organic and biological chemistry © 2009, prentice-hall, inc. chapter 25 organic and biological...
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![Page 1: Organic and Biological Chemistry © 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chapter 25 Organic and Biological Chemistry Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition Theodore](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062318/551adcee5503465e7d8b4598/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chapter 25Organic and
Biological Chemistry
Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th editionTheodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;
and Bruce E. Bursten
John D. BookstaverSt. Charles Community College
Cottleville, MO
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Organic Chemistry• Organic chemistry is the chemistry
of carbon compounds.• Carbon has the ability to form long
chains.• Without this property, large
biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids could not form.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Structure of Carbon Compounds
• There are three hybridization states and geometries found in organic compounds:– sp3 Tetrahedral– sp2 Trigonal planar– sp Linear
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hydrocarbons
• There are four basic types of hydrocarbons:– Alkanes– Alkenes– Alkynes– Aromatic hydrocarbons
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Alkanes
• Alkanes contain only single bonds.• They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons.
– They are “saturated” with hydrogens.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Formulas
• Lewis structures of alkanes look like this.• They are also called structural formulas.• They are often not convenient, though…
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Formulas
…so more often condensed formulas are used.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Properties of Alkanes
• The only van der Waals force is the London dispersion force.
• The boiling point increases with the length of the chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Structure of Alkanes
• Carbons in alkanes are sp3 hybrids.• They have a tetrahedral geometry and 109.5°
bond angles.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Structure of Alkanes
• There are only -bonds in alkanes.
• There is free rotation about the C—C bonds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Isomers
Isomers have the same molecular formulas, but the atoms are bonded in a different order.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Organic Nomenclature
• There are three parts to a compound name:– Base: This tells how many carbons are in the
longest continuous chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Organic Nomenclature
• There are three parts to a compound name:– Base: This tells how many carbons are in the
longest continuous chain.– Suffix: This tells what type of compound it is.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Organic Nomenclature
• There are three parts to a compound name:– Base: This tells how many carbons are in the
longest continuous chain.– Suffix: This tells what type of compound it is.– Prefix: This tells what groups are attached to the
chain.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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How to Name a Compound
1. Find the longest chain in the molecule.
2. Number the chain from the end nearest the first substituent encountered.
3. List the substituents as a prefix along with the number(s) of the carbon(s) to which they are attached.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How to Name a Compound
If there is more than one type of substituent in the molecule, list them alphabetically.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Cycloalkanes
• Carbon can also form ringed structures.• Five- and six-membered rings are most stable.
– They can take on conformations in which their bond angles are very close to the tetrahedral angle.
– Smaller rings are quite strained.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Alkanes
• Alkanes are rather unreactive due to the presence of only C—C and C—H -bonds.
• Therefore, they make great nonpolar solvents.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Alkenes
• Alkenes contain at least one carbon–carbon double bond.
• They are unsaturated.– That is, they have fewer than the maximum number of
hydrogens.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Structure of Alkenes
• Unlike alkanes, alkenes cannot rotate freely about the double bond.– The side-to-side overlap in the -bond makes this
impossible without breaking the -bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Structure of Alkenes
This creates geometric isomers, which differ from each other in the spatial arrangement of groups about the double bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Properties of Alkenes
Structure also affects the physical properties of alkenes.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Alkenes• The chain is numbered so the double bond gets the
smallest possible number.• cis-Alkenes have the carbons in the chain on the
same side of the molecule.• trans-Alkenes have the carbons in the chain on
opposite sides of the molecule.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Alkenes
• One reaction of alkenes is the addition reaction.– In it, two atoms (e.g., bromine) add across the
double bond.– One -bond and one -bond are replaced by two
-bonds; therefore, H is negative.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Mechanism of Addition Reactions
• It is a two-step mechanism:– The first step is the slow, rate-determining
step.– The second step is fast.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Mechanism of Addition Reactions
In the first step, the -bond breaks and the new C—H bond and a cation form.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mechanism of Addition Reactions
In the second step, a new bond forms between the negative bromide ion and the positive carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Alkynes
• Alkynes contain at least one carbon–carbon triple bond.
• The carbons in the triple bond are sp-hybridized and have a linear geometry.
• They are also unsaturated.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Nomenclature of Alkynes
• The method for naming alkynes is analogous to the naming of alkenes.
• However, the suffix is -yne rather than -ene.
4-methyl-2-pentyne
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Alkynes
• Alkynes undergo many of the same reactions alkenes do.
• As with alkenes, the impetus for reaction is the replacement of -bonds with -bonds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic hydrocarbons that have some particular features.
• There is a p-orbital on each atom.– The molecule is planar.
• There is an odd number of electron pairs in the -system.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Aromatic Nomenclature
Many aromatic hydrocarbons are known by their common names.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Aromatic Compounds• In aromatic
compounds, unlike in alkenes and alkynes, each pair of -electrons does not sit between two atoms.
• Rather, the electrons are delocalized; this stabilizes aromatic compounds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
• Due to this stabilization, aromatic compounds do not undergo addition reactions; they undergo substitution.
• In substitution reactions, hydrogen is replaced by a substituent.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Structure of Aromatic Compounds
• Two substituents on a benzene ring could have three possible relationships:– ortho-: On adjacent carbons.– meta-: With one carbon between them.– para-: On opposite sides of ring.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
Reactions of aromatic compounds often require a catalyst.
Halogenation
Friedel-Crafts Reaction
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Functional Groups
The term functional group is used to refer to parts of organic molecules where reactions tend to occur.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Alcohols• Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl groups,
—OH.• They are named
from the parent hydrocarbon; the suffix is changed to -ol and a number designates the carbon to which the hydroxyl is attached.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Alcohols
• Alcohols are much more acidic than hydrocarbons.– pKa ~15 for most
alcohols.– Aromatic alcohols
have pKa ~10.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Ethers
• Ethers tend to be quite unreactive.• Therefore, they are good polar solvents.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Carbonyl Compounds
• The carbonyl group is a carbon-oxygen double bond.
• Carbonyl compounds include many classes of compounds.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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AldehydesIn an aldehyde, at least one hydrogen is attached to the carbonyl carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Ketones
In ketones, there are two carbons bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Carboxylic Acids
• Acids have a hydroxyl group bonded to the carbonyl group.
• They are tart tasting.• Carboxylic acids are
weak acids.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Esters
• Esters are the products of reactions between carboxylic acids and alcohols.
• They are found in many fruits and perfumes.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Amides
Amides are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with amines.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Amines
• Amines are organic bases.• They generally have strong, unpleasant
odors.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Chirality
• Carbons with four different groups attached to them are handed, or chiral.
• These are optical isomers or stereoisomers.• If one stereoisomer is “right-handed,” its
enantiomer is “left-handed.”
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Chirality
• Many pharmaceuticals are chiral.• Often only one enantiomer is clinically
active.
S-ibuprofen
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Amino Acids and Proteins
• Proteins are polymers of -amino acids.
• A condensation reaction between the amine end of one amino acid and the acid end of another produces a peptide bond.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Amino Acids and Proteins
• Hydrogen bonding in peptide chains causes coils and helices in the chain.
• Kinking and folding of the coiled chain gives proteins a characteristic shape.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Amino Acids and Proteins
• Most enzymes are proteins.
• The shape of the active site complements the shape of the substrate on which the enzyme acts; hence, the “lock- and-key” model.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Carbohydrates
Simple sugars are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
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Carbohydrates
• In solution, they form cyclic structures.
• These can form chains of sugars that form structural molecules such as starch and cellulose.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nucleic Acids
Two of the building blocks of RNA and DNA are sugars (ribose or deoxyribose) and cyclic bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil).
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nucleic Acids
These combine with a phosphate to form a nucleotide.
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Organic andBiologicalChemistry
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides combine to form the familiar double-helix form of the nucleic acids.