative importance o the extraordinary heni kit rites perormed in response to

emergent phenomena, and regular prayer rites perormed according to a plannedschedule, took place during that period, in avor o the latter. Tus, we must under-

stand the expectations directed toward onmyjiserving as a control tower to the

heni kit rites to have increased. It is here that we should look or the defining ea-

tures o the perceived role o onmyjiunder Yoshimochi and Yoshinori.

Ashikaga Yoshinoris political stance was extremely autocratic. Accordingly, he

made vigorous use o the coercive power o the state to the extent that he wasjudged a terror to all men (banninkyfu ). Many were touched by Yoshi-

noris wrath and suffered oppression. For example, in the second month o the

sixth year o the Eiky era (), Yoshinoris concubine Lady Uramatsu gave

birth to a child. According to the entry in the Kanmon nikkior the sixteenth day

o the second month o the sixth year o the Eiky era, when aristocrats went

to offer messages o congratulation toLady Uramatsus elder brother Yoshisuke

, Yoshinori flew into a rage and at a single stroke around sixty individuals

suffered censure (totsubi)official reprimand and/or disinheritance.11Te

. Te Kanmon nikki is in the Zoku gunsho ruij, hoi,Kanmon gyoki , . On this topic, see M , .


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reason or this incident was that Yoshisuke was under disciplinary confinement

at home having incurred Yoshinoris displeasure. Te ony no kamiAbe no Ari-

kiyo was also censured at that time, and suffered the confiscation o territories in

his possession. According to theKanmon nikki, he was pardoned on the twenty-

third day o the twelfh month o the tenth year o the Eiky era (). As Abe

no Arisue(son o Arimori) was pardoned on the same day, perhaps he too had

paid a visit to the Uramatsu amily residence.

Kamo no Arikata, an influential onmyjiin the service o Yoshinori, was also

to suffer official censure. According to the entry in the Kanmon nikkiorthe

fifeenth day o the tenth month o the eighth year o the Eiky era (), the

reason or this relates to his perormance o a nademonoduring a session o

prayer rites.Tis incident led to the commission or official reports and surveysto Yoshinori being given to Abe no Arishige. Considering the events described

above, we might well see Yoshinoris period in oice as one in which even

onmyjiwere unsparingly oppressed and harassed. Perhaps as retribution or

his deeds, Yoshinori met with a miserable end. On the twenty-ourth day o the

sixth month o the first year o the Kakitsu era (), Yoshinori was killed at the

palace o Akamatsu Mitsusuke () during a sarugakuperorm-

ance.Imperial Prince Fushiminomiya Sadausa () wrote in

his diary, Kanmon nikki: We know o no precedent since time immemorial o

the dog-like death o a shogun in so ignominious a manner (shogun kakunogo-toku kenshi, korai sono rei wo shirazaru koto nari

). According to the Kennaikientry or the twenty-ninth day o

the sixth month o the first year o the Kakitsu era (), Kamo no Akikata was

pardoned immediately afer that incident.

Concluding Remarks

Let us return here to the questions posed at the beginning o this article. How

should we understand the Muromachi Period within the history o Onmydas a whole? Te Muromachi period, the time o the administrations o the Ashi-

kaga shoguns Yoshimitsu, Yoshimochi, and Yoshinori, was the period o Japa-

nese history in which Onmydwas given the greatest weight within the state

and politics. It was the period that saw the greatest prosperity o Onmyd. Tis

was initially brought about by the policies o Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and, despite

ongoing changes in its orm and organization, the flourishing o Onmydcon-

tinued under Yoshimochi and Yoshinori. Tis is the kind o answer we can offer

to our question. Tat said, there are many questions lef unsolved or that are

not touched on in this article. Tere is the question o the connection betweenonmyjiand the administrations that came afer that o Yoshinori, and that o

the patterns o activity o onmyjiin the provinces, among others. Torough


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investigations (S ; M ) o these points are underway, and the

results are promising or the uture development o research in this field.

Why is it, then, that until recently the Muromachi period has been lef a blank

in the pages o Onmydhistory? It is generally the case, or example, that an

area or which ew historical materials are available may be one in which it is di-

ficult or research to make progress. Tis, however, does not apply to research on

Onmydin the Muromachi period. On the contrary, historical materials on the

topic are abundant. One reason or the lack o research may be that as Onmyd

was part o the world o the court nobles, it has come to be thought o as simply

an aspect o their private lives and an aspect o strategy in their scheming and

power plays within palace politics. Tis reflects a stereotypical view o the court

nobles as corrupt, dissolute, and irrational in contrast to the samurai, seen assincere, vigorous, and rational. It is a natural progression rom this view to see-

ing the Heian period as the high point or an Onmydthat thereafer went into

decline. Surely more undamental, however, is the influence o certain precon-

ceived notions relating to Onmydsuch as that it is the practice o weird and

dubious sorceries, that it was no more than a tool used in political intrigues, or

that or statesmen, associating themselves with Onmydwas a sign o political

degeneracy. o state this explicitly, it has not been thought a proper subject or

decent, honest, and upstanding historical research.

oday, certainly, Onmydsurvives as little more than a orm o superstition,and to attribute any grand meaning to it would be somewhat unwise. However,

i we judge the Onmydo the Middle Ages based solely on modern ideas, we

would surely lose a great deal o the richness o its historical significance. o the

people o the Middle Ages, Onmydwas the cutting edge o science and tech-

nology, and onmyjiwere indispensable or the maintenance o order in space and

time. Based on an understanding o these perspectives, research on Onmydin

the Muromachi period has the task o retrieving and rehabilitating an area which

has allen out o the received ramework o modern historical studies.

Dai Nihon kokiroku. Ed. ky Daigaku Shiry Hensanjo.

okyo: Iwanami Shoten,.

Dai Nihon shiry . Ed. ky Daigaku Shiry Hensanjo. okyo:

ky Daigaku, present. Gunsho ruij. Ed. Hanawa Hokiichi . okyo: Zoku

Gunsho Ruij Kanseikai, .


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Shintei zho kokushi taikei . okyo: YoshikawaKbunkan, .

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Hanazono tenn shinki, vol.. . Shiry sansh.Ed.Murata Masashi . okyo: Zoku Gunsho Ruij Kanseikai.

Kanenobukki ,Shiry sansh.Vols. and. okyo: ZokuGunsho Ruij Kanseikai,.

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IAkira Muromachi no ken .okyo: Chk Shinsho.

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu no ken sandatsu katei. InNihon chsei seiji shakai no kenky: Ogawa Makoto sensei no koki kinen

ronsh , .okyo: Zoku Gunsho Ruij Kanseikai.

MKesao Kanryt ni kansuru ichiksatsu . In Kan sho-

satsurei no kenky , . okyo: okyo University.(First published )

MShigeaki Nanboku chki kbu kankeishino kenky .

okyo: Bunken Shuppan.

Godanhno shiteki kenky . Kysh bunkashi kenkyjokiy : .

uchishi to Onmyd. Nihon rekishi: .M Shichi et al., eds.

Onmyd ssho. vols. okyo: Meicho Shuppan.


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onmyōdō in the muromachi period

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