organic chemistry organic compounds always contain carbon and hydrogen. inorganic compounds...
DESCRIPTION
Table 2.3.1TRANSCRIPT
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic compounds always contain carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic compounds typically lack carbon.
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• The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule is the carbon skeleton.
• Functional groups are responsible for most of the chemical properties of a particular organic compound.
Organic Compounds
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Table 2.3.1
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• Small organic molecules can combine into large macromolecules.
• Macromolecules are polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules.
• The smaller molecules are called monomers.
Organic Compounds
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• Monomers join by dehydration synthesis or condensation reactions.
• Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis or phosphorlysis
Organic Compounds
Figure 2.8
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CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS
• BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES ARE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• CARBOHYDRATES• FATS AND LIPIDS• PROTEINS• NUCLEIC ACIDS
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CARBOHYDRATES
• MONOSACCHARIDES = SUGARS• DISACCHARIDES = SUGARS• POLYSACCHARIDES = STARCHES &
CELLULOSE
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• Are important for structure and as energy sources.
• Consist of C, H, and O with the formula (CH2O)n
Carbohydrates
Figure 2.8
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• Oligosaccharides consist of 2 to 20 monosaccharides.
• Polysaccharides consist of tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis.
• Starch, glycogen, dextran, and cellulose are polymers of glucose that are covalently bonded differently.
• Chitin is a polymer of two sugars repeating many times.
Carbohydrates
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MONOSACCHARIDES
• GLYCERALDHYDE 3 PHOSPHATE• ERYTHROSE 4 PHOSPHATE• RIBOSE 5 PHOSPHATE• GLUCOSE• FRUCTOSE• GALACTOSE
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• Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates
Figure 2.8
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STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
• IDENTICAL MOLECULAR FORMULAS• DIFFERENT STRUCTURES
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• Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration synthesis.
• The bond is a glycosidic bond• Disaccharides can be broken down by hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates
Figure 2.8
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DISACCHARIDES
• MALTOSE—GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE• SUCROSE—GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE• LACTOSE---GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE
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POLYSACCHARIDES
• STARCH• GLYCOGEN• CELLULOSE• CHITIN
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STARCH GLYCOGEN
• STORAGE MOLECULE IN PLANTS
• STORAGE MOLECULE IN ANIMALS
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CELLULOSE
• MOST ABUNDANT CARBOHYDRATE• PLANT• ALGAE
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CHITIN
• FUNGI CELL WALLS• EXOSKELETON OF INSECTS
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GLUCOSAMINE & GALACTOSAMINE
• MODIFIED CARBOHYDRATES• HYDROXIDE GROUP REPLACED BY
AMINE GROUP
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LIPIDS
• NEUTRAL FATS• PHOSPHOLIPIDS• STEROIDS• WAXES• TWICE AS MUCH ENERGY PER GRAM
THAN CARBOHYDRATES
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• ARE THE PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF CELL MEMBRANES.
• CONSIST OF C, H, AND O.• ARE NONPOLAR AND INSOLUBLE IN
WATER.
Lipids
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• Called fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis.
NEUTRAL FATS
Figure 2.9c
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SATURATED VS UNSATURATED FATS
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TYPES OF NEUTRAL FATS
• MONOGLYCERIDE• DIGLYCERIDE• TRIGLYCERIDE
– COMMON STORAGE MOLECULE
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• Contain C, H, and O + P, N, or S.
• Membranes are made of phospholipids
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Figure 2.10a
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• Consist of four carbon rings, with an –OH group attached to one ring.
• Are part of membranes.
Steroids
Figure 2.11
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• ARE ESSENTIAL IN CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION.
• ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS THAT SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
• TRANSPORTER PROTEINS MOVE CHEMICALS ACROSS MEMBRANES.
• FLAGELLA ARE MADE OF PROTEINS.• SOME BACTERIAL TOXINS ARE
PROTEINS.
PROTEINS
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• Consist of subunits called amino acids.Proteins
Table 2.4.1
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Proteins
Table 2.4.2
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AMINO ACID STRUCTURE
• AMINE GROUP• CARBOXYL• REMAINDER OF THE MOLECULE
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• Exist in either of two stereoisomers, D or L.
• L-forms are most often found in nature.
Amino Acids
Figure 2.13
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PEPTIDE BONDING
• COVALENT• DIPEPTIDES• POLYPEPTIDES
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• Peptide bonds between amino acids are formed by dehydration synthesis.
Peptide Bonds
Figure 2.14
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PEPTIDE BONDS
• Peptide bonds between amino acids are broken by hydrolysis.
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PROTEIN STRUCTURE
• PRIMARY• SECONDARY• TERTIARY• QUATRENARY
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PRIMARY STRUCTURE
• SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS
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SECONDARY STRUCTURE
• ALPHA HELIX• BETA SHEET
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TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• DETERMINES THE BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF THE MOLECULE
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QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
• COMBINES PROTEINS WITH TWO OR MORE SUBUNITS
• The tertiary structure occurs when the helix folds irregularly, forming disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds between amino acids in the chain.
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• Conjugated proteins consist of amino acids and other organic molecules:• Glycoproteins• Nucleoproteins• Lipoproteins
MODIFICATIONS OF PROTEINS
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CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS BY FUNCTION
• ENZYMES• STRUCTURAL PROTEINS• CONTRACTILE PROTEINS• HORMONES• TRANSPORT PROTEINS• DEFENSE PROTEINS
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ENZMES
• MOST ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS• CATALYSTS FOR CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
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STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
• PARTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES• COLLAGEN• ELASTIN• KERATIN
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CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
• ACTIN• MYOSIN
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HORMONE
• INTERCELLULAR MESSENGERS• INSULIN• GROWTH HORMONE
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TRANSPORT PROTEINS
• HEMOGLOBIN& MYOGLOBIN• ALBUMIN
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DEFENSE PROTEINS
• IMMNOGLOBULIN• FIBRINOGEN
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CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS BY SOLUBILITY
• GLOBULAR PROTEINS• FIBROUS PROTEINS• LIPOPROTEINS• GLYCOPROTEINS• NUCLEOPROTEINS• CHROMOPROTEINS• METALLOPROTEINS
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GLOBULAR PROTEINS
• POLAR NATURE• MOST NUMEROUS OF PROTEINS
– ENZYMES– PLASMA PROTEINS– CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
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FIBROUS PROTEINS
• INSOLUBLE• ELONGATE TO FORM STRONG
FIBERS• STRUCTURAL AND SUPPORTING
FIBERS– ELASTIN, KERATIN, MYOSIN AND
FIBRIN
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CLASSIFICATION BY COMPOSITION
• LIPOPROTEINS• GLYCOPROTEINS• NUCLEOPROTEINS• CHROMOPROTEINS• METALLOPROTEINS
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LIPOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN FAT AND OTHER LIPIDS
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GLYCOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN SUGARS
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NUCLEOPROTEINS
• BOUND TO NUCLEIC ACIDS
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CHROMOPROTEINS
• CONTAINS HEME GROUP
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METALLOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN METAL IONS
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
• RNA = RIBONUCLEIC ACID• DNA = DEOXIRIBONUCLEIC ACID• DOUBLE HELIX• RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
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• Consist of nucleotides.• Nucleotides consist of a:
• Pentose• Phosphate group• Nitrogen-containing (purine or pyrimidine) base
Nucleic Acids
Figure 2.16
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• Has deoxyribose
• Exists as a double helix
• A hydrogen bonds with T
• C hydrogen bonds with G
DNA
Figure 2.16
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THE NUCLEOTIDES
• PURINES• DOUBLE RING
– ADENINE– GUANINE
• PYRIMIDINE• SINGLE RING
– GUANINE– THYMINE
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DNA STRUCTURE
• LINEAR STRANDS• BONDS BETWEEN
SUGARS AND PHOSPHATES
• DOUBLE HELIX
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• Has ribose• Is single-stranded• A hydrogen bonds
with U• C hydrogen bonds
with G
RNA
Figure 2.17
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TYPES OF RNA
• mRNA –CODES FOR PROTEINS• tRNA---CARRIES AMINO ACIDS• Rrna---STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF
RIBOSOMES
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• Has ribose, adenine, and 3 phosphate groupsATP
Figure 2.18
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CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES
• NUCLEOTIDE CONVERTED TO CYCLIC FORM– CYCLASES
• IMPORTANT IN SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEMS
• REGULATING CELL FUNCTION• cAMP & cGMP
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DINUCLEOTIDES
• IMPORTANT FOR METABOLIC PROCESS
• NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE –NAD+– ELECTRON AND HYDROGEN DONOR
AND ACCEPTOR– OXIDATION AND REDUCTIONS
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• Is made by dehydration synthesis.• Is broken by hydrolysis to liberate useful energy
for the cell.
ATP