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Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially

in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.

Biology began to quickly develop and grow withAntony van Leeuwenhoek's improvement of

themicroscope. It was then that scholars discoveredspermatozoa,bacteria,infusoriaand the

diversity of microscopic life. Investigations byJan Swammerdamled to new interestinentomologyand helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissectionandstaining.[9]

Advances inmicroscopyalso had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century,

a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of thecell. Then, in

1838,SchleidenandSchwannbegan promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of

organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics oflife, although they

opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work ofRobert

RemakandRudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what

came to be known ascell theory.[10]

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians.Carl

Linnaeuspublished a basictaxonomyfor the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in

use ever since), and in the 1750s introducedscientific namesfor all his species.[11]Georges-Louis

Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleableeven

suggesting the possibility ofcommon descent. Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key

figure in thehistory of evolutionary thought; his work influenced the evolutionary theories of

bothLamarckandDarwin.[12]

Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works ofJean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first

to present a coherent theory of evolution.[13]He posited that evolution was the result of

environmental stress on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an

organ was used, the more complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its

environment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's

offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.[14]However, it was the British

naturalistCharles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian

geology of Lyell,Malthus'swritings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and

extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based onnatural

selection; similar reasoning and evidence ledAlfred Russel Wallaceto independently reach the same

conclusions.[15]Although it was the subject ofcontroversy(which continues to this day), Darwin's

theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the

rapidly developing science of biology.

The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with evolutionary principles

andpopulation genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed toDNAas the

component ofchromosomesthat held the trait-carrying units that had become known asgenes. A

focus on new kinds of model organisms such asvirusesandbacteria, along with the discovery of the

double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era ofmolecular genetics. From

the 1950s to present times, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. Thegenetic

codewas cracked byHar Gobind Khorana,Robert W. HolleyandMarshall Warren Nirenbergafter

DNA was understood to containcodons. Finally, theHuman Genome Projectwas launched in 1990

with the goal of mapping the general humangenome. This project was essentially completed in

2003,[16]with further analysis still being published. The Human Genome Project was the first step in

a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology into a functional, molecular

definition of the human body and the bodies of other organisms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatozoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatozoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Gould_2002_187-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Gould_2002_187-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Gould_2002_187-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Lam1914-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Lam1914-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Lam1914-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Malthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Malthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Malthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viruseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viruseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viruseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khoranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khoranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khoranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Holleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Holleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Holleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Holleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khoranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viruseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Malthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Lam1914-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-Gould_2002_187-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Jakob_Schleidenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Swammerdamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatozoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_van_Leeuwenhoek


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(2) People coming new to the Quality Assessment game encounter new terminology the meaning of which may notbe self-evident. "Aims and Objectives" have to be provided for each course that we provide, and this documentattempts to provide an explanation of these terms. Part I is a definition of the terms; Part II is a more detaileddiscussion of how to prepare a statement of learning objectives.

PART I : DEFINITION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

[This is extracted from theSubject Review Handbook: October 1998 to September 2000 published by the Qualityssurance Agency for Higher Education (QAAHE)(Reference No: QAA 1/97, December 1997), pp. 30 - 31.]

The statement of aims and objectives prepared by the subject provider is an essential yardstick by which quality isassessed. The job of reviewers is to evaluate and report on the learning experiences of students in relation to thestated aims and objectives. The statement is therefore important in defining and communicating the nature of theeducational provision, the intended learning outcomes for each programme of study, and will serve as the focus ofenquiries during the subject review visit.

The terms aims and objectives are defined in a particular sense for the purposes of subject review:

The aims express the provider's broad educational purposes in providing the programmes of study in the

subject. These aims address the question "why is the education provided?". In identifying the broadeducational purposes, the provider may wish to refer to the way in which the provision addresses theinterests of educational stakeholders - students, employers, sponsors (including government), "PSBs"[Professional and Statutary Bodies], and might include the NHS0, society. For example by:-

enabling students to develop their capacity to learn

meeting international, national, regional or local needs

preparing students for employment or further study.

The objectives (learning outcomes and experiences) set out the intended learning outcomes thatdemonstrate successful completion of each programme and level of study, and the learning experiencesprovided to ensure that those outcomes can be achieved. The learning outcomes identify the knowledge,skills and attributes developed by each programme and level of study. These may include reference tosubject knowledge and understanding, cognitive skills, practical/professional skills, and key

(transferable) skills. [Note added by Alan Findlay: I have attempted to clarify the precise meaning of thepreceding terms, in the context in which they are used here. Official publications offer little guidance, so Ioffer the following attempts at definitions:

Subject knowledge and understanding: knowing and understanding the subject matter of the course.

Cognitive skills: intellectual skills, including critical, analytical, synthesising and problem-solving skills.An ability and willingness to learn. Flexibility and adaptability.

Practical/professional skills: these involve a limited range of specific skills and, more generally, theability to follow instructions in order to make effective use of apparatus used in biomedicalinvestigations. In the areas of biology and biomedical sciences, these skills are exemplified by the use of amicroscope, the use of an oscilloscope, the use of a pH meter, the palpation of a pulse in the radial artery,or the use of a stethoscope.

Key (transferable) skills: these relate, rather generally, to "employability", and include such things asability to organise oneself, to work independently and to take initiatives; self-confidence; communicationskills, written and oral - increasingly in more than one language; people skills, including the ability to

work in teams and motivate others; numeracy; computer literacy (most or all of: word processing; use ofthe Internet; use of spreadsheets; use of statistical packages; use of databases; use of bibliographic searchfacilities). Ways in which Cambridge students develop transferable skills include: (1) informally throughextracurricular activities; (2) through teaching either explicitly (e.g. language training, presentations,practical class work, research projects), incidentally (e.g. through supervisions) or voluntarily (e.g.through computing courses where these are not an essential part of the course). It is now being advocatedthat the acquisition of these, and other, skills should be acquired less haphazardly.]

The objectives should be clearly relevant to fulfilling the educational aims.

Format and Word Limit

Experience suggests that subject providers have found it difficult to summarise their aims and objectives within

500 words, particularly where the educational provision is large and complex. The word limit for the 1998-2000


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QAA exercise has therefore bee n relaxed, and is as follows:

aims: maximum 250 words

objectives: maximum 500 words for provision comprising up to 3 programmes; maximum 1,000 wordsfor more extensive and diverse provision. The objectives for each programme and level of study should beclearly differentiated.

The statement of aims and objectives should be no longer than three pages of A4 (up to 1,250 words).

Objectives in Medical Education

There are certain specific objectives - subdivided into knowledge objectives, skills objectives and attitudinalobjectives - that have been specified in Tomorrow's Doctors, published in 1993 by the General Medical Council.Medical education in Cam bridge must conform to these (generally uncontentious) objectives. There is nocomparable list of objectives for natural science and veterinary students, and it is therefore the job of each majorcourse provider to develop his/her own set of objectives within the scope of the overall University missionstatement.

PART II : PREPARING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

[This section is based on the work of Norman E. Gronlund Stating Behavioural Objectives for Classroom Instruction.]

Typically, teachers, if they attempt to state instructional objectives, do so in terms of (1) the teacher's performance;(2) the learning process; or (3) the subject matter to be covered. For example, it would not be unusual to find thefollowing as an instructional objective in many educational institutions: "To increase students' reading ability."

The problem with the above statement is that it focuses upon what the teacherwants to do. Technically, once theteacher had carried out whatever plan he had prepared to "increase students' reading ability", he would haveachieved his objective and we would be left wondering whether, in fact, students had increased their readingability.

The approach to preparing instructional objectives advocated here stresses focusing attention on the student and onthe type of performance he is expected to demonstrate at the end of instruction. In other words, it is suggested thatinstructional objectives should be stated in terms of the desired learning outcomes. Following this suggestion, theabove objective might reasonably read: "Comprehends assigned reading material." Note that this statementstresses what the student will be able to do after instruction rather than how theteacherwill behave duringinstruction. Stating instructional objectives as learning outcomes contributes to the instructional process in thefollowing ways:

1. It provides direction for the instructor, and it clearly conveys his instructional intent to others.2. It provides a guide for selecting the subject matter, the teaching methods, and the materials to be used

during instruction.3. It provides a guide for constructing tests and other instruments for evaluating student achievement.

Defining learning outcomes is really a two-step process:

1. Stating instructional objectives as general learning outcomes; and,2. Listing, under each instructional objective, a representative sample of the specific types of student

behaviour that would indicate attainment of the objective.

Two examples are listed below, with the general learning outcome stated first, followed by representative samplesof specific types of student behaviour that might indicate attainment of the objective.

1. Understands the Meaning of Technical Terms. a. Defines the term in his own words. b. Identifies themeaning of the term when used in context. c. Distinguishes between terms that are similar in meaning.

2. Understands Basic Principles. a. States the principle in his own words. b. Gives an example of the principle.c. Distinguishes between correct and incorrect applications of the principle.

Stating the general instructional objective first and then clarifying it further by listing types of specific behaviourthat characterise the object makes clear that the instructional objective above is understanding, and that defining,


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identifying, and distinguishing between are simply samples of the types of performance that representunderstanding. It would be impossible to list all types of behaviour that might show understanding; therefore, onemust settle for a representative sample of the types of behaviour that, in the judgement of the teacher, adequatelydescribe the objective.

Teaching efforts must be directed toward the general objectives of instruction and not toward the specific samples

of behaviour selected to represent each objective. For example, in teaching an understanding of technical terms, wemight have students listen to a lecture, study textbook definitions, compare and contrast the terms during classdiscussion, and use the terms in laboratory work. When we test the students, however, we would present themwith a list of technical terms and ask them to define each term in their own words, identify the meaning of eachterm when used in a context, and distinguish between terms that are similar in meaning. Note that the test calls fora type of response that was not directly taught during instruction. This is necessary if the test behaviour is to showan understanding rather than merely a recallof previous training.

When developing a list of general instructional objectives for a course or unit of course work, the aim is to obtain alist of general objectives to work toward and nota list of specific types of words that are particularly useful inarticulating general instructional objectives. Examples are listed below:

AppliesComprehends

KnowsUnderstandsUsesAppreciatesThinks critically.

Note that the above verbs are specific enough to provide direction for instruction without overly restricting theteacher or reducing the instruction to a simplistic level. They are also specific enough to be easily defined by a brieflist of the types of behaviourstudents are to demonstrate when the objectives have been achieved. Choosing fromeight to twelve general objectives will usually provide a list that is both manageable and suitable for a unit ofinstruction.

When elaborating general instructional objectives so as to define specific learning outcomes, that is, identifying and

listing under each objective a representative sample of specific types of behaviour that are to be used as evidencethat the objective has been achieved, it is important to use verbs that indicate observable behaviour, that is,behaviour that can be seen by an outside observer. Such words as the following are particularly useful:

IdentifiesDescribesListsRelatesExplainsPredictsDistinguishesFormulatesSpecifies

Words like realises, sees, feels, suggests are less clear and therefore should be avoided.

To illustrate once again the relationship between a general instructional objective and specific learning outcomesthat can be used as evidence that the objective has been achieved, consider the following example:

General Instructional Objective

Uses critical thinking skills in reading.

Specific Learning Outcomes (in behavioural terms)

Distinguishes between facts and opinion.

Distinguishes between facts and inferences.Identifies cause-effect relationships.Identifies errors in reasoning.


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Distinguishes between relevant and irrelevant arguments.Distinguishes between warranted and unwarranted generalisations.Specifies assumptions needed to make conclusions true.

Although this list of types of specific behaviour is by no means complete, a careful reading of the statements willprovide a fairly good indication of what students are like when they are able to use critical thinking skills in

reading. Thus, this list is perhaps comprehensive enough to clarify the instructional intent and short enough to bemanageable and useful.

During the process of defining the general instruction objectives, it may be necessary to modify the original list. Inidentifying the specific types of behaviour for the objectives, you may realise that some of them are too general andneed to be subdivided.

In defining other objectives, you might note that the specific types of behaviour overlap to such a degree that isdesirable to combine two statements into a single objective. Thus,applies scientific procedures and plans simpleexperiments might best be combined into a single objective like uses the scientific method effectively.

Because instructional objectives can be stated in many different ways and at various levels of generality, there isconsiderable flexibility in the formulation of the statements. Thus, the listing of specific types of behaviourprovides a good opportunity for evaluating the original list of instructional objectives and for revising them ifnecessary. The ultimate aim, of course, is to derive a final list of general objectives and specific behaviours thatmost clearly indicate the learning outcomes expected from instruction.

One further note. Beware of neglecting those objectives that are difficult to define. Simple objectives like knowscommon terms are easy to state in specific behavioural terms. There is a tendency to overload the list ofinstructional goals with such objectives because they are so easy to define. The more complex objectives, althoughdifficult to define, are usually more important from an educational standpoint. Objectives pertaining to thinkingskills, attitudes, and appreciation should not be slighted because of the difficulty of clearly defining them.

In general summary, the procedure for defining instructional objectives should include the following steps:

1. State the general instructional objectives as expected learning outcomes.2. Place under each general instructional objective a list of specific studentbehaviours that would indicate

attainment of the objective.(a) Begin each specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite, observable behaviour.(b) List a sufficient number of specific learning outcomes under each objective to describe adequately thebehaviour of students who have achieved the objective.(c) Be certain that the behaviour in each specific learning outcome is relevant to the object it describes.

3. When defining the general instructional objectives in terms of specific learning outcomes, revise andrefine the original list of objectives as needed,

4. Be careful not to omit complex objectives (e.g., critical thinking, appreciation) simply because they aredifficult to define in specific behavioural terms.

5. Consult reference materials for help in identifying the specific types of behaviour that are mostappropriate for defining the complex objectives.

(3) Aims and Principles

1. The general aim of education is to contribute

towards the development of all aspects of the

individual, including aesthetic, creative, critical,

cultural, emotional, expressive, intellectual, for

personal and home life, for working life, for


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living in the community and for leisure.

2. Leaving Certificate programmes are presented

within this general aim, with a particular

emphasis on the preparation of students for the

requirements of further education or training, for

employment and for their role as participative,

enterprising citizens.

3. All Leaving Certificate programmes aim to

provide continuity with and progression from the

Junior Certificate programme. The relative

weighting given to the various components

e.g. personal and social (including moral and

spiritual) development, vocational studies and

preparation for further education and for adult

and working life within the programmes may

vary.

4. Programmes leading to the award of the Leaving

Certificate are of two years duration and are

offered in three forms:

i. The Leaving Certificate (Established)

ii. The Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme

iii. The Leaving Certificate Applied

5. All Leaving Certificate programmes, in

contributing to a high quality education,

emphasise the importance of :

self-directed learning and independent

thought

a spirit of inquiry, critical thinking, problem


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solving, self-reliance, initiative and enterprise

preparation for further education, for adult

and working life

lifelong learning

Preamble

Policy Context

Science education in the senior cycle should reflect

the changing needs of students and the growing

significance of science for strategic development in

Ireland.

Leaving Certificate Science syllabuses are designed to

incorporate the following components:

science for the enquiring mind or pure science,

to include the principles, procedures and

concepts of the subject as well as its cultural

and historical aspects

science for action or the applications of science

and its interface with technology

science that is concerned with issuespolitical,

social and economicof concern to citizens.

The three components are integrated within each

science syllabus, with the first component having

a 70% weighting. The remaining 30% should be

allocated to the other two components in the ratio

3 to 1.

The science syllabuses, which are offered at two levels,

Higher and Ordinary, will have approximately 180


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hours of class contact time over a two-year period.

They should be practically and experimentally based

in their teaching.

LEAVING CERTIFICATE BIOLOGY SYLLABUS 1

LEAVING CERTIFICATE BIOLOGY SYLLABUS

CONTENTS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Unit One: Biology -

The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Unit Two: The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Unit Three: The Organism . . . . . . . 27

Syllabus Structure

The syllabus is composed of science for the enquiring

mind or pure science, which constitutes

approximately 70% of the syllabus, and the

technological, political, social and economic aspects

of biology, which constitutes the remaining 30%.

The syllabus consists of three units:

Unit One: Biology - The Study of Life

Unit Two: The Cell

Unit Three: The Organism.

The learning outcomes associated with the units of

study are presented in four columns:

Sub-units and topics

Depth of treatment

Contemporary issues and technology

Practical activities.

The sequence in which the syllabus is presented


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does not imply any particular order of teaching.

Teaching strategies should promote the aims and

objectives of the syllabus. Professional discretion

should be evident when dealing with sensitive

topics in the syllabus.

Duration

The syllabus is designed for approximately 180 hours

of class contact time (the equivalent of 270 class

periods of 40 minutes duration or five class periods

per week, to include at least one double period).

A specific number of class periods for each sub-unit

of the syllabus are recommended. These should be

treated as a guideline intended to indicate the

approximate amount of time needed. Teachers are

encouraged to exercise discretion when allocating

time periods to the various elements of the syllabus.

Practical Activities

In the course of their studies, students should

undertake a range of practical work, laboratory work

and fieldwork. Students should carry out these

activities over the duration of the course. A record of

this work should be retained.

In all practical work safety must be a major concern.

Teachers are encouraged to develop in their students

positive attitudes and approaches to safety in the

range of activities they encounter and to inculcate in

them an awareness of the values of creating a safe

working environment.


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Standard laboratory safety precautions should be

observed and care taken when carrying out activities.

All legal and health regulations must be adhered to

in activities involving live and dead organisms.

Before rearing and maintaining organisms,

detailed information on the appropriate methods

for the rearing and maintenance of the organisms

must be studied. These methods must be strictly

adhered to during the activity.

Students should appreciate the possibility for errors in

activities and the precautions or controls that can be

applied to reduce errors. Students should also be

aware that the value of scientific method is limited

by the extent of our own basic knowledge, by the

basis of investigation, by our ability to interpret

results, by its application to the natural world

(which is always subject to change or variation)

and by accidental discoveries.

(4)BSCS (Biological Sciences Curriculum Study) is a non-profit

curriculum study committed to transforming science teaching and

learning.

Our vision and work are grounded in research about what makes a difference in education and what

a high-quality science education could and should be. We use and generate research to continually

raise the standards for the development of materials and services that promote the teaching and

learning of science. We have a longhistoryof developing exemplary curriculum materials, offering

transformative professional development services, and conducting rigorous research and evaluation

studies. As we continue in our commitment to transform science education, we are building upon

the foundation of our past while seeking innovative opportunities to lead the science education

community. We are committed to generating and using research to develop products and services

that will improve science teaching and learning for all.

MISSION STATEMENT

Our mission is to transform science teaching and learning through research and development that

strengthens learning environments and inspires a global community of scientifically literate citizens.

Click hereto sign up for an exclusive preview of a new feature called the BSCS LAB (Learning
http://www.bscs.org/historyhttp://www.bscs.org/historyhttp://www.bscs.org/historyhttp://www.bscs.org/labhttp://www.bscs.org/labhttp://www.bscs.org/labhttp://www.bscs.org/history


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And Beyond) upon its completion.

The BSCS community is made up of science educators and professional

partners who fulfill a variety of roles within the science education

community in general and the BSCS community in particular.They attend national and regional conferences, serve as leaders in school districts and in policy-

making, and participate on BSCS advisory boards for all kinds of projects, as field-test teachers for

Professional Development and Curriculum Development projects, and as study sites for research

projects.

Being part of the BSCS community means you, like us, are committed to inspiring a global

community of scientifically literate citizens. If you havent already done so,please join us! As a

member of the BSCS eCommunity, youll receive news of BSCS projects and partnerships,

including opportunities for you to become involved in ways that map to your professional goals.

Shared vision, shared goals

Learn more aboutour work

Subscribe to theBSCS eCommunity

Free resources for you

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the

science education community that will contribute to understanding how to

improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.

We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and

leadership and policy.

Nature of Curriculumstudies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery

mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials;Teacher Learning and Practicestudies how

teachers grow professionally; andLeadership and Policyemphasizes studies about the influence of

leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies

will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate

and use knowledge to inform their work.

A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for

you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort

options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

(5) One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the








http://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/community/bscs-authorshttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/community/bscs-authorshttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/community/bscs-authorshttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunityhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/community/bscs-authorshttp://www.bscs.org/ecommunity


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will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and

use knowledge to inform their work.

A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you

to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in

the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.









leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studieswill generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and

















to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options inthe three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.







mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials;Teacher Learning and Practicestudies howteachers grow professionally; andLeadership and Policyemphasizes studies about the influence of
http://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculum


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teachers grow professionally; andLeadership and Policyemphasizes studies about the influence ofleadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies






(6)General Characteristics

Good teachers are dynamic, patient, understanding and caring. They enjoy the company of young people and

have the ability to see things from various points of view. They know how to explain concepts in several

different ways depending upon the needs of their students. Their sense of humor helps them put troublesome

situations into perspective. They are enthusiastic about teaching and they transmit their enthusiasm to their

students, making even the boring appear interesting.

Knowledge

Biology teachers are knowledgeable about science in general, and about the characteristics of animal and plant

life, in particular. They are lifelong learners who continue to keep current with the latest news, discoveries, and

research results. They have an insatiable curiosity about life and a genuine interest in the natural world.

Personality

Biology teachers are enthusiastic, positive and encouraging. They possess the ability to see and transmit big-picture concepts; they don't get bogged down in the minutiae of a topic. They explain how individual parts fit

into the whole. They pay attention to detail. They have no embarrassment about explaining bodily functions to

teens who might not have the maturity to deal with the subject matter seriously. They understand possible

cultural or religious needs and the personal preferences of students who might be squeamish about performing

animal dissection.

Physical Attributes

Biology teachers have good eyesight and are able to distinguish things under a microscope. They are not

squeamish about handling living or dead animals. They are able to tolerate strong, unpleasant odors such as the

smell of formaldehyde.

A teacher is often a role-model to his students, which makes it quite important for him to have some good

qualities. From my perspective those should be patience, kindness and of course, intelligence.
http://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculumhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/leadership-and-policyhttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/teacher-learning-and-practicehttp://www.bscs.org/site-categories/research/nature-curriculum


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To begin with, patience is important, because, as being young and not experienced, the students often

make mistakes. When the teacher isnt patient and gets annoyed or worse- starts screaming, the children

will quit trying, in order to quit being wrong. For example, the math teacher in my primary school would

get mad every time one gave her a wrong answer. So I stopped giving answers at all and hated math. Then

in high school, having a smiling, patient teacher, I realized I liked math and was good at it.

The second quality I believe is important for a teacher is kindness- in other words, having a smile on theface, not mixing personal life drama with work and enjoying the teachers profession. This is important, as

it reduces the level of stress students have to deal with every day and allows them to have a calm, placid

day at school. Otherwise the stress makes them aggressive and is the reason for fights and melees which

often take innocent lives. An example for that are the tons of fights at school we watch on the news every

day.

Last but not least, a teacher should be intelligent and have knowledge, in order to pass it to the younger

generation. Even if one is a great person, not having the knowledge needed will most surely make one

unsuitable for the teachers profession. For instance, the biology teacher I had in high school was the

funniest one Ive ever had, which is why I and my classmates would be waiting impatiently for the next

biology class. However, he didnt have a lot of knowledge, as far as biology goes and we didnt learn a

thing. Later, when our teacher was changed, we all received low grades and had to give twice the effort inorder to keep up.

In conclusion, I would like to say, that being a teacher isnt only about being acknowledged in a certain

area, as a lot of people think. Its also about being a person worth admiring, who has some nice qualities

to pass.

Job Description

A biology teacher instills and helps students appreciate biological knowledge. Many times a biologyteacher works alone in class with students. Presenting lessons and assessing the performance of eachstudent in class are duties of a biology teacher. A biology teacher also plays a role in developing acurriculum which involves laboratory experiments and science research for students. Ensuring disciplineis also part of the job description.

Training

A Bachelor of Science degree in biology with an education minor is required to become a biology teacher.You can also study biology with an education emphasis when the college does not offer minor degrees.Such a program, according to Education Portal, is likely to include courses such as mathematics,chemistry, physics and teaching methods. In addition, you need to have an understanding of differentcultures for you to work effectively with diverse student populations. Licensure is required if you teach ina public school.

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Skills

You must have the ability to keep students fully engaged through instructions in the fundamentals ofbiology and make sure students gain new skills and knowledge. As a teacher, you are a coach. Being ableto encourage interactive discussions among students in addition to your presentations is part of your job.You must also be able to inspire confidence and motivate students. A biology teacher needs the skills towork with students from various cultures.

Technology, Jobs and Salary

Technology plays a significant role in a modern classroom. A teacher can use films, overhead projector,

computers and videos to present lessons.
http://www.google.com/url?ct=abg&q=https://www.google.com/adsense/support/bin/request.py%3Fcontact%3Dabg_afc%26url%3Dhttp://www.ehow.com/info_8312669_duties-biology-teacher.html%26gl%3DIN%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dca-ehow_300x250%26hideleadgen%3D1%26ai0%3DCtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&usg=AFQjCNFl482RZNk0UaDCVXzu9orN43MN7whttp://www.google.com/url?ct=abg&q=https://www.google.com/adsense/support/bin/request.py%3Fcontact%3Dabg_afc%26url%3Dhttp://www.ehow.com/info_8312669_duties-biology-teacher.html%26gl%3DIN%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dca-ehow_300x250%26hideleadgen%3D1%26ai0%3DCtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&usg=AFQjCNFl482RZNk0UaDCVXzu9orN43MN7whttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=CtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&num=1&cid=5GhBRkCYKr4hDTbl0IzC9bAs&sig=AOD64_2cnltd3O2NsSZ2xRu8jWBjIJRQ8A&client=ca-ehow_300x250&adurl=http://ad.doubleclick.net/clk%3B271975070%3B97721467%3Buhttp://www.google.com/url?ct=abg&q=https://www.google.com/adsense/support/bin/request.py%3Fcontact%3Dabg_afc%26url%3Dhttp://www.ehow.com/info_8312669_duties-biology-teacher.html%26gl%3DIN%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dca-ehow_300x250%26hideleadgen%3D1%26ai0%3DCtBi1tCrIUaLOKKK5ige9iYGoCKjMpO8D-L3Lklj17L16EAEgqYmtBlD6qdDi_v____8BYOWCgIDkKaAB2Nnd3gPIAQGoAwGqBI4BT9DmychKVVhCzqxaG2oDbLUHm_stTt6sgnTSWiPjZoogWAyzotLU70fCnz4PCC5z9Y6X4LgtvYmC439gqAUHebMK3F_4MESbxLLLAtCjf3pE1mrBR_2yF6OInKIzTgqQAV6Wujl7_X_Zho7EOQKPQnJYZnFFolqqQIWy1-18K2AyznmFycT1bO2OXP_h6YgGAYAHkKaiIQ&usg=AFQjCNFl482RZNk0UaDCVXzu9orN43MN7w


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The Bureau of Labor Statistics project job growth in the foreseeable future, especially in the Western andSouthern states where populations are soaring. The annual median pay for a teacher is $49,420 at time ofpublication.

(7) A blueprint is a reproduction of atechnical drawing, documenting anarchitectureor

anengineeringdesign, using acontact printprocess on light-sensitive sheets. Invented in the 19th

century, the process allowed rapid and accurate reproduction of documents used in construction and

industry. The blue-print process was characterized by light colored lines on a blue background,

anegativeof the original. The process was unable to reproduce color or shades of grey.

Various base materials have been used for blueprints. Paper was a common choice; for more durable

printslinenwas sometimes used, but with time, the linen prints would shrink slightly. To combat this

problem, printing on imitationvellumand, later, polyester film (Mylar) was implemented.

The process has been largely displaced by the diazowhiteprintprocess and by large-

formatxerographicphotocopiers, so reproduced drawings are usually called "prints" or just

"drawings".

The blueprint process[edit]

In 1861 Alphonse Louis Poitevin, a Frenchchemist, found that ferro-gallate ingumis light

sensitive.[1]

Light turns this to an insoluble permanent blue. A coating of this chemical on a paper or

other base may be used to reproduce an image from atranslucentdocument.

The ferro-gallate is coated onto a paper from aqueous solution and dried. The coating is yellow. In

darkness it is stable for up to three days. It is clamped under glass and a light transmitting document

in a daylight exposure frame, which is similar to a picture frame. The frame is put out into daylight

requiring a minute or two under a bright sun or about ten times this under an overcast sky.

Whereultra-violet lightis transmitted the coating converts to a stable blue or black dye. The image

can be seen forming, when a strong image is seen the frame is brought indoors and the unconverted

coating, under the original image, is washed away. The paper is then dried.

The result is a copy of the original image with the clear background area rendered dark blue and the

image reproduced as a white line. The image is stable. The contact printing process has the

advantage that no large-field optical system is required. A further advantage is that the reproduced

document will have the samescaleas the original. Another quality is that the dark blue background

makes it difficult to add new information to the print (such as recording as-built changes); a blueprint

cannot easily be altered -- depending on the situation, this can be either a strength or a drawback.

Since the paper is soaked in liquid during processing, a minor change of scale can occur,and the

paper can also become brittle. Engineering drawings often are marked to remind users not to rely on

the scale of reproductions.[2]

Other blueprint processes based on photosensitive ferric compounds have been used. The best

known is probably a process using ammonium ferric citrate and potassium ferricyanide.[3]

In this

procedure a distinctly blue compound is formed and the process is also known ascyanotype. The

paper is impregnated with a solution of ammonium ferric citrate and dried. When the paper is

illuminated a photoreaction turns the trivalent (ferric) iron into divalent (ferrous) iron. The image is

then developed using a solution of potassium ferricyanide forming insoluble ferroferricyanide

(Turnball's blueidentical toPrussian blue) with the divalent iron. Excess ammonium ferric citrate and

potassium ferricyanide are then washed away.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_printhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_printhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_printhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_(photography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_(photography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_(photography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translucenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translucenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translucenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-violet_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-violet_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-violet_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(ratio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(ratio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(ratio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(ratio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-violet_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translucenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_(photography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_printhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing


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This is a simple process for the reproduction of any light transmitting

document.Engineersandarchitectsdrew their designs oncartridge paper; these were then traced on

totracing paperusingIndian inkfor reproduction whenever needed.

Introduction of the blueprint process eliminated the expense of photolithographic reproduction or of

hand-tracing of original drawings. By the latter 1890s in American architectural offices, a blueprint wasone-tenth the cost of a hand-traced reproduction.

[4]The blueprint process is still used for special

artistic and photographic effects, on paper and fabrics.[5]

Replacements for blueprints[edit]

Traditional blueprints have largely been replaced by more modern, less expensive printing methods

and digital displays. In the early 1940s, cyanotype blueprint began to be supplanted by diazo prints,

also known aswhiteprints, which have blue lines on a white background; thus these drawings are also

called blue-lines or bluelines. Other comparable dye-based prints are known as blacklines.

Diazo prints remain in use in some applications but in many cases have been replaced

byxerographicprint processes similar to standard copy machine technology usingtoneronbondpaper. More recently, designs created usingcomputer-aided designtechniques may be transferred as

a digital file directly to acomputer printerorplotter; in some applications paper is avoided altogether

and work and analysis is done directly fromdigital displays. Another common modern method of

copying is the use of large-formatscanners. These digitize an image which can then be printed with a

large-formatplotter.

As print and display technology has advanced, the traditional term "blueprint" has continued to be

used informally to refer to each type of image.

(8)AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Introduction:

Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the

learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio

visual material and teaching learning process.

Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of

educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification andstimulation. A.v. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the

individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It

provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning.

Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are

planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning

facilities for clear understanding.

Definitions:1. According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to

make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_inkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_inkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_inkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scannerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiteprinthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blueprint&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_inkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer


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2. According to Burton: audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiateor stimulate and reinforce learning.

3. According to Carter.v.Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in completingthe triangular process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.

4. According to goods dictionary of education: audio visual aids are any thing bymeans of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of

hearing or sense of sight.

5. According to Edger Dale: audio visual aids are those devices by the use of whichcommunication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training

situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.

6. According to McKean and Roberts: audio visual aids are supplementary devices bywhich the teacher, through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify,establish and correlate concepts, interpretations andappreciations.

7. According to KP. Neeraja: an audio visual aid is an instructional device in which themessage can be heard as well as seen.

Purposes: To supplement and enrich teachers own teaching to make teaching-learning more concrete.

To serve an instructional role in itself.

To create interest among the group.

To make teaching as an effective process.

Advantages:1. A.V.Aids helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.

2. A.V.Aids helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.

3. A.V.Aids arouses interest and motivates students to learn.

4. A.V.Aids is helpful in new learning.

5. A.V.Aids helps in saving energy and time of both the teachers and students.

6. A.V.Aids provides near realistic experience.

7. A.V.Aids can meet individual demands.

8. A.V.Aids is useful in for education of masses.

Characteristics of good teaching aids:


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Teaching aids should be

Meaningful and purposeful

Motivates the learners

Accurate in every aspect Simple and cheap

Improvised

Large in size

Up-to-date

Easily portable

According to intellectual level of students Sources of A.V.Aids:

Government

Educational institutions

Professional organizations

Non-governmental organizations

Voluntary organizations(national and international)

Commercial producers of educational material

Commercial advertisement

In nursing organizations like TNAI, INC...etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF A.V.AIDS:

Various classifications are given for Audio visual aids according to the type of projection by

various authors.

I) Classification of A.V.AidsI) Audio aids


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Audio materials are those which can be heard. Ex: - radio, tape recorder, walkman,

Headphones.

II) Visual aids: these are helpful to visualize the things. Ex:- graphic aids, 3d-aids, displayboards, and print material.

III) Audio visual aids: these aids can be heard and seen simultaneously. Ex: - projected aids,TV, films.

II) Classification of A.V.AidsI) Simple A.V.Aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print material...etc.

II) Sophisticated A.V.Aids: includes audio-visual aids.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THEEFFECTIVE USE OF A.V.AIDS:

Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational program.

A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership in educationalprograms.

An advisory committee consisting of representative from all areas of curriculum should beappointed to assist in selection and coordination of a.v. materials.

An education program should be flexible.

A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication, easy accessibility andconvenient use.

A.v. material should be available whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilizationas an integral part of curriculum.

Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v. education programs. Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of, utilization and expenditure of the

program.

Classification of Teaching Aids

Using audio-visual aids and other technologies developed in

this modern scientific era for the purpose of achieving concrete

education proves beneficial for teacher and student and


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educational system as whole. It brings diversification in methods

of instruction. They are equally useful at all levels of education.

Appropriate use of audio-visual aids in teaching of English,

Geography, History, Science, Languages, Art, Agriculture and

many other technical and vocational subjects is increasing day

by day.

Prasad (2005) contend that audio-visual aids and their use

are not only limited to educational purposes rather if we go back

in history we find Martin Luther suggesting to use empty walls

for the promotion of Protestant movement. Infect this idea leads

to the invention of writing board or black board which is used

today in almost every school world wide. Some other social

objectives are also achieved through the use of audio-visual aids

i.e. in an awareness campaign about Human Immunodeficiency

Virus (HIV) audio-visual aids are used.

While studying the broad umbrella term of audio-visual

aids, one can easily came across different types of audio-visual

equipments ranging from simple hand-made charts to highly

sophisticated projectors. The classification of audio-visual aids

is presented graphically as under:

In the broadest sense audio visual aids can be categorized

under two heads i.e.

1.Projected Aids

2.Non-Projected Aids

Audio-visual material contributes valuable experiences for

teachers and students. Almost every form of instruction is based

on verbalism, but the use of audio-visual aids minimizes the

verbalism and facilitates students to concentrate and motivate

them towards abstract thinking and imagination to better

understand the concept.

Projected Aids

According to Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan (1998)


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projected aids involves an enlarge image of the material or text

projected on a screen which is at a distance from the projector.

While using projected aids (film strips, slide projector, overhead

projection, opaque projection) the room is either totally dark or

may be partially dark. The bright colors and images on the

screen catch the attention; sound and motion will make

presentation more dynamic as compared to non-projected aids.

Projected aids are equally effective for every age group as well

as small or large group. Equipments used for projection requires

eclectic power. A clean white wall can be effectively used for

front projection. Projected aids include:

Filmstrips

Filmstrips are connected series of pictures, drawings,

photographs and diagrams joined together to illustrate a single

concept, story or a lesson. According to Holmes (1968) the

filmstrips differ from moving films as there is no appearance of

movement.

Slide Projector

According to Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan (1998)

slides are commonly used instructional device to complement

verbalism. They involve projection through the passing of strong

light on transparent slide. Slide projector is a light house with a

hauler for holding the slides. Slides projector proves valuable

where motion in pictures is given less importance for

comprehension. Slides require little more space for storage then

filmstrips (Holmes, 1968).

Overhead Projector

Overhead projector is used to present large size

transparencies with normal daylight condition (Botham 1967).

The way slides require total or partial darkness; overhead

projector does not require blackout. Students can take notes in

the normal mode as they do when working without overhead


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projector. The teacher or facilitator is completely facing the

students; whereas the projected image or text is behind and over

her/his head (Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan, 1998).

According to Brown, lewis and Harcleroad (1977) the speaker

has full control over the timing and choice of why, when, what

and how of presentation when using overhead projector.

9) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Inefficiencies and uncertainties are a broad range of burdens that a project can face during planning and

implementation for organizations of all types and sizes. In order to alleviate the harmful consequences , the

Project Management Organization (PMO) utilizes a phased approach to deliver projects on time, budget, and

within scope, as well as to ensure quality, for the purpose of guaranteeing ample returns for the clients

investment. Every project follows the following phases: Initiation, Planning, Execution, Control, and Closure.

Throughout each one of these phases, deliverables are given to the client and stored on EPC Groups Project Web

Access intranet page. The benefits are not only realized to the client, but also to the organization who is

implementing the project in the form of consistent behavior across projects and greater precision, returns to

scale, efficiency on customer delivery and increased customer satisfaction, and symbiotic organizations. This white

paper discusses the ATLAS Project Management methodology and how an organization and its clients can gain

from its consistent use in project planning and implementation.

PROJECT INEFFICIENCIES AND UNCERTAINTIES

Whenever a project begins, every organization faces a slew of potential problematic issues: time delays, exceeding

budgets, bureaucratic hurdles, and unplanned resource necessities. These are only a few of the complexities that

may arise as possible negative consequences of project development and implementation. With these

complications come the potential damaging effects of increased life-spans of projects, financial burdens, or even

the decline in a companys reputation with future clients.

In response, inefficiencies and uncertainties are among the areas that an organization must attempt to eliminate

by astute adherence to the principles of economics and proactive risk management. The basic mission of

economics is to properly allocate resources, time, and funds most efficiently. Meanwhile, risk management

attempts to minimize the uncertainties that can emerge unexpectedly. A proper framework to handle these

harmful consequences becomes a prerequisite for any project implementation.

The framework has to ensure also that all the stakeholders within the project have a designated role. Furthermore,

it must be truly integrated as to where interdependencies are created and maintained amongst the stakeholders.


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As a final point, all projects must be delivered according to certain constraints: scope, time, and cost. These

parameters form together and are dynamic in nature. When one changes, it directly affects the others. For

instance, exceeding the time constraints may mean increased cost and reduced scope. Each time this occurs, the

quality of delivery, which is encapsulated by the three constraints, is affected.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS ATLAS METHODOLOGY

As a service to its clients, EPC Group manages its projects by utilizing the Project Management ATLAS

Methodology, a standardized best practices approach defined through real world best project management

practices. Every project follows the project management life cycle outlined below:

and the timetable of when the deliverables will be completed is identified. The Statement of Work is

signed, Scope and High Level Requirements are defined, and the Project Manager (PM) is chosen.

This schedule contains the activities necessary to fulfill the requirements characterized in the Initiation

phase, based upon the best solution recommended. Required resources are identified, confirmed, and

assigned to the tasks with estimates of labor effort. Additionally, critical technical resources are identified,

estimated, and incorporated into the schedule as well for acquisition and installation

pacific - biology ans

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