MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES~ 158MILITARY

ROME'S ENEMIES 2GAlliC AND

BRITISH CELTS

ETER \VILCOX 1\~GUS McBRIDE

EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES~ 158MILITARY

ROME'S ENEMIES 2GALLIC AND

BRITISH eELTS

First published in Great Britain in 1985 byo prey, an imprint of Reed Consumer Books Ltd.Michelin House, 81 Fulham Road,London SW3 6RBand Auckland, Melbourne, Singapore and Toronto

Copyright 1985 Reed International Books Ltd.Reprinted 1985, Ig86, 1987 (twice), Ig88 (twice), Ig8g,IggO, IggI, Ig95

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataWilcox, Peter

Rome's Enemies (2): Gallic and British Celts.-(Men-at-Arms series)I. Celts History 2. Arm' and armour, Ancient

reat Britain 3. Arms and armour, Ancient-FranceI. Title II. Series6234'41'09 U805

ISBN 0-85045-606- I

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Rome's Enemies (2): Gallic andBritish Celts

Bronze dagger hilt and scabbard of unknown provenance, butdating from the late Halstatt period-the 6th century BC.

3000 BC

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ChronologyNomadic Indo-European warnorsbegin to colonise large areas ofEurope, settling among New StoneAge farmers and Old Stone Agehunters in the north.Proto-Celts begin moving into west-ern Europe.Proto-Celts dominate the British Islesand the Atlantic coast of Iberia.A new Celtic culture evolves, namedafter the fields ofindividual cremationurns corresponding to areas of Celticsettlement in middle Europe.The 'Urnfield' culture spreads intomost of France at the expense of theearlier 'Tumulus' culture of the Proto-Celts.'Urnfield' Celts begin expansion intothe Iberian peninsula. Scythianspenetrate Europe. The Illyrian Hal-statt culture begins.The Iberians of Eastern Spai~ areoverrun by 'Urnfield' Celts. Ironworking is in progress in the Celticregions of the Danube. Iron weaponsappear in the Celtic waggon graves ofBohemia and southern Germany.The Iron Age Halstatt culture em-erges among the Celts of CentralEurope. The Celts of Spain penetratethe central Iberian plateau. TheIberians regain independence in thenorth and east, thus dislocating thetrans-Pyrenean link between the Celtsof Spain and Gaul. Celtic tradeincreases with the Greeks and Etrus-cans.

Halstatt Celts begin to move intomainland Britain.

400 BC

368 BC

341 BC285 BC

The Iron Age La T ene culture beginsits first phase. La Tene Celts becomeknown to ancient writers, who callthem Gauls. The Gauls cross the Alps,flooding into the valley of the Po.Northern Etruscan communities areexpunged. Latium is invaded andRome sacked.Gallic mercenaries are employed inthe army of Syracuse.Roman defeat of the Gauls in Latium.Roman conquest of the Ager Gallicus.

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expansion begins to wane. La TeneCelts (Gauls) begin to move intoBritain. Many Gauls in CarthaginianserVIce.Celts involved as allies of Carthageduring the Second Punic War. Theirpower in I taly declines.Roman conquest of southern Gaul.The Cimbri, a Celtic tribe from themiddle Danube, attack Noricum.War between Rome and Celto-Spaniards ('Celtiberians').Cimbri and Teutones defeat Romanforces at Orange.Roman forces destroy the Cimbri andTeutones.Belgic Gauls begin migration tosouthern Britain.The beginning of the final sub-jugation of Gaul.Roman forces probe southern Britain.Vercingetorix leads a major Gallicrebellion, which is defeated by Caesarat Alesia.Northern German tribes annihilatethree Roman legions in the Teuto-burg Forest.Roman invasion of southern Britain.British revolt led by Boudicca, Queenof the Iceni.The Romanisation of southern Brit-ain is completed.Roman forces dere'at the Caledoniansin northern Britain.

ADGg

218 BC

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AD 43AD 61

125 BC118 BC

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",.{ 55-4 BC\ 52 BC\

Northern European Bronze Age warrior's burial clothing,found perfectly preserved in an oak coffin. The Dlaterial iswool Dlixed with hart's hair. The bronze sword is froDl an oakcoffin at BoruDl Eshoj; carried in a wooden scabbard, it wassuspended froDl a long baldric which would have allowed theweapon to drag along the ground if not supported. Theseburials, the so-called 'Mound Warriors', were froDl anintrusive warlike group which reached DenDlark; theyprobably included proto-Celtic chieftains.

279 BC Beginning of an insular La Tene artstyle in Britain. Gauls invade Mace-don, Greece and Thrace. Threetribes cross the Hellespont into centralAnatolia, which becomes Galatia.

274 BC Gallic warriors in Greek, Egyptianand other armies of the near East.

264--241 BC Celtic warriors involved in the FirstPunic War.

240 BC Attalos defeats the Gauls ('Galatians')of Asia Minor.

225 BC The Gauls of the Po Valley andTrans-Alpine elite warriors are de-feated at Telamon, Tuscany. Gallic

Introdt/ctiollThe military ascendancy of the Celtic warrior northof the Alps was brought to an end when the loosely-knit Celtic 'empire', established in a great anarchicband across central Europe from the Atlantic coastsof the British Isles to the Black Sea, collapsedpiecemeal in the face of the relentless campaigns ofJulius Caesar.

Successive waves of warlike Indo-Europeantribes had by about 1000 Be given most of European overlay of warrior-farmers. Hellenic tribes had

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colonised Greece. Thracians had moved into areasnorth of Greece; Italic and Celtic tribes were inItaly; Celts were in the British Isles, Spain andcentral Europe; Teutons were occupying most ofScandinavia and the north-western coastlands ofEurope, with the Slavs and BaIts on their north-eastern flank.

At about this time the 'Urnfield' Celts began anexpansion to the west from the region of the upperDanube. In around 800 BC the 'Urnfielders' hadalso spread east on to the Hungarian puszta and tothe south-west, where they stood at the gates ofSpain. During the early 8th century BC they hadcrossed the eastern passes of the Pyrenees and hadoccupied a wide inland area with the Mediter-ranean coast on their left flank.

At the beginning of the 6th century BC 'Urnfield'Celts were involved in the Illyrian Iron Age culturenamed by modern archaeologists after the first find-spot of the extensive cemetery which had belongedto a wealthy salt mining community: Halstatt, avillage near Salzburg, Austria is on a lakesidewhere the original excavations took place in the19th century.

19th-century sketch of an excavated chariot hurial of a Gallicchieftain at Somme-Bionne, Marne. The skeleton lies betweentwo 'countersunk' chariot wheels surrounded hy the remainsof a sword, belt hooks, belt plates, knife, and spear fittings. Acloak clasp lies at his right shoulder, and a wine jar at his feet.In a trench joined to the main burial by a narrow channel arethe remains of the harness for two horses. (British Museum)

Most of our knowledge of early Celtic culture isbased on the rich finds from the early burials inBavaria, Bohemia and Upper Austria. Theseprincely tombs contained a waggon, or itsdismembered parts, on which the corpse was laidtogether with an iron sword and spears, an amplesupply of pottery, sometimes cauldrons, and jointsof beefand pork. Some graves also contained yokes,harness and bronze bits for the two waggon horses,and a third set probably for a riding horse. Thewhole tomb was usually encased in an oblongwooden chamber beneath an earthen mound orbarrow.

Towards the end of the 'Halstatt period' thefuneral vehicle became a two-wheeled chariot. Theimportant centres in which these inhumations arefound show a strong tendency to be sited further tothe west the later they are, which most probablyindicates the general drift west ofa 'Royal' group of

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______JBronze shell from one of the hub-blocks of a four-wheeledwaggon burial at Viz, Burgundy dating from the 5th centuryBC. A relatively sophisticated casting like this, for a piece ofutilitarian vehicle equipment, indicates a high level oftechnical skill. It is finds like this, at first sight much lessdramatic than weapons or jewellery, which remind us that theCelts were very far from being the savages patronised by someClassical writers.

La Tene expansion from the old Halstatt Celtic areas in centralEurope and Britain, about 200 BC; the speckled areas indicateUrnfield Celtic territories.

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Celtic warriors. By the yd century Be, warriorsburied in this manner had arrived in Britain.

The Gauls made their entry with the advent ofthe 'La Tene' culture in Celtic territory. TheCelts knew themselves as Celtae; the Greeks knewthem as Keltoi, the Romans called them Galli orGalatae, but recognised that all these terms were in-terchangeable. To earlier Greek writers the Celtsand Germans were grouped together as 'un-mounted Scythians'. It is with the Roman version,the Galli (Gauls), that most 'La Tene' Celts areassociated.

The first Celtic La Tene Iron Age phase roughlycorresponds with a widespread avalanche of Gaulsinto Italy, Eastern Europe, France, Denmark andthe British Isles. Gallic settlement of northern Italycentred on the Upper Po Valley and those of its

tributaries. They poured through Alpine passes,obliterating the infrastructure of northern Etruscansociety; long-standing trade contracts between theGauls and Etruscans would have made it obvious tothe Gauls that Etruscan society had begun to showsome signs of disintegration at this time.

The declared origins of these .invaders areconfirmed by archaeology as being Switzerland andsouthern Germany. The tribes who had traversedthe central Alpine massif are recorded as being ledby the Insubres, who settled around Mediolanum,now Milan. They were followed by the Laii, Libici,Cenomani and Anari who settled in Lombardy.Later waves included the Boii and Lingones whopassed through the new Gallic terri tories findingtheir own area in Emelia. Last to arrive were theSenones, who settled the poorer land along theAdriatic coast of Umbria.

Swiftly-moving, marauding bands of unen-cumbered warriors raided deeper into the penin-sula. The main armies and caravans of familywaggons followed, stopping at the main areas ofsettlement. Roman influence in southern Etruriawas temporarily disrupted by the Gallic incursions,but during the ensuing chaos Rome destroyedEtruscan power and influence among her Italicallies. The Etruscans, though not lacking valour,never developed a successful enough technique fordealing with Gallic warriors and their northerncitizens began settling further to the south. Etruscanculture and history were eventually to be absorbedby the nascent and vigorous Roman Republicanstate to the south.

In 390 Be a meeting between a Roman embassyof three patrician delegates and the Senones tookplace at the Etruscan town ofClusium; the Romanswere invited by the anxious burghers of the townto mediate with the barbarians. During an ensuingdispute one of the Gallic leaders received a fatalwound, and the Roman party made an immediateand hurried departure. There followed a demandfrom the Gauls for all three patricians to be returnedfor retribution. The Roman authorities refused, andawaited barbarian reaction, confident in theirability to deal with it. The Gauls promptlywrenched their standards from the ground andmarched south.

The Roman army of about 15,000 men sent tobar the way to Rome was destroyed, I I miles north

Drawing ofone ofthe figures embossed on the surface ofa 5th-century Be bronze bucket from Certosa, northern Italy. Thereis a strong likelihood that he represents a Celtic warrior: hisshield is of Celtic type, and this shape ofhelmet was commonin Celtic areas ofnorthern Italy and south and central Europe.He is surrounded here by drawings ofarms and armour froma late Halstatt chariot burial at Cesto Calende, northern Italy,dating from the 6th century: an iron antennae sword found in abronze scabbard, an iron spearhead, bronze greaves, and awide-brimmed bronze helmet with a crest slot.

of the city, at the confluence of the Rivers Allia andTiber. Three days after the battle the Gauls enteredRome, much of which they burnt. Senators wereslaughtered in the Senate' House. Many citizenswere saved by cackling geese giving the alarmduring a Gallic night attack on the Capitol wherethey had' sought sanctuary. The barbariansdemanded a huge bounty of gold to leave the city.During the weighing procedure, Brennus, theGallic leader, is said to have thrown his sword on tothe scales with the words 'Vae victis'-'Woe to thedefeated'.

Without doubt, the capture, occupation and sackof the city remained an indelible mark on Romanfolk memory. We can only guess how great a part itplayed in Rome's merciless treatment of the Celts insubsequent wars .. Repeatedly beaten in battle, theCelts wcrc subjcctcd to wholesale massacres whichalmost merit that overworked word, 'genocide'.This implacable hostility did not ease until Gaulsand Britons were finally incorporated into the

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Roman Empire. (It should be noted, nevertheless,that large numbers of Celts were accepted into theRoman army from the earliest opportunity.)

The Celts possessed many impressive qualities;and in the 4th century the writer Ephorus namedthe Celts, Persians, Scythians and Lybians as thefour great barbarian peoples of the known world.Celtic technical skills, particularly their artistry inmetalwork, were of the very highest calibre; and arematched, in surviving artefacts, by an abstractartistic vision which can be breathtaking in itsbeauty. They loved display isplay of materialwealth and beauty, as in the colourful clothing andcollars and armlets of precious metals whichbedecked their chiefs and warriors; and display ofhuman qualities, as in their bragging of ancestry,strength and prowess. They bellowed insult andchallenge across the battle-lines. At their great feaststhey were quick to laughter, and to ferocity. Theirspirits could be moved quickly from deep troughs ofmelancholy to furious outbursts of uncontrolledenergy.

ArDls frODl the tODlb of a Celtic warrior found in RODlania,dating froDl the 3rd century Be: bronze heltnet, ironspearheads, iron sword in a bronze scabbard, iron dagger in abronze scabbard, iron 'sabre'. The sword has been de-liberately 'killed'-folded in two--before burial.

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Astonishing examples ofloyalty unto death wenthand in hand with tales of appalling treacheries.Blood-feuds were commonplace; and the cult ofhead-hunting played a major part in their feelingsabout war and the supernatural. They were apeople capable of fine gold-work of the utmostsubtlety; of enamelled brooches, utensils andweapons of nearly unequalled quality-and yet apeople whose dark beliefs allowed them to commitunspeakable acts of savagery against helplesscaptives. They were a contradictory, tumultuous,dynamic, and infinitely spectacular people, whoseblood is permanently mixed into that of theinhabitants of the British Isles and north-westEurope.

ThelMrriorMany authorities are of the opinion that Celticexpansion did not involve a special racial type, andthat the descriptive use of the word 'Celtic' is onlyvalid as a linguistic term. Others believe that ampleskeletal remains contradict this view, since all Celticremains show the same ordic characteristics astheir descendants.

The unforgettable appearance to southern Euro-pean eyes of Celtic warriors-their height, whiteskin, muscularity, fair hair and blue eyes-points toa particularly heavy concentration of these physicalcharacteristics among the warrior class, de-scendants of the intrusive Indo-European warrior-farmers of an earlier age. The paramount functionof this warrior caste was precisely that of appearingon battlefields, opposing all kinds of southernEuropeans or any other challengers to Celtic arms.To most outsiders, the Cel ts would all be assumed tobe of this particular type. I t is logical to assume thatthis blonde warrior caste represented the 'Celtsproper'; and Classical sculpture, mainly from thePergamene school, confirms the literary de-scriptions of their tall, athletic, muscular bodies andwavy or curly hair.

This abundant hair was left uncut by mostwarriors. In some cases it was plaited so as to hangon either side of the forehead. The Sicilian-GreekDiodorus describes how some Celts smeared theirhair with a thick lime wash and drew it back from

the forehead to produce a weird effect, like the Iflying white mane ofa horse. Drooping moustacheswere popular. Bearded warriors are shown on the \Arch of Orange.

The Celtic Iron Age fashion of wearing trouserswas particularly noted by Greek and Romanwriters. Diodorus Siculus, probably quoting theSyrian historian Posidonius, writes of the colourfulclothing worn by the Gauls, as well as their use oftrousers; the 'multi-coloured' fabric associated withthe Celts probably indicates checkered and stripedpatterns, but they also wore fabrics of solid colours,natural wool colours and linen. Tunics with long orshort sleeves were worn with a waist belt or girdle;over this was worn a cloak. Braiding and fringeswere attached separately. Leather shoes completedthe turnout.

Neck rings, known as torcs, were worn byi',chieftains and many warriors, made of gold,,1electrum, silver and bronze. Most survIvmgexamples are ofexquisite workmanship. They wereworn by the Celts from about the 5th century Be;the finest examples of metallic Celtic jewellerybelong to this early La Tene phase. Classicalsculpture and native art distinctly show Celticwarriors wearing these torcs. They are also shownon Roman military funerary stones, together withother decorative awards on chest harness worn bycenturions. Large numbers of these tores must have

Two 2nd-century BC electrunt torcs front Ipswich, England.These gold alloy neck rings are ntade front two rods twistedtogether and thickened at the ends, which bear La Tene floralcurvilinear designs. (British Museunt)

fallen into the hands of victorious Roman forces intheir wars with the Gauls; perhaps more significantis the Romans' copying of this and other fashionsfrom their deadly but impressive enemies.

Bronze brooches, often embellished with studsmounted with coral or exquisitely enamelled, arefound in warrior graves singly or in pairs, in theregion of the chest where they had held a cloak inplace.

Roman fear of the awesome and dangerousCeltic charge was eventually overcome when it wasrealised that steadiness, thorough battle training,the use of ample reserves and, above all, a completerange of missiles could usually be relied upon todefeat even the most determined avalanche Qfbattlecrazed Gallic savages.

One of the best insights into the character of theCeltic warrior was written by Strabo, a Greekgeographer who lived around the beginning of the1St century AD. He wrote: 'The whole race, which isnow called Celtic or Galatic, i's madly fond of war,high spirited and quick to battle, but otherwisestraightforward and not of evil character. And sowhen they are stirred up they assemble in theirbands for battle, quite openly and without

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- remark that homo-erotic practices were acceptedamong Celtic warriors.

Small bronze, found near Rome and dated to the 3rd centuryBC, which depicts a naked Gaulish warrior as described byClassical writers. He is either casting a javelin or defendinghimself with a sword; the shield, which would have been fixedto his left arm, is missing. The horned helmet is notrecognisably Celtic, but the large torc and plated belt are welldefined. Naked 'Gaesatae' like this man fought at the battle ofTelamon in 225 Be:; these 'Spear-wielders' from north of theAlps enjoyed a special status. (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin)

forethought; so that they are easily handled by thosewho desire to outwit them. For at any time or place,and on whatever pretext you stir them up, you willhave them ready to face danger, even if they havenothing on their side but their own strength andcourage.... To the frankness and high-spiritednessof their temperament must be added the traits ofchildish boastfulness and love of decoration.... '

Caesar wrote that Gaulish society was dividedinto three classes: druides or priests, equites or'knights', and pLebs or common people. The tie ofpersonal clientship between a Gallic noble and hisretainers operated to the mutual advantage ofboth.The more retainers and clients a noble couldacquire, the greater his local influence and thestability of his power.

From early puberty the young man of the warriorcaste progressed through the martial arts of theCelt, with the accompaniment of hunting, feastingand drinking. As a fully-fledged warrior he wouldsupport and be supported in battle by a close agegroup of his own peers, who had been with himthroughout his training for manhood. In this waymany young men developed a strong man-to-manbond; and Diodorus, Strabo and Athenaeus all

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Celtic communities: fort and farmsteadSince the Celts left no written record, our onlyknowledge of the arrangement of their lives andtheir communities comes from the brief, andperhaps unreliable accounts left by Roman writers,and from the evidence of the spade. There are fewclues to any detailed understanding of their society.We know that they were a 'tribal' people; we do notknow exactly what their tribal structure was. Weare told that they were a society divided by casteinto a warrior 'aristocracy', a priestly class, and anunderclass ofpeasan ts. We know that they practisedslavery.

As for their pattern of building, the modernacademic view is that a fairly highly organisedsociety of scattered farms and farming hamletslooked towards local 'hill forts' as the focus of theirlives. These 'forts' present a bewildering range ofsize, local density, and apparent purpose. Some areonly an acre or two in extent, with a simplerampart-and-ditch defence, and traces ofa handfulof huts. Others enclose within huge multiplerampart systems scores or even hundreds of acres,and traces of up to several hundred huts. There areexamples which fall at every point along this rangeof size. Some may have been villages; some werealmost certainly simply refuges for people and theirbeasts in time of war; and the largest and mostdensely built-up can only be described as 'towns'-perhaps even as local 'capitals'. We simply do notknow how Celtic 'political' society worked; so wecannot make intelligent guesses about the compara-tive frequency of purely military 'forts', fortifiedrefuges, permanent fortified villages, or massivelydefended 'royal capitals'.

One safe assumption is that the time-smoothedbanks and faint traces of post-holes, which todaycrown almost every skyline in some parts of Britainand continental Europe, give an altogether tooprimitive impression. The archaeological" evidenceshows a wide range of construction techniques,some extremely sophisticated. Ramparts whicheven today survive to a height ofgo feet would thenhave been much more sharply sloped and sculpted.Some were built up by means of timber lacing,rubble in-fill, and vertical facing walls of dry stone

blocks. Some had defended gateways with indirectapproaches and outworks which are reminiscent intheir sound design of 18th century forts. We findevidence for massive timber gates surmounted bypatrol-walks; for multiple stone-faced ramparts,quite possibly spaced according to the effectiverange of the available missile weapons; for ahierarchy wielding enough authority to stockpile50,000 large sling-stones in handy positions on theramparts of a fort, after gathering them from abeach some miles away. Whatever our ignorance ofthese people, one thing is sure: their chieftains hadreal authority, and wielded it over a social systemwealthy and organised enough to put considerablemanpower at their disposal for sustained tasks.

Julius Caesar describes encountering in centraland northern Gaul a type of solid defensive wallwhich he terms mUTUS Gallicus. This can best bedescribed as a skeletal grid of timber beams placedcrossways and nailed together, built up in layers,with earth and rubble rammed down into thespaces between the beams at every level. A dry stonewall faced this construction front and back-sometimes covering the ends of the lateral beams,sometimes leaving them exposed. The COfe of the

Hehnets froID the triulDphal arch at Orange-ancientArausio--in Vaucluse, southern France. The Orange l!as-reliefs show lDasses of Gallic arlDs and IDilitary trulDpets.The helmets are crested with a wheel, the Celtic sYlDbol ofwar. SOlDe authorities believe thelD to be cerelDonial hellDets,but they could equally be battle pieces. They lDay representlate survivals of 'Montefortino' hellDets.

wall thus gave good resistance to battering rams,even when the facing had been breached; and thefacing and in-fill protected the timber skeleton fromfire. This 'Gallic wall' is known to have been at least12ft high in some cases.

The Gallic Celts came in contact with Greeksettlers in southern France, and it is tantalising towonder how much this contact affected Celticdefensive engineering. In this area several strong-holds have been identified which boasted ram-parts of stone construction, rather than of stone-faced earth. The best-known is Entremont, whichthe Romans described as an oppidum-'town'.Overlooking Aix-en-Provence, this triangular fort-ress, captured by the Romans in 123 Be, had wallsof rough-cut stone blocks defended at intervals ofabout every 20 yards by towers with solid rubble-packed bases; the walls probably boasted battle-ment or parapets originally. Britain has not

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produced evidence of comparable sophistication.There are signs that some British forts were givenimproved defences at several periods; in about the3rd century BC there was a general deepening ofditches and heightening of ramparts, and on somesouthern British sites the 1st century BC saw theraising of additional belts of ramparts and ditchesand the construction of sophisticated indirectentranceways.

The settlements which were scattered right acrossthe Celts' geographical range offer just as wide avariety of sizes and designs as the 'forts', fromisolated farmsteads perhaps supporting one ex-tended family, to quite large villages of up to 40acres or so-larger than most medieval and manymodern villages. There have been several recentexperiments in reconstructing, from archaeologicalevidence, working Iron Age farmsteads. A projecton Butser Hill near Petersfield, Hampshire includedseveral different types ofliving units based on post-hole measurements and surviving fragments of hutfabric. In fields cultivated by hand, or withprimitive ploughs drawn by cattle, experimentalcrops of cereals thought to resemble contemporarygrains have been raised. Crops such as spelt andemma were found to average some 1,600 lbs yieldper acre even in poor conditions. Breeds of horse,cow, poultry and sheep which approximate ancientstrains have been raised on these experimentalfarms-for instance the agile and hardy St Kildasheep, a small goat-like creature raised for its wool.Weaving, potting, charcoal-burning and metal-smelting-all necessary to a Celtic community-have been practised on these sites using thereconstructed technology of the period. In the lowerstrata of Celtic society most men, women andchildren would have spent the bulk of their livescarrying out these labour-intensive tasks.

Exterior and interior views of the Iron Age 'Pimperne house'(named after the site of an important archaeological find)which was carefully reconstructed at Butser Hill nearPetersfield, Hampshire as part of an experimental recreationof a working farmstead of the Celtic period. Thesephotographs remind us that the phrase 'thatched hut' can bemisleading: this is a large, solidly-constructed dwelling ofsturdy appearance. We have no idea what the interiorarrangements or furnishings were like, since archaeologistshave little more than post holes and the traces ofhearths to goby. Experience suggests that it is probably a mistake toassume primitive squalor. (Richard Muir)

The DruidsThe ancient Celts were not a religious people, in thesense of worshipping an established hierarchy ofgods. But they were intensely superstitious; theybelieved that the objects and the environment oftheir physical world were pervaded by magicalagencies. Placation by ri tual and sacrifice-including, according to the Romans, humansacrific and by the telling of sacred myths andtales was believed to encourage benign involvementby supernatural powers in human affairs. TheCeltic year was punctuated by festivals marking thefarming seasons.

There was no organised pan theon ofgods such asthat of the Greeks and Romans, although much ofthe terminology attributed to the Celts (or perhapssimply 'filtered through' the Graeco-Roman vo-cabulary of the commentators) seems common tomost Indo-European peoples. Some Celtic deitieswere of only local importance; others were'national' gods. Some were believed capable ofshape-changing, from human to bird or animalform.

Their sacred places, with the exception ofsanctuaries such as Roquepertuse and Entremont,were evidently simple groves or woods. Ceremonieswere conducted here by the priestly class, or'druids'. Pliny mentions the connection betweendruidic rites and oak trees. Mistletoe was rituallycut from oak trees, usually accompanied by a bullsacrifice; but the purpose of the custom is obscure.

Caesar notes the importance of the druids in Gaulboth as magicians and as arbitrators to whomdisputes or problems were taken. They seem to havebeen the guardians of the Celts' oral traditions,through ritual myths passed from generation togeneration. In short, they were 'witch doctors' or'wise men', whose influence was woven deeply andintricately into Celtic life. Britain had a particularlystrong reputation as a cradle ofdruids, and this wasapparently more than simply the result of druidsfleeing to Britain after the fall of Gaul to theRomans. The Roman invaders were implacablyhostile to the druidic cult, and their writers makemuch of the inhuman sacrificial customs theysometimes practised. One may suppose that just asimportant to the invaders was the need to stamp outruthlessly this network or 'infrastructure' forpreserving Celtic national consciousness right

across tribal divisions. The last and most influentialcentre ofopen , 'organised' druidism was in the westof Britain, where the stronghold of the cult on theisland of Anglesey was destroyed by SuetoniusPaulinus in AD 60.

Head-huntingIn a man's head lay his mind, his strength, his will,his spirit, his 'life force'. The American Indianbelieved that to remain in the domestic environ-ment of the camp, surrounded by women, children,and the smells of cooking and the camp fire was tobecome softened and weak; while to live in the freshair, to kill enemy warriors and to take into one'sbeing their manly strength and spirit, was tobecome oneself a powerful warrior. Some suchfeeling as this probably lay behind the Celtic cult ofhead-collecting; but its symbols are so pervasive insurviving Celtic art and artefacts that we maysuspect a developed and deeply-held system ofbelief, even if we cannot identify it in detail. Theimage of the severed head is found everywhere-incarved stone and wooden objects, and in the form ofactual surviving skulls. Heads were placed on

Hehnets of ,Coolus' type, as first discovered in that district ofthe Marne. These simple helmets are of the true 'reversedjockey cap' shape. Those marked here A and B are Romanadaptations of the design, with two rivet holes on each side toattach cheek guards. The original Celtic examples have onlyone hole each side for a simple chin strap. The rings fittedunder the neck guard may have been a third attachment pointfor the chin straps, or simply carrying lugs. (From varioussources)

gateway lintels; in niches in temples, or in the door-beams of buildings; even collected and kept insidehuts. Some very prized heads were kept embalmedin cedar oil in special chests. When freshly taken thehead was hung by the hair from a warrior's spear,chariot, or horse's harness.

Weapon sacrificeOrosius, a Roman historian, leaves this commenton the ritual destruction of booty by the Cimbriafter the battle of Arausio in 105 Be: 'When theenemy had taken possession of two camps and animmense booty, they destroyed under new andstrange oaths and imprecations all that had falleninto their hands....'

A later witness to this custom was Caesar, whowrote of the Gauls: 'When they have decided tofight a battle they generally vow to Mars the bootythey hope to take, and after a victory they sacrificethe captured animals and collect the rest of the spoilin one spot. Among many of the tribes, high piles ofit can be seen on consecrated ground.' These votivedeposits, dedicated to a god by the victors in inter-tribal wars, are found in different locations all overEurope where the Celts held sway. From pools,lakes, marshes and peat-bogs the remains ofexcellent swords, spears, daggers, mail, chariotwheels, shields, trumpets, and large deposits ofanimal bones have all been brought to light-indeed, it is from them that historians have learnedmost about Celtic war-gear.

ArmsandArmourThe incredible impression made by Celtic warriorson those southern Europeans who came intocontact with them is registered in literature,surviving sculpture and the minor arts.

Prior to the 3rd century BC the Celts used verylittle armour, many warriors choosing to fight.naked. Chieftains and the wealthier warriors didwear. helmets and body armour to a greater degreeas contact with southern armies became morefrequent. This trend increasingly spread down tothe lower strata. Several graves in northern Italycontain Etruscan armour and Celtic weapons; someexperts believe, however, that these are probablynot Celtic because of the presence of a Greek heavyinfantry shield (hoplon) in one of this series of burials.

Southern Europeans never thought of the Celtparticularly as an armoured warrior; even afterlong involvement with the sophisticated armies ofRome, the majority of Gauls wore no bodydefences. Ironically, some of the battle helmet typesused by Roman armies are, in Russell Robinson'sview, direct developments of Gallic originals.

Montefortino and Coolus helmetsThe helmets used by more northerly Gauls at thebeginning of the La Tene period (during the late5th century BC) are varied in design. Some are of agraceful conical shape, sometimes with quite a steepapex which was completed with a hollow finial;others are of a 'reversed plain jockey cap' shape.Later Gallic helmets show their descent from theseearlier examples. Named after the necropolis atMontefortino, Ancona in northern Italy, theMontefortino type 'jockey cap' helmet was made ofbronze or, more rarely, iron. Other 'jockey cap'Celtic helmets were found in the Coolus district ofthe Marne in north-eastern France. Most were ofbronze.

The Montefortino 'jockey cap' evolved about thebeginning of the 4th century BC, the finest examplesof these beautiful headpieces being found in Italyalthough they originated in barbarian Europe.They were to prove extremely popular throughoutboth Roman and Carthaginian armies. Whenlater versions were mass produced, their qualitydeteriorated. The helmet was held in place by

straps which ran from the neck guard, wherethey were attached, to metal loops, hooks or studson the lower part of each cheek guard. Crests wereof several types, known examples having severalknobs at the apex, metallic branches from a centralinsert, and hollow finials to accept feather orflowing horsehair plumes. The helmet shell wassometimes fitted with slots or pockets for flat metal'horns' to be slid into place on either side of the skull.

The Coolus 'jockey cap' has a flat guardprojecting horizontally from the back of the lowershell, as a neck guard. These mnal eaps were of asimple, utilitarian, hemispherical design with nocrest fittings. They date from the 3rd to the 1stcentury BC, and in all probability were manufac-tured by Celtic armourers for the Roman armyduring and after the conquest. Many survivingRoman army helmets ofCoolus type in a developedform have crest attachments and cheek guards.

Agen helmetsSo far four late Gallic brimmed iron helmets havecome to light; they are named after the find-spot ofthe first of the small series found at Agen, Lot-et-Garonne, Switzerland. They have deep, full shells,not unlike a bowler hat, with a wide brim at thelower edge, narrow in the front and wide at theback, the neck guard section being stepped toreinforce it. A further raised V-sectioned reinforce-ment encircles the wall of the shell. The cheekguards are mounted with curvilinear embossing,patterned bosses and stepping. The headpiece wassecured by thongs through the rings at theunderside of the neck guard and the lower rearcorners of the cheek guards.

Port helntetsNamed after Port Bei Nidau, in Switzerland, wherethe first of this series was found, these Gallic ironhelmets of Port type have deep shells like the Agenhelmets. The forward rim is extended into a smallpeak; the rear of the shell is continued down to lowerear level. This neck guard has two ridges across itswidth, and the lower edge is brought out to anarrow horizontal stop. The shell front has tworaised ridges above the forehead forming tworecurved 'eyebrows' almost meeting in the middle,where a large rivet forms a small boss.

Fragments of both types of the late Gallic helmets

'5

1st-century BG bronze hehnet with a central reinforceInentInounted with two triple finials on the crown, and a duck orgoose head at the front. Of great interest are the fabric innercap, and the fabric-lined leather cheek guards; this type ofnon-Inetallic fitting alInost never survives. The band around theedge of the skull is eInbossed with a siInple repeat pattern of'double hooks'. (Schweiz LandesInuseuIn, Zurich)

An iron helInet of the 'Agen/Port' type dating froIn the 1stcentury Be. It has a deep, vertical-sided skull and a narrowbriIn broadening into a neck guard at the back; this had tworeversed cusps at each side, and a 'stepped' surface for addedstrength. FroIn Giubasco, Ticino. (Schweiz LandeSInuseuIn,Zurich)

were found at Alesia, where a Gallic force led byVercingetorix was trapped during a siege in 52 Be.In the opinion of the late Russel Robinson, thesei\gen/Port helmets were the direct ancestors of theImperial Gallic Roman battle helmets of latercenturies.

Helmets of exotic type were also acquired by theGauls from the earliest times, including Greekvarieties, halo-Corinthian, !talo-Attic and Etrus-can Negau types.

Hehnet liningsIn his book on Roman Imperial armour, the lateRussell Robinson mentions a quantity of survivinglinings in helmets of the 14th to 17th centuries AD.The majority are made up of four segments, some ofmore, their upper ends joined by a circling lacewhich could be adjusted to enable the helmet to seaton the head at the correct height. This method istill used in modern helmets of all kinds. In all cases

the linings are fastened to the helmet rim, and havea space between the top of the helmet and upperlining, in order to eliminate condensation and allowfree circulation of air. A padded fabric of hard-wearing type is usual. In view of the knownlongevity of this method of helmet lining, there is noreason to doubt that earlier fittings of this type wereused in the helmets of both Gauls and Romans. Acheek guard found at Hod Hill, Dorset has traces offabric on its inside surface, which would seem to bethe remains of a lining ofsimple padded type whichwas either stuck on or secured under the edge-binding. There is also some evidence that some formof arming cap was in use during centuries prior tothe Middle Ages.

ArlDourBody armour was always much rarer among theCelts than helmets. Some Celts of the Urnfieldculture were equipped with bronze plate armourwhich included cuirasses and greaves; productionskills were probably derived from Mycenaeancraftsmen, and the earliest examples from easternEurope date to the 13th century BC. Some examplesare heavily embossed and incised. The earliestrepresentations of mail are on the reliefs of thetemple of Athene at Pergamon in Turkey; they areincluded in the frieze showing captured arms andarmour of the Galatians. The mail is shown made

up into sleeveless shirts with reinforcement panelsfor the shoulders attached across the top of the backand held at the front by a bar and stud device.Dated to the early 2nd century BC, the friezeprobably shows examples of the captured equip-ment copied on site by the sculptor.

A more developed form of this type of mailcorselet was used by Roman, Etruscan and laterGallic warriors. A clearly illustrated example of this

The young Gallic nobleDlan of Vacheres, Basses Alpes,discovered in 1892; this probably represents one of the class ofequi/es or 'knights' described by Caesar. The Dlail corselet, withits shoulder reinforceDlents, is clearly defined. The cuffedtunic is split at each side of the heDl. (Musee Calvet, Avignon)

'7

Detail of the sword, belt, and cuffed sleeve of the Vachereswarrior. (Musee Calvet, Avignon)

armour is to be seen worn by the aristocratic youngGallic warrior whose statue was found at Vacheresin southern France. The young man rests his leftarm on the top of his long shield. He is dressed in along-sleeved tunic with turn-back cuffs, and a cloakcaught with a brooch on the right shoulder. A largeplain torc surrounds his neck. The mail corseletconsists of a shirt with short sleeves just covering theshoulder angle. The oblong shoulder reinforce-ments are attached across the top of the back andare held in place below the pectorals with largestuds. A double thong, presumably to prevent thepanels gaping, is stretched from rings attached justabove the inner corners of cut-outs on the outercorner of each of the defences. All edges are boundwith rawhide, creating a raised border.

Variations of shoulder reinforcements on these

18

Gallic armours are found on the remains of statuesand figurines from southern France and northernItaly. They are in the form ofa shawl or cape, whichis joined at the two upper corners of each end byhook-and-plate attachments at the centre of theupper chest. Most examples show angled ends onthe chest, bu t others are rounded off.

The Celtic shieldFor the majority of Gaul ish warriors the shield wasimportant as their only defence, crucial to theirfighting technique.

The earliest Celtic shields were relatively small'targets' of hide or wood. If the round 'parade'shields of thin bronze found in central Europe,Greece and Italy can be taken as samples of theappearance of contemporary and earlier battleshields of this type, they were heavily studded.

At some time during the Halstatt cultural periodthe Celts adopted the long body shield. Mostprobably developed from I talic prototypes, the longCeltic shield was oblong, shaped either as a hexagonor as a complete or truncated oval. Examples ofearly Celtic long shields are most probably shownon a bronze bucket from northern Italy where wesee warriors in brimmed 'bowler hat' helmetscarrying two spears and long, round-cornered,oblong shields with a central spine and oblong boss.

Remains of long Celtic shields have beendiscovered at La Tene in France, Hjortspring inDenmark, and in Ireland. The La Tene exampleswere originally oval and about 1.1 metre long; theyare made of oak planks which were chamfered to athinner section towards the rim. The centre wasreinforced by a wooden spine, swelling in themiddle, which was hollowed out to correspond witha round or oval cut-out in the shield centre. Thehollow was usually protected by a bronze or ironstrap-type boss which crossed over the wide sectionof the spine and was riveted through the shield. Thehand ~rip was fashioned in wood, sometimesreinforced with a metal strap riveted on either sideof the hollow through the shield. The flat area oftheface and back of the shield was covered with leather,or sometimes perhaps with felt. An extra metalbinding or 'piping' was applied to the upper rim ofsome shields to guard against downward strokes ofsword or axe, which could split the wood.

Variations of this basic shield type are to be seen

Front and rear faces of a Celtic hexagonal 'infantry' and around 'cavalry' shield. Both would be of oak construction,covered with hide or felt, and decorated with painted designson the front. Most fittings were of iron. The large 'infantry'body shield was normally hexagonal, rectangular or oval; thesmaller 'cavalry' type, round or oval.

in sculpted examples. Bosses were of iron andincluded the simple wide strap types, 'butterfly'plates and conventional round varieties on circularmounting plates. It is almost certain that mostshields, decorated with animal, geometric orsymbolic emblems, were painted carefully inpolychromatic schemes.

'Parade' shieldsOblong 'parade' shields of thin bronze sheet backedwith wood have been found in the Thames atBattersea and in the Witham in Lincolnshire; theyare exceptional in that applied embossed metaladorns the shield faces, and it s ems clear that theywere not intended for use in battle.

SwordsCeltic warriors were primarily thought of asswordsmen in the ancient world. They wereemployed as shock troops in Greece, Western Asia,Egypt and in the armies of Carthage.

Early Celtic iron swords were ofexcellent qualityand followed the style oflate Bronze Age types. Bothbronze and iron types were manufactured together,until in time bronze ceased to be used. The strongeriron weapons were seemingly confined to the 'royal'group ofwarriors living in an area ofcentral Europearound Bavaria, Wurttenberg, Baden, Alsace-Lorraine, Burgundy and the Auvcrgne.

Badly damaged statue from the great Gallic O{l!lid"l11 ofEntremont, showing a warrior squatting in Celtic fashion.Dating from the 2nd century Be, this piece does show quiteclearly the mail corselet with a cape-like shoulder reinforce-ment and some kind of fastening on the chest. The detail viewshows, indistinctly, the remains of the sword, and the loweredge of the mail. (Musee Granet, Aix-en-Provence)

Several of the iron swords of this (Halstatt)period are so large that some experts have thoughtthem to be for ceremonial use only, but they are nobigger than some of the great war swords of theMiddle Ages. As with the bronze swords of thisperiod, the blade is of a graceful elongated leafshape with rounded spatular, square-kink orshallow 'V' points. Late Halstatt swords included atype with a short, thick blade and an acute point.The hilts of both types of Halstatt iron swords aredistinctive. Most earlier large swords have hiltssimilar to bronze prototypes but are of 'Mexicanhat' profile; the smaller, late Halstatt swords, alsoadapted from earlier bronze examples, have two20

Hilt assembly and suspension loops, La Time period swords:(A) Assembly on tang. (B, C) Loop fixed to a bronze scabbard,from Pentland, Scotland. (D) Loop fixed to a bronze scabbard,from the Marne, France, showing the method of suspensionfrom a 'chain-link' sword belt. A short leather strap joins thetwo rings through the scabbard loop; the chain is then passedround the waist and hooked into the smaller ring shown at theleft of the scabbard. (El Sword and scabbard from easternEurope, I st century Be.

prongs divided at the top of the hilt to form horns or'antennae'. Other hilts were ofa design based on thehuman figure and are known as 'anthropoid'-some daggers of the period also follow this fashion.

The swords of the Celtic Iron Age La Teneculture range in size from about 5,,) em to 80 em,hilt guard to point, hut some reach a blade length ofgo em. The quality of metal used in these weaponswarrants the description of steel rather than iron.Quality varies, but few surviving blades descend tothe poor quality described by Polybius, the Greekhistorian, who says of them that: '. . . they areeffective only at the first blow; thereafter they areblunt, and bend so that if the warrior has no time to

La Time sword and dagger scabbards from Britain and theContinent. (British Museum)

wedge it against the ground and straighten it withhis foot, the second blow is quite ineffective.'

The lake at La Tene was a Celtic sacrificial site inwhich hundreds of swords have been found. Othersites, in France, Britain, Spain, Switzerland,Denmark, southern Germany and eastern Europehave all produced various examples of La Teneswords.

Most swords of the early La Tene period measureabout 65 cm to 75 cm overall and are cut-and-stabweapons; the blades are pointed and the scabbardchapes are heavily patterned. They date from themid-5th to the mid-3rd century BC. Swords of themiddle La Tene period, to the late 2nd century BC,became longer and round-ended, overall lengthbeing about 85 cm to go cm. From the 1st centuryBC sword length increased to a mean overall averageof go cm, a few examples having blades of go cm

Short bronze sword scabbards of the La Tene period found inBritain. (British Museum)

without the handle. Scabbard chapes are neaterand conform more to the sword's outline. La Teneswords of an insular style continued to be made inBritain after the Roman conquest of Gaul up to theend of the 1st century AD. The sword was usuallysuspended on the right hip from a sword belt ofleather or a chain oflinked iron rings; the sword was.attached to the belt by means of a metal loop at theback face of the scabbard.

The gradual change of the La Tene sword from afairly short cut-and-thrust weapon to a longerweapon solely designed for cutting seems to havebeen reversed in Britain, where points reappear onsurviving blades during the last two centuries beforethe Roman conquest.

SpearsSpears andjavdins of bronze and iron took various

21

forms and sizes. In general, spearheads were largerduring the first and second La Tene phases, fromthe 5th to the first quarter of the 1st cen tury BG. Themost typical Celtic designs have edges curvinginwards from the belly of the blade to its tip, givingthe impression of an elongated point. Two spearscomplete with shafts were found at La Tene, andwere just under 2.5 m long; butt spikes were ofsocketed or tanged fitting.

Bows were evidently used in some areas by somewarriors. The sling-the simplest and cheapest ofall missile weapons, but one demanding longpractice for accuracy-was also used. The greatdumps of sling 'ammunition' found on some Celticdefended sites have already been mentioned. Theeffectiveness of the sling-stone should never beunderestimated. Large 'cobblestones' hurled atgreat speed could inflict fatal crushing injuries evenupon soldiers protected by metal helmets, and

'Anthropoid' swords and hilts: (A) Bronze, from N. Grimston,Yorkshire. (B) Bronze, from Chatillon-sur-Indra, France. (C)Bronze hilt, iron blade, from the River Witham, Lincolnshire.(O) Bronze hilt, iron blade, from Mainz, Germany. All c. 1stcentury nc.

many hits must have produced major limbfractures. There is a school of thought which holdsthat the very design of the ramparts round Celtichill forts was dictated by the widespread in-troduction of the sling, to produce the most effective'fields of fire' and 'killing zones'.

The Celtic chariot'I see a chariot of fine wood with wickerwork,moving on wheels of white bronze. A pole of whitesilver with a mounting of white bronze. Its framevery high, ofcreaking copper, rounded and firm. Astrong carved yoke of gold; two firm-plaited yellowreins; the shafts hard and straight as sword-blades.'This description from The Wooing oj Emer, an Irishlegend of the Ulster Cycle, should not be taken as aIi teral specification; and ofcourse, it long post-datesthe period of Roman-Celtic confrontation. Butexperience proves that such oral traditions areextraordinarily long-lived; and leading experts suchas Dr Anne Ross do believe that the Irish legendsare precious survivals of the earliest Celtic culturewhich we can glimpse.

22

Celtic spear and javelin heads, and three butt-spikes, from LaTime, the Marne district, Alesia, and southern England.(Right) An iron spearhead inlaid with bronze patterns in the

In about 1580 Be the Hyksos peoples, after some200 years ofoccupation, were expelled from Egypt.Soon afterwards, the well-trained chariot squad-rons which were the Hyksos' legacy to Egypt werespearheading invasions of the 'fertile crescent' as farnorth as Syria. Both the Indo-European Hyksoscharioteers and their Egyptian pupils used a light,flexible two-wheeled car pulled by spirited horses.In the 1st century AD, Indo-European Celts wereusing the last examples of these chariots against thelegions of Rome.

The Celtic battle chariot was a two-wheeledvehicle with an oblong platform secured above theaxle at the centre of its length. On each side of theplatform side panels were formed by double semi-circular bows of wood filled in with inserts of wood,leather, wickerwork, or a combination of thesematerials. According to recent authoritative opin-ion, the trace reins were attached to the axle

'insular La Time' style associated with the British Celts; thissuperb weapon was found in the River Thames at Datchet,Berkshire, and dates from the 1st century "t:.

housing by metal lugs in order to transfer the pulldirectly to the wheels. The centre pole wasconnected to the axle housing and the platform.(The Celts' chariot tactics are mentioned below,immediately before the section on Alcsia.)

CavalryGallic nobles and their immediate following filledthe ranks of the cavalry. We may suppose that mostwore metal helmets, and the nobles and richerretainers the mail corselets described above. Besidesswords they would have carried spears andjavelins.Gallic cavalry shields seem generally to have beenround or oval, but some were of truncated ovalshape-i.e. ovals with the top and bottom cut offsquare. Cavalry tactics were normally simple: ashower ofjavelins were thrown, and followed up bya charge using spears and swords. Gallic cavalry-the 'knights' mentioned by Caesar-were the later

23

equivalent of the noble charioteers of an earlierperiod. They were apparently well mounted, onhorscs mcasuring about 14 hands (1.42 m from theground to thc withers).

Celtic saddles were constructcd with a pommelon cach corner of the scat unit, as shown bysculptural cvidcnce. A latcr Roman saddl of thesame pattcrn, reconstructcd from thc sculpturalevidence and surviving fragmcnts, is neatly seamedand stitched, with bronze stiffcners inserted into thepommels, and patterns of bronze studs on theoblong side panels. Metal discs and otherornaments were attached to the harnes . Both barand jointed snafflc bits were used, thc latterapparently being more popular.

It is logical to 'work backwards from theRomans' in any reconstruction ofCeltic cavalry. Asearly as the Gallic Wars Rome was hiring formed

Roman marble copy ofan original bronze statue forming partof a group erected at Pergamene by Attalos I. The statuescommemorated Attalos's victory over the Celts of Asia Minor(the Galatae or 'Galatians') in 240 '10 . This superb piece is nowknown as 'The Dying Gaul'; note the tore, the moustache, andthe spiky effect of the hair, perhaps lime-washed? (MuseoCapitolina, Rome)

units of mercenary cavalry among the pa ifiedGallic tribes, and Gaul (together with Thrace)continued to supply the Roman army with the bulkof its auxiliary cavalry force for centuries. ClearlyCeltic features remain identifiable in cavalryaccoutrements long after the incorporation of theCeltic lands into the Empire.

The Gaul, whether on foot or mounted, wasprimarily a sword man.

The mass of infantry warriors were the mostformidable part of a Gallic army; they fought as'heavy' infantry, coming into direct contact withenemy troops. After some time spcnt slashing the airwith their long swords, pouring abuse on theenemy, rhythmically banging their weapon ontheir hields and tossing their standards to the harshbraying of war trumpets, the tall sword men rolledforward like an incoming wave and began ascreaming run towards enemy lines. At about 30

Early La Tilne period chieftain and warriors.late 5th century Be

A

B

c

British Belgic charioteer and nobleman,1st century Be

o

ELate Gallic warriors. c.52 Be

I

Celtic light infantry types,1st century BC/1st century AD

F

G

Guard cavalrymen, Roman army,early 2nd century AD

yards they began to discharge their javelins; withinseconds, individual warriors were using theirpowerful physique to break up the opposing ranks.

If this first assault failed, a whole series of theseattacks would be mounted, separated by short restperiods. The charges would last until the enemy wasbattered into defeat, or the Gauls became exhaustedand retired, or just stood their ground in defiance.

These furious attacks were countered by Romanlegions using javelin volleys, followed by analternating-rank exchange system which put freshor rested troops into the fighting line after a givenperiod of action.

Polybius, born at the beginning of the 2ndcentury BC, would not only have gleaned theinformation he needed from official sources; it isentirely possible that he also took evidence fromliving witnesses to the events of 225 BC, when theGauls of northern I taly marched on Rome. Henames the Boii, Insubres and Taurisci of the Alpineregion as the most likely participants. Adventurersfrom beyond the Alps were also invited to take partin the campaign; Polybius says that the ItalianGauls ' ... pointed out to them the great wealth ofthe Romans and the plunder that victory wouldbring .. .' The host ,;vas, in this way, swollen hylarge numbers of experienced Gaulish warriorsfrom the Rhone Valley.

Rome was aware of her danger; the panic-stricken citizens sent the army and large numbers ofreserves to the north, ' ... for the old terror of theGauls lay in their bones.' The large defence forcewas joined by contingents from other Italianpeoples including the Gallic Cenomani and IllyrianVeneti. Two armies now faced the Gauls, both largeand powerful. A further territorial army of oldermen and boys stood behind them. A Greek man andwoman and a Celtic couple were sacrificed bybeing buried alive by Roman officials to counter aprophecy that Greeks and Gauls would one daytake all Roman land.

After the initial success of a clever deception, theGauls were trapped on Cape Telamon between twoRoman army groups, and went into laager behindtwo- and four-wheeled chariots. Amid a chaoticclamour from the I talian Gauls, the Gaesataewarriors from the north threw off their clothes and

. attacked the Roman lines with missiles. After aGallic cavalry charge had failed, the infantry

Iron snaffle bit of the La Time period front Marin-Epagnier,Switzerland. The Celts were keen horsenten, and ntade ntanyitents of horse furniture which were later adopted virtuallyunchanged by the Rontans. Apart front the sintple snaffle,exantples of the ntore contplex and ntuch harsher curb bithave also been found.

furiously attacked the enemy. The naked Gaesatae,tall spearmen decked with golden bracelets andtorcs and with their tawny manes stiffened withlime, repeatedly bounded up to the embattledlegions behind their shields, and in 'senseless ragestormed against the enemy'.

In their utter frustration the Gauls refused toretreat, and 40,000 were said to have died. Some10,000 were taken prisoner, including Aneroestes,one of the two kings; the other king and hiscompanions died by their own hand.

The naked trans-Alpine Gauls were paralleled inother Celtic groups, and neither Diodorus Siculusnor Polybius understood the true significance oftheir stripping for battle. The name 'Gaesatae' isderived from gae, Celtic for spear or dart, and meansspearman. They were tribeless young men whohired themselves out to any who would payor sharebooty. It seems almost certain that they were alsofey, legendary warriors. These warrior hirelings areechoed in Ireland where, during the early MiddleAges, the Fenian bands resembled the Gaesatae andwere described in old Irish tales as 'ecland, withouta tribe'.

The Citnbrian WarsA quarter of a century after their brutal sack ofCarthage and destruction of Corinth, the Romanscontrolled Spain, Greece, southern Gaul, northAfrica, Lydia, Phrygia and the Mediterranean.Apart from internal political unrest their horizonswere untroubled and secure. This relative calm wasdisrupted by reports of a movement south by largenumbers of nomadic northern barbarians. Accord-ing to the Roman writer Plutarch the warrIors

numbered about 300,000, not countmg theirfamilies. Two tribes of unknown origin, named asthe Cimbri and Teutones, were following an aimlesssoutherly route past modern Magdeburg, Dresdenand Vienna. In the area now known as Bohemiathey were confronted by the Gaulish Boii, and werepersuaded to move on peacefully.

South of the Danube, near modern Belgrade,they fought the Scordisci, a powerful tribe ofDanubian Gauls. They were defeated, and turnedwest along the Drava into Noricum (Austria). ByI 13 BC the great horde was approaching theterritory' gfthe Taurisci, a Gallic people who had aprotection treaty with Rome. With invasionimminent, they called for Roman aid. Carbo, theconsul for that year, arrived with a large army, and

GIMBRI

34

the Cimbri and Teutones prepared to move away.The Roman consul was not interested in peacefulretreats, however, and forced the barbarians to givebattle at Norcia. His generalship did not match hislust for glory and the legions were only saved fromtotal annihilation by a heavy thunderstorm. Carbotook poison, true to Republican tradition. Al-though confident in their ability to face the legions,the horde turned to the north-west away from Italy.During the next three years they lived among thefoothills of the Alps, near the source of the Danube.

By I 10 BC the wanderers had crossed the Rhinenear Schaffhausen through to the Jura and downinto Gaul, where they were joined by the Tiguriniand other Gauls. The Roman consul of 109 BC, M.Julius Silanus, had been sent with an army into

The adventure of the Citnbri and Teutones, "5 to 102 Be.

eastern Gaul, where he was met by a demand fromthe Cimbri and Teutones for land. The demand wasrejected by Rome. The consular army went intoaction, and was seriously defeated in the valley ofthe Rhone. Other Gaulish tribes became restive asnews of the second Roman disaster spread. Theinvaders now moved north, where they rested.Those Helvetian Gauls who had reinforced theCimbrian horde settled along the northern frontierof Roman Gaul.

In 107 BC the Volcae-Tectosages-Gauls longestablished in Roman territory around modernToulous rose in revolt, but were met anddefeated by an army commanded by the consul L.Cassius Longinus; the army then proceeded to pushthe Tigurini down the valley of the Garonne. TheRomans were almost destroyed and Longinus waskilled when they ran into an ambush. The survivorsreached the Roman camp, where their lives werebought for half the baggage and the disgrace of'passing under the yoke' in a submission ritual.

Having received a triumph for a Spanishcampaign, Q Servilius Caepio, the consul in 106BC, was thought to be a competent soldier. Herestored calm among the Volcae. Re-conqueringToulouse, he was joined by Cn. Mallius Maximus,an ambitious provincial of consular rank, with asecond army; the two commanders quarrelled,but managed to place their armies on the northernide of the Rhone under Mallius's orders when it

was learned that the Cimbri and Teutones were onthe move down the Rhone valley. On 6 October15 BC, at Arausio (Orange), the Roman advanceguard was wiped out. By mid-morning the consulararmy of Caepio was heavily engaged with thebarbarian host. The Romans finally broke and theinvaders swept on to assault the army of Mallius.They reached the Roman camp about an hourlater. The Romans were trapped against the river,where they fought to the death. Both generalsmanaged to escape.

In 104 BC Gaius Marius was given a secondconsulship by election-an emergency measurewhich violated a regulation of the senate. Now 25,he was a born soldier; and he completely re-structured the Roman army. The legionary ceasedto be a short-service citizen levy, and became aprofessional heavy infantryman supported by asecondary army of auxiliaries. The new army was

Bronze helmet with a central reinforcement mounted withstud finials, dating from the 1st century' BC. (SchweizLandesmuseum, Zurich)

drilled, trained and toughened to the last degree.Meanwhile the barbarians bypassed Italy after

the victory at Arausio, and strolled through thecountryside of western Gaul and northern Spainbefore doubling back to vanish once more into thenorth.

In 102 BC they materialised in the south ofProvence. Marius moved quickly, racing northfrom Rome to join his army in fortified camp on thelower Rhone. He knew now that his army facedthree pugnacious tribes confident of their ability todeal with any Roman opposition; although theyhad been repulsed by the Belga~in northern Gaul,their spirit was unshaken. They now made a tacticalerror, dividing their forces in face of the enemy: theTeutones and Ambrones followed the coast roadfrom the west, and after attacking Roman positionswithout success, they broke off and made for theItalian passes. Marius (now in his fourth consulate)broke camp, and by carefully planned forcedmarches overtook them, arriving at Aquae Sextae(Aix-en-Provence) to await the barbarians inprepared positions across the valley. The Ambronesarrived and attacked immediately; reaching theentrenched Roman positions, they were almostcompletely destroyed. The next day the Teutonesoffered battle, and were soundly beaten by asurprise attack in the rear; most were killed orcaptured.

The Cimbri, who had crossed the Brenner Pass,

35

now faced the army ofCatulus, a senatorial general,at Tridentum (Trento). His army refused to fight,and he had to abandon I talian Gaul retreating overthe Po. Marius cancelled his triumph, and joinedCatulus on the Po with his army. They crossed theriver in high summer 101 BC, and met the Cimbri atCampi Raurii near Vercellae.

The king of the Cimbri trotted his pony out tochallenge Marius to single combat for the prize ofItaly. He was told that it was not the Romancustom. Plutarch writes that the Cimbrian infantrythen advanced in a huge square, 30 furlongs long oneach side. These warriors each had two javelins anda sword. The cavalry, about 15,000 strong, worehelmets in the form of animal heads adorned withfeather plumes; they carried white shields, and woreiron breast plates. With the sun in their eyes andunused to an Italian heatwave, the Cimbrianinfantry met the legions in a cloud of dust. Theforemost ranks of northern warriors were chainedtogether through their belts to present an unbrokenline. Nearly all were killed. The women slaughteredsome survivors, and then killed themselves. Some60,000 prisoners were said to have been taken, andthe dead numbered well over 120,000. 'Never hadthe scavenging birds of Italy fed on such giganticcorpses.' The Tigurini turned back to Switzerland,where they settled.

The great invasion epic was at an end. Mariushad become a demi-god; but Carbo, Silanus,Mallius and Caepio were in disgrace, and fiveRoman armies had been destroyed. The impor-tance of taking complete control of Gaul nowbecame obvious, as a sure defence for the Romanheartlands south of the Alps.

Posidonius ofApamea, the leading Greek scholarof his day, journeyed to'Massilia (Marseilles) andSpain from Rome during the last quarter of the 1stcentury BC in order to find out whether the threeinvading tribes were or were not Celts. His firstconclusion was that nothing was known or could beknown of the Cimbri; they had come out of thenorth [0 appear among the Scordisci Celts, thenpassed through the Taurisci (Celts) and on to theHelvetic tribes-also Celts. Two of the three tribesof the Helvetic league were so impressed by theseunspoiled tribesmen that they joined them: thesewere the Tigurini and Teutoni. Posidonius was ableto visit the battlefield of Aquae Sextae; and as the

36

Conical bronze helmet found in the north of England anddating from the 2nd century BC. The large neck guard has athick fold of metal reinforcement at the junction with theskull, and a heavy curvilinear motif at the centre. The skullrim is rolled over, and there is a curvilinear design on eitherside. The raised, hatched studs were originally richlyenamelled. (Meyrick Coli., British Museum)

guest of the Greeks of Massilia and of Celtic nobleshe enjoyed access to first-hand knowledge notshared by any scholar of his own day or since. Hewas able to speak to people who had seen thebarbarians for themselves. Modern opinion is thatthe Cimbri were one of the tribes of the Germanigroup of northern Celts; all the known names oftheir leaders are pure Celtic. The Teutoni andTigurini were, as Posidonius stated, Helvetic Celts,and the Ambrones were a tribe related to them.

The Gallic WarsIn 59 BC Gaius]ulius Caesar, an ambitious and ableRoman poli tician then aged 4 I, was named consuland, the following year, governor of GalliaCisalpina (northern Italy) and Illyricum in theRoman-occupied Balkans.]ust before his departurefor Illyricum the governor-designate of GalliaNarbonensis (Roman-occupied southern Gaul)died, and this province was added to Caesar'sresponsibilities. This multiple governorship pre-sented him with great opportunities. It layimmediately adjacent to free Gaul, in whosepolitical affairs Rome already interfered constantly:any attempt to unify the country was frustrated byRoman agents. orthern I taly was a greatrecruiting-ground for troops. Caesar had estab-lished a military reputation against the Celtiberiansand Lusatians in Spain in 61-60 BC; a conquest of

free Gaul would consolidate it, and offered thechance of amassing great wealth at a time whenCaesar was seriously in debt.

In free Gaul one Dumnorix, a prince of the Aeduiand a successful financier, assembled a considerablefollowing. His brother Divitiacus, the tribal leader,opposed his rise, and in 60 BC fled to Rome where hebecame friendly with Cicero. Divitiacus claimedthat Dumnorix planned to take over first the Aedui,and later the whole of Gaul: he had allied himselfwith the Sequani, who had agreed to allow theGerman Suevi to take over lands in Alsace in returnfor their serving as auxiliaries under Dumnorix.Towards the end of 59 BC and in early 58 the influxof German tribesmen began a pattern of migrationwhich would offer Caesar his chance to becomeinvolved in Gallic affairs.

The Germans poured across the territory of theHelvetii, who decided to destroy their crops andvillages and fall back into Gaul. At the RhOne they

asked permIsSIOn to cross Roman-dominatedterritory occupied by the Allobroges. Caesarrefused them passage, and barred their way with ascratch force of available troops. The Helvetiichanged direction in theJura, descending the passesdirectly into free Gaul through Sequanian territory.Caesar's reports to the Senate painted the Helvetiiin lurid colours as murderers, rapists and land-grabbers, thus justifying his reinforcement of hisarmy with troops from the northern Italiangarrisons. He moved swiftly forward into free Gaul,meeting the Helvetii at Bibracte (Autun) andinflicting a sound defeat and many losses. Thesurvivors were driven back into their Swiss triballands.

The Roman Senate was apathetic, and Caesarwas a skilled political manipulator. With theindirect support of his client Divitiacus, whopleaded for Roman confirmation of his rightfulleadership of the Aedui, Caesar was able to

The Roman empire on the eve ofthe conquest ofGaul, in about 60 Be.

'..

.......

.~ \ eEL T5 ..... ......-

NOMADS

37

The major tribes of Gaul, in about 60 BG.

manoeuvre the Senate into accepting his role as'protector of the Gauls', thus giving him an almostfree hand. Many Gauls must have realised at thistime that both Rome and the Germanic tribes fromthe east were strong enough to take control of theirlands. The question of which conqueror might bestserve the Gauls' interests became academic.Germanic incursions provided Caesar with all theexcuse he needed to push forward into Gaul himself.

In 58 BC he defeated the Germanic Suevi, led byAriovistus, in Alsace, and planted garrisons inSequanian terri tory east of the SaOne. In 57 BC thresistance of the Belgae of northern Gaul to theestablishment of Roman positions on the Aisne wasovercome; the chronic disunity of the Celts causedthe Belgae to break up into tribal groups, whichwere defeated piecemeal. In the same year Caesar'slieutenant Publius Licinius Crassus subduedpresent-day ormandy and Brittany. On theSambre Caesar defeated the Nervii and Atuatucres,surviving dangerous situations by his coolness incommand, which allowed him to turn the fearlessimpetuosity of the Celts against themselves.

In 56 BC the Veneti, occupying south-westBrittany, started a revolt which was supported bythe still-unconquered Morini of the Pas de Calaisand the Menapii of the lower Rhine. The Venetiwere notable for having a large fleet of ships at theirdisposal; they carried on an active trade with theirBelgic cousins across the Channel in southernBritain, and levied a toll on other ships plying their

38

stretch of the Atlantic coast. In 56 Crassus was inwinter quarters in Venetic territory with the VII thLegion. Food ran short, and Crassus sent officersout to obtain supplies from neighbouring tribes.The tribunes sent to the Veneti, Titus Sillius andQuintus Vellanius, were promptly made prisoner;and this example was copied by the other tribes. Amessage was sent to Crassus, demanding his releaseof Gallic hostages in return for his officers' safety.

Caesar, then touring eastern Gaul and Illyricum,was informed, and at once ordered the constructionofships on the Loire and the recruitment ofcrews inRoman Gaul to the south. Examples of Mediter-ranean types of warship built included the heavyquinquereme, the medium trireme, and the lightliburnium. The Venetic ships were apparently offairly massive construction, made from heavytim bers joined wi th iron bolts, and powered not byoars but solely by large leather sails; they had ashallow draught, and high gunwales to protect thecrews from missile weapons.

The sea battle took place at Quiberon nearLorient in the autumn of 56 BC. The Romansslashed the rigging of the Venetic ships with long-handled sickles; and the Celtic seamen's fate wassealed when the wind dropped, allowing theirbecalmed pontones to be captured one by one by thehandier, oar-powered Roman ships. The Venetiwere ruthlessly punished for their revolt, and theMorini and Menapii later suffered the same fate.

In 55 BC the tireless Caesar wiped out theGermanic Tencteri and Usipete, who had crossedthe lower Rhine the previous winter. He bridgedthe Rhine near Koblenz and raided on the Germanbank; and in the same season he led a smallexpeditionary force to Britain.

The British expeditionIt should be remembered that to the Celts theChannel was probably just a particularly markedgeographical frontier between closely related Belgicpeoples. There was constant contact across it; andRome was already profiting by this to follow herusual method of 'softening up' potential futureconquests, by interfering in tribal and dynasticquarrels. Caesar writes that before he crossed theChannel he had received envoys from some Britishtribes offering submission to Rome; and that theywere accompanied on their return to Britain by one

Possible reconstruction of the type of ship used by the sea-going Veneti tribe of northern Gaul in the I st century Bl:.

Commius, supported by Caesar as the chief of apowerful southern British tribe, the Atrebates.Commius was ordered to urge other tribal leaders totrust Rome, and to warn them of Caesar's coming.

His expeditions into southern Britain in 55 BC,and again the following year, were certainly notplanned as invasions; he lacked the resources foroccupation, and the most important military reasonfor making the crossings was probably to discouragesupport for the Britons' rebellious cousins innorthern Gaul. The first raid was resisted by theCantiaci tribe of Kent; and in the relevant passageofCaesar's book on his Gallic Wars he leaves us thisimpression of Celtic chariot tactics:

'In chariot fighting, the Britons drive all over thefield hurling javelins, and generally the terrorinspired by the horses and the noise of the chariotwheels is sufficient to throw their opponents' ranksinto disorder. Then, after making their waybetween the squadrons of their own cavalry, they[i.e. the high class warriors riding in the chariots]jump down and engage the enemy on foot. In themeantime the charioteers retire a short distance ...and place the chariots in such a position that theirmasters, if hard pressed ... have an easy means ofretreat.... By daily training and practice theyattain such proficiency that even on a steep slopethey are able to control the horses at full gallop, andcheck and turn them in a moment. They can runalong the chariot pole, stand on the yoke, and getback into the chariot as quick as lightning.'

AlesiaThe disunity of the Gallic Celts had allowed Caesar

to pick off the tribes one by one, despite the fact thathe enjoyed no great superiority of forces, and hadeven enabled him to enlist the very effective Celticcavalry as allies in various campaigns. These yearshad, nevertheless, seen several determined attemptsto resist Roman expansion. Dumnorix of the Aeduihad been hacked down when he refused to bedeported to Britain. Indutiomarus, besieging aRoman strongpoint in 54 BC, had ridden away fromit when he lost patience with the delay-only to bepursued by the defenders, who brought his headback to headquarters. Ambiorix was defeated toomany times by Caesar, and finally took to the forestswith only four faithful riders. Other leaders werecaptured and executed, some by the torture whichCaesar claims was'according to the customs of theirancestors'. But the greatest challenge to Romanexpansion came in 52 BC, from a widespreadresistance movement led by Vercingetorix, son ofCeltillus of the royal house of the Averni.

Vercingetorix was fanatically anti-Roman, and aleader of real abili ty; and he was willing to use anymeans to his end. He urged a 'scorched earth'policy, so as to avoid pitched battles and sieges whilecutting the Romans offfrom supplies. Villages wereburned to the ground, wells poisoned, roadsdestroyed, and the countryside stripped of cropsand livestock. But not all the tribes were willing topay this price. Vercingetorix was unable topersuade the Bituriges to destroy and abandon theirchief settlement of Avaricum (Bourges); the triballeaders threw themselves at his feet and pleaded fortheir town. His warning of the consequences wasvindicated when' Caesar took Avaricum after adifficult siege.

Caesar's troops were subjected to ambush andattack from all sides, and their supply lines andstores were constantly being destroyed. KnowingVercingetorix to be in the vicinity, Caesar besiegedGergovia near Clermont-Ferrand, a strong positioneasily defended from behind ten-foot perimeterwalls built on the crest of a range of hills. Thegarrison repulsed an attempted storming, and theGallic army was able to launch an overwhelmingattack from outside the walls on the troops occupiedwith the siege. By the time Caesar retired from thefield that night he had lost 700 men and 36centurions-his first outright defeat in Gaul.

A major ambush followed; but Vercingetorix was39

Bronze arntlets front Scotland, 2nd/1st century He; the finialshave coloured paste inserts.

unable to control his hot-headed followers, andwhat had been intended as a feint attack to separatea Roman column led by Caesar from its baggagetrain turned into a fatal reality. In their battle-madness the Celts charged anything in their path,and were methodically slaughtered in the cus-tomary manner by the superbly disciplined legions.Vercingetorix retired with his own forces to Alesiaon the Seine (modern Alise-Ste. Reine). He wasfollowed by Caesar with about 3,000 infantry and aforce of mercenary Germanic cavalry. On arrivalbefore the walls, Caesar decided to adopt the classicmethod of circumvallation, and built his ownsurrounding wall all round the site. While thelegionaries built their wall the Gauls harried themwith hit-and-run sorties, and sent riders out tosummon aid from other tribes. Vercingetorix stayedinside Alesia, the centre and figurehead of Gallicresistance.

Caesar made use of every resource of Romanmilitary skill in preparing the containing defences.A complicated series of dry ditches were dug; atributary of the Seine was diverted to fill a moat;and large areas were sewn wi th cal trops and'lillies'-sharp stakes sunk in pits. Walls were builtfacing both inwards towards Alesia, and outwardstowards any would-be relieving army of Gauls; the

40

outer rampart was all of '5 miles long. Caesar'sbesiegers thus occupied a ring around the town,defended front and rear.

After a month's siege the defenders of Alesiaexpelled the women, children, old and sick from theoppidum to save useless mouths. They were notallowed to leave the site by the Romans, andpresumably they gradually perished in the no-man's-land between the armies. Soon afterwards aGallic relief army arrived outside the Roman lines;Caesar puts their numbers at 250,000 infantry and8,000 horsemen, drawn from 4' tribes. Like allfigures quoted by ancient and medieval historians,these are probably wildly exaggerated; even 0, thethreatening host must have been considerable.Caesar was now sandwiched between two hostilearmies, and his forces were soon subjected to furiousattacks from both inside and outside.

Towards evening on the first day of this battleCaesar used his Germanic cavalry to throw theGauls back from the outer ring of walls; theadvantage was exploited by other auxiliary cavalry,the Gauls were driven back towards their camps,and missile-armed warriors supporting them weremassacred.

After a day of preparation the relieving armyagain moved up to the assault, and simultaneouslyVercingetorix sortied to attack the inner face of theRoman ring. After long and fierce fighting both

CAlEaONES

I CENI

r RIPIIOVANTES

PARISI

COR I TA NlOAOUVICES

OEMETAE

CATUVEt tAUNI

~~'lUA~f~ DOBUNIr eELGAE~ Q

The l11ajor tribes of l11ainland Britain, in about AD 44.

BritainNearly 90 years after the assassination of JuliusCaesar, Tiberius Claudius Drusus-the EmperorClaudius of Rome and her empire-succeeded hismad nephew Caligula unexpectedly, and at thesword-points of the mutinous Praetorian Guard.Shy, handicapped, and stammering, the newemperor was advised that an exploit to provide apretext for the award of triumphal honours wouldbe in order. The conquest of Britain offered anopportunity to accept such honours without unduerisk. .

In AD 43 a convenient appeal for Roman help

Be the Celtic tribes in the foothills of the Alps and onthe Danube were also brought into the Romanorbit.

attacks were driven off, losing heavily to showers ofmissiles which swept the 'killing zones' of caltropsand 'lillies'.

A third assault developed when desultory attackson both inner and outer faces of Caesar's defencesled to a battle for control of an awkward sector ofthe outward-facing lines on a piece of rising groundup the side of a plateau. During a furious attack onthis sector Caesar sent in six cohorts as reinforce-ments, but had to follow them with another elevencohorts stripped from the nearest neighbouringsectors along the walls. Caesar himself finally tookthe Gallic attackers in the rear with another fourcohorts and part of the Roman cavalry; the Gaulsbroke on' their attempt on the wall, and those whowere not cut down were taken prisoner, includingthe leader of the assault, one Vercassivelaunus.

Disheartened, the Gallic relief army began tomelt away, and Roman cavalry followed them toinflict further casualties. Caesar writes that on thefollowing day Vercingetorix and his tribal chiefswere delivered up to the Romans, and the garrison'sweapons handed over, while the general sat beforehis inner fortifications.

The Greek historian Plutarch, born almost acentury later, gives a more Celtic flavour to thesurrender. He says that Vercingetorix put on hismost beautiful armour, had his horse carefullygroomed, and rode out through the gates of Alesiato where Caesar was sitting; Vercingetorix roderound him in a circle, then leapt down from hishorse, stripped off his armour, and sat silent andmotionless at Caesar's feet until he was taken away.

He was kept in chains, reserved for Caesar'seventual triumphal procession, for six long years. In46 Be his shrunken frame was dressed once more inhis best armour; and after being paraded inCaesar's triumph Vercingetorix, son of Celtillus ofthe Averni, a prince ofGaul, was ritually strangled.

Over the next two years Gaul was brought underCaesar's control so completely that there were to beno further national risings even during the Romancivil wars of 49-31 Be. The utmost ruthlessness wasshown towards any sign of resistance. The newprovince's tax yield amounted to four millionsesterces; a Gallic legion was raised, and some Gallicleaders were placed on Caesar's staff. Many Gaulsfled to Germany, Switzerland, eastern Europe andBritain. During the closing years of the 1st century

against the powerful Catuvellauni tribe wasreceived from Verica, king of the Atrebates ofsouthern Hampshire. Claudiu assembled fourlegions and strong auxiliary forces in Gaul, undercommand ofAulus Plautius. This army was hippedacross the Channel, landing at Richborough andother poirts on the Kent coast, and establishingtheir supply base with, apparently, no significantinterference from the Celts. Moving inland, theymade a contested crossing of the River Medway,and the Celts fell back before them to the Thames.Thi , too, was crossed against spirited opposition; asat the Medway, the Romans committed specialistBatavian troops first, who swam their horses acrossunder fire and established a bridgehead. On thenorthern bank the Romans built a fort, and awaitedthe arrival of the emperor.

Claudius arrived in August, bringing with him adetachment of the Praetorian Guard, and probablyreinforcements in the form of vexillations from theRhine legions (and, according to Dio Cassius,elephants!). The army which now advanced on theCatuvellaunian capital of Camulodunum (Col-chester) was built around the four original legions ofthe invasion force: the IInd Augusta fromStrasbourg, the XIVth Gemina from Mainz, theXXth Valeria from euss, and the IXth Hispanafrom Hungary. All these units were experienced infighting northern European warriors. The auxiliaryforc which probably equalled the legionaryinfantry in number-included the Batavians frommodern Holland, and many other cohorts ofGermans, Gauls and Thracians. Camulodunumwas captured without difficulty. Here Claudiusreceived the formal submission of a number oftribes; and then returned to Rome, after a stay ofonly two weeks, and well before the onset of themiserable northern winter. Rome celebrated histriumph, and the army left in Britain set aboutcrushing the inland Celtic tribes.

The XXth Legion remained at Colchester; thelInd, commanded by the future emperor Ves-pasian, headed a column which moved across theWest Country to subdue the Atrebates, Dobunniand Durotriges; the XIVth