pa205 report leading

8/7/2019 Pa205 Report Leading

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LEADINGManagement Functions and Practices


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Leadership


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Leadership

Leadership is a complex process involving

numerous fundamentally different types of

acts. Leadership is technical competenceand achieving results, working with and

through people, making sure that the

organization is in alignment with the

environment, and making sure there isappropriate and consistent adherence to the

organizations norms.


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Operational Definition

Assessing ones environment and ones

leadership constraints;

Developing the numerous necessary

leadership traits and skills (such as

integrity, self-confidence, a drive for

excellence, and skill in communicationsand influencing people);


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Operational Definition

Refining and modifying ones style for

different situations;

Achieving predetermined goals; and

Continually self-evaluating ones

performance and developing ones

potential.


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Types of Leaders

Types of Work

Execution Policy New ideas

Types of

followers

Employees Managers

Executives with

policy

responsibilities

Transformational

leader

Constituents

Community

leaders

of volunteer

groups

Legislators and

advisory board

members

Lobbyists and

policy

entrepreneurs

Adherents

Small group

leaders

Leaders of social

movements

Philosophical

zealots and

social trend

setters


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Leadership Theories


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Leadership Theories

Era Major Timeframe

Major characteristics/examplesof proponents

Great Man Pre 1900s;continues to bepopular inbiographies

Emphasis on emergence of a greatfigure such as a Napoleon. GeorgeWashington, or Martin Luther whohas substantial effect on societyEra influenced by notions of rational

social change by uniquely talentedand insightful individuals


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Leadership Theories

Era Major Timeframe


Trait 1900-1948;

resurgence ofrecognition ofimportance ofnatural talents

Emphasis on the individual traits (physical,

personal, motivational, aptitudinal) andskills (communication and ability toinfluence) that leaders bring to allleadership tasks

Era influenced by scientific methodologiesin general (especially industrialmeasurement) and scientific managementin particular (e.g. the definition of roles andassignment of competencies to thoseroles)


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Leadership TheoriesEra Major

Timeframe

Major characteristics/examples

of proponentsContingency 1948 to the 1980s;

continues as basis ofmost rigorous modelsbut with vastlyexpanded situational

repertoire

Emphasis on the situational variables withwhich leaders must deal, especiallyperformance and follower variables. Shift fromtraits and skills to behaviors (e.g. informing anddelegating versus consulting and motivating) .

Dominated by bimodal models in its heyday

Era influenced by the rise of human relationstheory, behavioral science (in areas such asmotivation theory), and the use of small groupexperimental designs in psychology

Examples emphasizing bimodal models includeOhio, Michigan, Hersey-Blanchard, managerialgrid; leadership theory involving maximal levelof participation (generally with three to sevenmajor variables) include Fiedler, House, Vroom


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Leadership TheoriesEra Major

Timeframe

Major characteristics/examples

of proponentsTransformational

1978 to present Emphasis on leaders who create changein deep structures, major processes, oroverall cultures. Leaders mechanismsmaybe compelling vision, brilliant technical

insight, and/or charismatic qualityEra influenced by the loss of Americandominance in business, finance, andscience, and the need to reenergizevarious industries that had slipped into

complacencyExamples (academic and popular) includeBurns, House, Bennis, Iacocca, Kouzes andPosner, Senge, Tichy and Devanna, Bass andConger


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Leadership Theories

Era Major Timeframe


Servant 1979 to present Emphasis on ethical responsibilities tofollowers, and society. Business theoriststend to emphasize service to followers;political theorists emphasize citizens;public-administration analysts tend toemphasize legal compliance and/orcitizens

Era influenced by social sensitiveness

raised in the 1960s and 1970s

Early proponents include Greenleaf andBurns. Contemporary and popularproponents include DuPree, Covey, Rost,Autry, Vaill, Gardner


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Leadership Theories

Era Major Timeframe


Multifaceted 1990s to present Emphasis on integrating the major

schools, especially the transactionalschools (trait and behavior issues largelyrepresenting management interests) andtransformational schools (visionary,entrepreneurial, and charismatic)

Era affected by a highly competitive globaleconomy and the need to provide a moresophisticated and holistic approach toleadership

Yukl, Hunt, Chemers, House


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Laissez faire

NarrativeDescription

Passive indifference about task and subordinates;essentially a nonstyle

BehavioralCompetencies

___


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Directive


Letting subordinates knowwhat they are expected to do;

giving specific guidance;asking subordinates to followrules and procedures;scheduling and coordinating


Tasks: monitor, planaspirations, clarify roles,inform, delegate.

Organizational: generalmanagement functions


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Supportive


Considering the needs of followers; displaying concern fortheir needs; creating a friendly work environment for eachworker

BehavioralCompetencies People: consult(listen), coordinate personnel, develop staff,motivate, build and manage teams, manage conflict


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Participative


Consulting with subordinates and taking their opinions intoaccount; providing advice rather than direction; establishing afriendly and creative work environment for teams


Task: delegate

People: consult (discuss), coordinate personnel, developstaff, motivate, build, and manage teams, manage conflict,manage personnel change


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Delegative


Allowing subordinates relativefreedom for decision making andfrom daily monitoring and short-term review


Task: delegatePeople: develop staff, motivate


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Achievement-oriented


Setting challenging task goals; seeking task improvements;emphasizing excellence in follower performance; showingconfidence that followers will perform well


Task: clarify roles, inform, delegate,problem solve, manageinnovation and creativityPeople: consult, develop staff, build and manage teams


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle Inspirational


Using intellectual simulation (for ideas or processes);inspirational motivation (for group goals); charisma

Behavioral

Competencies

Task: manage innovation

People: manage personnel changeOrganization: scan the environment, do strategic planning,articulate vision, network and partner, make decisions,manage organization change


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

External

Narrative

Description

Focusing attention on organizational matters and the

environmental context


Organization: scan the environment, strategic planning, visionarticulation, network and partner, decision making, manageorganization change


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Leadership Styles

LeadershipStyle

Combined

Narrative

Description

Used of two or more styles simultaneously in a single fused

style; for example, directive an supportive


___


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Situational Leadership


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Situational factors (motivation, capability of

followers, relationship between followers and

leader) determine the best action of leader Leader must be flexible to diagnosis leadership

style appropriate for situation and be able to

apply style No one best leadership style for all situations

Situational Leadership

H & Bl h d


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Identified 4 different leadership styles based on readiness of followers

Telling (high task/low relationship behavior)

Giving considerable attention to defining roles and goals

Recommended for new staff, repetitive work, work needed in a short timespan

Used when people are unable and unwillingSelling (high task/high relationship behavior)

Most direction given by leader encouraging people to buy into task

Used when people are willing but unable

Participating (high relationship/low task behavior)

Decision making shared between leaders and followers, role of leader tofacilitate and communicate

Used when people are able but unwilling

Delegating (low relationship/low task behavior)

Leader identifies problem but followers are responsible for carrying outresponse

Used if people are able and willing

Hersey & BlanchardsSituational Leadership (1977)


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Source:Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership

Studies. Situational Leadership is a registered trademark of the Center

for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved.

Hersey & Blanchards Model

Sit ti l L d hi V &


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Offers guidelines on how decisions ought to bemade in specific situations

Vroom, Yetton, Yago Model Decision quality (DQ) - the selection of the best

alternative Organizational decisions should be of highest quality

Decision acceptance (DA) - the degree that

subordinates should accept and be committed toorganizational decisions that are made

Situational Leadership: Vroom &Yettons Normative Model


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5 different decision procedures:

Autocratic

A1: leader takes known info and then decides alone

A2: leader gets info from followers and decides alone

Consultative

C1: leader shares problems with followers individually,listens to ideas, then decides alone

C2: leader shares problems with followers as a group,

listens to ideas, then decides aloneGroup based

G2: leader shares problems with follors as a group andthen seeks and accepts consensus agreement

Situational Leadership: Vroom &Yettons Normative Model (continued)


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Situational factors that influence model When DQ is important and followers possess useful info,

A1 and A2 are not best

When leader sees DQ as important but followers do not,

G2 is not best When DQ is important, problem is unstructured, leaderlacks info/skill to make decision alone, G2 is best

When DA is important and followers are unlikely to acceptautocratic decision, A1 and A2 are not best

When DA is important but followers will disagree with oneanother, A1, A2, and C1 are not best

When DQ is not important but DA is critical, G2 is best

When DQ is important, all agree with this, autocratic

decision wont work, G2 is best

Situational Leadership:Vroom & YettonsNormative Model (continued)


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Contigency Leadership


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Assumptions: No one best way of leading

Ability to lead contingent upon various situationalfactors:

Leaders preferred style Capabilities and behaviors of followers

Various other situational factors

Effect:

Leaders who are successful in one situation maybecome unsuccessful if the factors around themchange

Contingency Theory

C ti Th Fi dl L t


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Assumptions: Leaders prioritize between task-focus and people-focus Leaders dont readily change their style

Key situational factor in matching leader to situation: Relationships Power

Task structure LPC Questionnaire

Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs ofcontrasting adjectives.

High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style

Low score: a task-oriented leadership style

Tries to identify the underlying beliefs about people, in particular whetherthe leader sees others as positive (high LPC) or negative (low LPC).

Contingency Theory: Fiedlers LeastPreferred Co-Worker (LPC) Theory


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Findings of the Fiedler Model

C ti Th C iti


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Assumptions: Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resourcesare factors in leadership success.

Cognitive capabilities, although significant are not enoughto predict leadership success.

Stress impacts the ability to make decisions. Predictions:

1.A leader's cognitive ability contributes to the performance ofthe team only when the leader's approach is directive

2.Stress affects the relationship between intelligence anddecision quality

3.Experience is positively related to decision quality underhigh stress

4.For simple tasks, leader intelligence and experience is

irrelevant

Contingency Theory: CognitiveResource Theory (Fiedler & Garcia)

Contingency Theory: Path Goal


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States that the leaders job is to assist his or herfollowers in attaining their goals and to providedirection or support to ensure their goals arecompatible with organizational goals.

Leaders assume different leadership styles atdifferent times depending on the situation:

Directive leader

Supportive leader Participative leader

Achievement oriented leader

Contingency Theory: Path GoalModel (Robert House)


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Path Goal Theory


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Political Leadership

Weber's Political Leadership


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According to Max Weber, leadership in a political

system is spearheaded by three types of leaders:

bureaucrats, charismatic leaders and traditional

leaders. They operate under either a transactional or

transformational political leadership model. According

to this theory, transactional political leaders use their

knowledge or legal authority to achieve results. On

the other hand, transformational leaders utilize their

personal charisma to achieve their objectives.

Weber s Political Leadership

Theory

George Burns' Political Leadership


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Burns' political leadership theory borrows heavily from

Max Weber's theory. Burns' theory borders on personal

insights into how political leaders operate in different

systems. While recognizing transactional and

transformational political leadership models, he added

another paradigm, comprising of moral political leaders

and amoral political leaders. Amoral political leaders are

not regarded as true leaders.

George Burns Political Leadership

Theory


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In addition to Weber's description of transactional leaders,

Burns distinguished five categories of transactional political

leaders. They include opinion political leaders, who have an

ability to sway public opinion; political party leaders holding

various positions in a given country; executive leaders,

such as heads of state; bureaucratic leaders who occupy

positions of political power; and legislative leaders who

work behind scenes to shape political systems.

Transactional Political Leaders

Transformational Political


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According to Burns, transformational political leaders include

political scholars who shape political societies through their

clarity and vision on political affairs, reform political leaders

who address issues of societal morality, revolutionary

leaders who bring about rapid political transformations in

societies and charismatic political leaders who utilize their

personal charm to change political systems in societies.

Transformational Political

Leadership

Goleman's Political Leadership


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This theory was advanced by Daniel Goleman in 1995. The theory focuses on

elements that make up the features of a political leader. It also places emphasis

on behavioral approaches adopted by various political leaders. Goleman's theory

was aimed at determining behavioral conduct by political leaders. The theory

leans heavily on emotional intelligence, and among the aspects of emotional

intelligence highlighted in Goleman's political leadership theory are self-

awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy and motivation amongst political

leaders.

Goleman s Political Leadership

Theory


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Groups & TeamsIncreasing Cooperation, Reducing Conflict


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Groups & Teams

Group

two or more freely acting individuals who

share collective norms, collective goals, andhave a common identity


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Groups & Teams

Team

small group of people with complementary

skills who are committed to a commonpurpose, performance goals, and approach

for which they hold themselves mutually

accountable


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Stages of Group and Team Development


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Size: Small Teams or Large Teams?

Small teams: 2-9 members

better interaction

better morale Disadvantages

Fewer resources

Possibly less innovation Unfair work distribution


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Size: Small Teams or Large Teams?

Large Teams: 10-16 members

More resources

Division of labor Disadvantages

Less interaction

Lower morale Social loafing


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Roles & Norms

Roles

a socially determined expectation of how an

individual should behave in a specific position Task roles, maintenance roles

Norms

general guidelines that most group or team

members follow


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Cohesiveness & Groupthink

Cohesiveness

tendency of a group or team to stick together

Groupthink a cohesive groups blind unwillingness to

consider alternatives


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Ways to Build Collaborative Teams

Investing in signature relationship practices Modeling collaborative practices

Creating a gift culture

Ensuring the requisite skills Supporting a strong sense of community

Assigning team leaders that are both task

and relationship oriented Building on heritage relationships

Understanding role clarity and task ambiguity


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Symptoms of Groupthink

Invulnerability, inherent morality, and

stereotyping of opposition

Rationalization and self-censorship Illusion of unanimity, peer pressure, and

mindguards

Groupthink versus the wisdom of thecrowds

Th N f C fli


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The Nature of Conflict

Conflict

process in which one party perceives that its

interests are being opposed or negatively

affected by another party

Relationship Between Level of Conflict and


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Relationship Between Level of Conflict and

Level of Performance

S C f C fli t


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Seven Causes of Conflict

1. Competition for scarce resources

2. Time pressure

3. Inconsistent goals or reward systems4. Ambiguous jurisdictions

5. Status differences

6. Personality clashes

7. Communication failures

Fi C fli t H dli St l


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Five Conflict-Handling Styles

Avoiding - Maybe the problem will go away

Accommodating Lets do it your way

Forcing You have to do it my way

Compromising Lets split the difference

Collaborating Lets cooperate to reach a

win-win solution that benefits both of us

Devices to Stimulate Constructive


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Devices to Stimulate Constructive

Conflict

1. Spur competition among employees

2. Change the organizations culture &

procedures3. Bring in outsiders for new perspectives

4. Use programmed conflict

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