organizational behavior - session 3
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Organizational BehaviorTRANSCRIPT
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
Lecturer: Do Tien Long09 04 51 54 [email protected]
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
What Is Motivation?
Direction
PersistenceIntensity
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
What is Motivation? What is Motivation?
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
E X H I B I T 6–1E X H I B I T 6–1
Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.
Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs.SelfSelf
EsteemEsteem
SocialSocial
SafetySafety
PhysiologicalPhysiological
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Assumptions of Maslow’s HierarchyAssumptions of Maslow’s HierarchyMovement up the Pyramid
•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application:A homeless person will not be motivated tomeditate!
Maslow Application:A homeless person will not be motivated tomeditate!
•Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Theory XTheory XManagers See Workers AsManagers See Workers As……
Disliking WorkDisliking Work
Avoiding ResponsibilityAvoiding Responsibility
Having Little AmbitionHaving Little Ambition
Theory YTheory YManagers See Workers AsManagers See Workers As……
Enjoying WorkEnjoying Work
Accepting ResponsibilityAccepting Responsibility
SelfSelf--DirectedDirected
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryBottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are
not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!
Separate constructs– Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic
& Related to Dissatisfaction
– Motivation Factors---Intrinsic and Related to
Satisfaction
Hygiene Factors:
•Salary
•Work Conditions
•Company Policies
Motivators:
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3E X H I B I T 6–3
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendly and close personal relationships.
Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
Bottom Line: Individuals have
different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Matching High Achievers and JobsMatching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4E X H I B I T 6–4
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.
Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
E X H I B I T 6–5E X H I B I T 6–5
What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say?
What Would Herzberg Say? What Would Maslow Say?
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals,
with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on
•goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•national culture
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Goal Setting in Action: MBO ProgramsGoal Setting in Action: MBO Programs
Management By Objectives Programs• Company wide goals & objectives• Goals aligned at all levels• Based on Goal Setting Theory
Management By Objectives Programs• Company wide goals & objectives• Goals aligned at all levels• Based on Goal Setting Theory
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
What is MBO?What is MBO?
Key Elements1. Goal specificity2. Participative decision making3. An explicit time period4. Performance feedback
Key Elements1. Goal specificity2. Participative decision making3. An explicit time period4. Performance feedback
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives
E X H I B I T 6–1E X H I B I T 6–1
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Linking MBO and Goal-Setting TheoryLinking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory
MBO Goal-Setting Theory
Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No(qualified)
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Why MBOs FailWhy MBOs FailUnrealistic expectations about MBO resultsLack of commitment by top managementFailure to allocate reward properlyCultural incompatibilities
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy
Self Esteem, which is…. Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy (Bandura)
Four Ways of Increasing Self Efficacy (Bandura)
1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and Galatea Effects
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Assumptions:•Behavior is environmentally caused.•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Assumptions:•Behavior is environmentally caused.•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Referent Comparisons:Self-insideSelf-outsideOther-insideOther-outside
Referent Comparisons:Self-insideSelf-outsideOther-insideOther-outside
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8E X H I B I T 6–8
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:1. Change inputs (slack off)2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self4. Distort/change perceptions of others5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Choices for dealing with inequity:1. Change inputs (slack off)2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self4. Distort/change perceptions of others5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more
than equitably rewarded employees.2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce
less, but do higher quality piece work.3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower
quality work.4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more
than equitably rewarded employees.2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce
less, but do higher quality piece work.3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower
quality work.4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Justice and Equity TheoryJustice and Equity Theory
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the process used to
determine the outcome (the final distribution).
“How was who gets what decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Three types of Justice Three types of Justice
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Ethical Values and Ethical Values and Behaviors of LeadersBehaviors of Leaders
Bottom line• All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can performAnd
• If they perform, they will be rewardedAnd
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care about
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
If you study really hard and only get a B on an exam, but your classmate barely studies at all and gets an A, what theory will help explain why you feel less motivated to go to class?
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
What theory would say that this man, who knows he
works hard and is performing well, will be motivated by
a gym membership for being a high performer?
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Expectancy Theory.
Would a gym membership be considered a motivator or hygiene factor, according to Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate.
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Putting It All TogetherPutting It All Together
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Job Design TheoryJob Design Theory
Characteristics:1. Skill variety2. Task identity3. Task significance4. Autonomy5. Feedback
Characteristics:1. Skill variety2. Task identity3. Task significance4. Autonomy5. Feedback
Job Characteristics Model
Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Characteristics Model– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results
– Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
The Job Characteristics ModelThe Job Characteristics Model
E X H I B I T 7–1E X H I B I T 7–1Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Design Theory (cont’d)Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Design Theory (cont’d)Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Computing a Motivating Potential ScoreComputing a Motivating Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Job Design and SchedulingJob Design and Scheduling
Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another.
Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of jobs.
Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Guidelines for Enriching a JobGuidelines for Enriching a Job
E X H I B I T 7–2E X H I B I T 7–2Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Alternative Work ArrangementsAlternative Work ArrangementsFlextime
Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.
Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Example of a Flextime ScheduleExample of a Flextime Schedule
E X H I B I T 7–3E X H I B I T 7–3
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Alternative Work Arrangements, cont.
Alternative Work Arrangements, cont.
Categories of telecommuting jobs:• Routine information handling tasks• Mobile activities• Professional and other knowledge-related tasks
Categories of telecommuting jobs:• Routine information handling tasks• Mobile activities• Professional and other knowledge-related tasks
Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their office.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
TelecommutingTelecommutingAdvantages
– Larger labor pool
– Higher productivity
– Less turnover
– Improved morale
– Reduced office-space costs
Disadvantages (Employer)
– Less direct supervision of employees
– Difficult to coordinate teamwork
– Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative performance
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Performance = f(A x M x O)Performance = f(A x M x O)
E X H I B I T 6–9E X H I B I T 6–9Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, “The Missing Opportunity in Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance,” Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
What is Employee Involvement?What is Employee Involvement?Employee Involvement Program
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organization’s success.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Examples of Employee Involvement ProgramsExamples of Employee Involvement ProgramsParticipative Management
A process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs (cont’d)Examples of Employee Involvement Programs (cont’d)Representative Participation
Workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees.
Works CouncilsGroups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel.
Board RepresentativeA form of representative participation; employees sit on a company’s board of directors and represent the interests of the firm’s employees.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs (cont’d)Examples of Employee Involvement Programs (cont’d)
Quality Circle
A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Linking EI Programs and Motivation TheoriesLinking EI Programs and Motivation Theories
Employee Involvement
Programs
Employee Employee Involvement Involvement
ProgramsPrograms
Theory Y(Believing employees want to be involved)
Theory YTheory Y(Believing (Believing employees employees want to be want to be involved)involved)
Two-Factor Theory(Intrinsic
Motivation)
TwoTwo--Factor Factor TheoryTheory((Intrinsic Intrinsic
Motivation)Motivation)
ERG Theory(Employee
Needs)
ERG TheoryERG Theory((EmployeeEmployee
Needs)Needs)
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Rewarding Employees: Four Aspects Rewarding Employees: Four Aspects
•What to Pay (Internal vs. external equity)
•How to Pay (e.g Piece rate, merit based, bonuses, profit sharing, gain sharing, ESOPs, skill-based pay)
•What Benefits to Offer (e.g.,Flexible benefits)
•How to Recognize Employees
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Rewarding Employees: Variable Pay ProgramsRewarding Employees: Variable Pay Programs
Variable Pay Programs
A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organization measure of performance.
• Piece rate pay plans
• Profit sharing plans
• Gain sharing plans
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)
Profit-Sharing PlansOrganization wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability.
Gain SharingAn incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is allocated.
Piece-rate Pay PlansWorkers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Rewarding Employees Rewarding Employees
Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)
Company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Skill-Based Pay PlansSkill-Based Pay Plans
Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Provides staffing flexibility.
2. Facilitates communication across the organization.
3. Lessens “protection of territory” behaviors.
4. Meets the needs of employees for advancement (without promotion).
5. Leads to performance improvements.
Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Provides staffing flexibility.
2. Facilitates communication across the organization.
3. Lessens “protection of territory” behaviors.
4. Meets the needs of employees for advancement (without promotion).
5. Leads to performance improvements.
Pay levels are based on how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Skill-Based Pay Plans (cont’d)Skill-Based Pay Plans (cont’d)
Drawbacks of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Lack of additional learning opportunities that will
increase employee pay.
2. Continuing to pay employees for skills that have become obsolete.
3. Paying for skills which are of no immediate use to the organization.
4. Paying for a skill, not for the level of employee performance for the particular skill.
Drawbacks of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Lack of additional learning opportunities that will
increase employee pay.
2. Continuing to pay employees for skills that have become obsolete.
3. Paying for skills which are of no immediate use to the organization.
4. Paying for a skill, not for the level of employee performance for the particular skill.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Linking Skill-based Plans and Motivation Theories
Linking Skill-based Plans and Motivation Theories
Skill Based Pay Plans
Skill Based Pay Skill Based Pay PlansPlans
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Reinforcement TheoryTheory
Equity
Theory
Equity Equity
Theory Theory
ERG Theory (Growth)
ERG Theory ERG Theory (Growth)(Growth)
McClelland’s Need for
Achievement
McClellandMcClelland’’s s Need for Need for
AchievementAchievement
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Flexible BenefitsFlexible Benefits
Flexible Spending Plans: allow employees to use their tax-free benefit dollars to purchase benefits and pay service premiums.
Flexible Spending Plans: allow employees to use their tax-free benefit dollars to purchase benefits and pay service premiums.
Modular Plans: predesigned benefits packages for specific groups of employees.
Modular Plans: predesigned benefits packages for specific groups of employees.
Core-Plus Plans:a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options.
Core-Plus Plans:a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options.
Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal need by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Employee Recognition ProgramsEmployee Recognition ProgramsIntrinsic rewards: stimulate intrinsic motivation – Personal attention given to employee
– Approval & appreciation for a job well done
– Growing in popularity and usage
Benefits of programs– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
– Inexpensive to implement
– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors
Drawbacks of programs– Susceptible to manipulation by management
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
E X H I B I T 7–2E X H I B I T 7–2From the Wall Street Journal, October 21, 1997. Reprinted by permission of Cartoon Features Syndicate.
Organisational Behavior, Do Tien Long
Implications for ManagersImplications for Managers
In Order to Motivate Employees– Recognize individual differences.
– Use goals and feedback.
– Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.
– Link rewards to performance.
– Check the system for equity.