padi - instructor guide - divemaster course.pdf

Divemaster Course

Instructor Guide

1999 Edition

Incorporates all Training Bulletins through First Quarter 2004

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i i Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

PADIDivemaster CourseInstructor Guide

© International PADI, Inc. 1987–2003

All rights reserved.Portions of the Appendix of this section may be reproduced by PADI Mem-bers for use in PADI-sanctioned training, but not for resale or personalgain. No other reproduction is allowed without the express written permis-sion of PADI.

Published byPROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DIVING INSTRUCTORS (PADI)30151 Tomas StreetRancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688-2125

Printed in U.S.A.Product No. 79122 Version 3.1pdf (rev. 12/03)

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Divemaster Course Instructor Guide iii

Table of Contents

How to Use This Guide vDivemaster Course Instructional Philosophy vii

OneIntroductionGoals and Purpose of the PADI Divemaster Course 1-1PADI Divemaster Duties 1-3Benefits and Renewal Requirements of

PADI Divemaster Certification 1-4

TwoGeneral Standards and Course OverviewCourse Standards 2-1Course Prerequisites 2-1Certification Requirements 2-2Instructor Supervision 2-2Equipment 2-2Training Materials 2-2Referrals 2-3Certification Procedures 2-4Course Overview 2-4Key Standards 2-5Sequencing within the PADI Divemaster Course 2-5Sample Divemaster Course Schedule 2-6

ThreeKnowledge DevelopmentConduct and Standards 3-1Evaluation 3-2Assignment 3-3Topic 1 – Course Introduction 3-4

iv Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

All standards, required activities and performance objectives discussed in thistext appear in blue boldface print. The blue boldface will assist you ineasily identifying those requirements that must be adhered to whenyou conduct PADI courses or programs. All supporting rationale, generalrecommendations and how-to information are not bolded.

Topic 2 – Supervising General Diving Activities 3-11Part 1 3-11Part 2 3-27

Topic 3 – Assisting with Student Divers in Training 3-45Topic 4 – Dive Theory Introduction 3-57Topic 5 – The Physics of Diving 3-61Topic 6 – The Physiology of Diving 3-78Topic 7 – Dive Equipment 3-97Topic 8 – Decompression Theory and the RDP 3-108Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs 3-122Topic 10 – Risk Management 3-126Topic 11 – The Business of Diving 3-133Topic 12 – Your Diving Career 3-137

FourWaterskills and StaminaStamina Assessment and Development 4-1Diver Rescue Assessment and Development 4-3Confined Waterskill Assessment and Development 4-4

FivePractical ApplicationRequired Training Exercises 5-2Exercise 1 5-2Exercise 2 5-3Exercise 3 5-4Practical Application 5-7Internship (Option 1) 5-7Practical Training Exercises (Option 2) 5-10

Appendix A-1

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide v

The PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide hasfive sections that guide you through the conduct ofthis course. While it’s appropriate for PADI Dive-masters and Assistant Instructors to use this guide,it speaks to PADI Instructors. References to “you”are to the instructor conducting the program.

Section One provides the goals of the PADI Dive-master course and PADI Divemaster duties.

Section Two identifies the general standards thatapply throughout the program, required sequenc-ing, materials and ideas for scheduling.

Section Three covers the Knowledge DevelopmentModule. It lists the standards for required knowl-edge development and related activities, andprovides 12 Knowledge Development Topic presen-tation outlines. This section also identifies whichtopics may be handled effectively through inde-pendent study, and which will usually requiremore formal class sessions.

Section Four covers the Waterskills and StaminaModule. This section lists the performance require-ments and conduct for confined water training.

Section Five, Practical Application, is divided intofour subsections. The first details the practicalapplication standards and the second coversperformance requirements and conduct for thethree Required Training Exercises. The thirdsubsection provides the standards and require-ments for candidates who will complete theDivemaster Internship, and the fourth providesthe standards and conduct for candidates who willcomplete the Practical Training Exercises.

How to

Use This

Guide

vi Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide vii

Higher Level LearningTeaching the PADI Divemaster course involveshigher level learning that begins at the RescueDiver course and expands in the PADI Dive-master course. The PADI Divemaster courseexpands the problem solving skills developed bythe PADI Rescue Diver program, and extends itfrom accident management and preventionscenarios to supervisory situations with studentdivers and certified divers. At the divemasterlevel, problem solving emphasizes looking formany possible solutions under the circum-stances and choosing the best of several.Divemaster problem solving may include morethan safety-related issues, and include han-dling customer service, business and opera-tional challenges.

The course also addresses attitudes andjudgment. Attitudes are emotional influencesthat shape individual choices ranging fromprofessional behavior, role modeling, personalhealth and following safe diving practices, tovery basic values, such as honesty. Judgmentapplies attitudes, experience, theoretical knowl-edge, deduction and intuition to problemsolving and making decisions based on vari-ables, sometimes under circumstances thataren’t “black or white.”

Divemaster

Course

Instructional

Philosophy

viii Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

In this regard, teaching atthe divemaster level is morechallenging than teachingentry-level divers. For ex-ample, you can see that eithera student diver does or doesnot clear a mask. While youcan see that a divemastercandidate either knows ordoes not know how to behaveas a role model, it’s impossibleto evaluate whether thecandidate will choose tobehave as a role model afterthe course. You can’t beresponsible for the candidate’schoices once outside thecourse, but you can establishthe knowledge and skillsneeded to make good choices,and you can try to influencewise decision making.

In classes leading up to thePADI Divemaster course, youprobably have a “teacher”relationship with your studentdivers. With PADI Divemastercandidates, however, you’relikely to find a mentor rela-tionship more effective indeveloping divemaster candi-dates’ judgment and attitudes.

In keeping with the higherlevel learning and instruc-tional philosophy of the PADIDivemaster course, in amentor relationship you guidecandidates directly throughpersonal interactions in whichyou tell candidates why youmake specific choices, thebasis for your judgment, theway actions/inactions – byyou and candidates – mayaffect others, and other per-sonal insights you have. You

take candidates into yourconfidence, and lead themindividually toward theirpersonal goals as dive pro-fessionals. Think of the rela-tionship as one similar to theone between a professor and agraduate student, or a mastercraftsman and an apprentice.The mentor isn’t just a teacher,but the candidate’s personalguide into the ranks of divingprofessionals. You’re a friend,advisor, coach and teacher, allin one.

Besides the obvious benefitsto the candidate, the mentorrelationship benefits you. You’lltrain your instructional assis-tants to see and do thingswithin the PADI System similarto the way you do, so theyintegrate well with your train-ing efforts. Divemaster candi-dates who come to you fromother instructors bring withthem new techniques and ideasthat you can learn. Becauseyou discuss the thinking behindwhat you do together, you’lloften have a chance to learnthe rationale for new tech-niques if they’re not obvious.

If you’re successful as amentor, many of your PADIDivemasters will continue toseek your counsel even afterthey’ve moved into the PADIOpen Water Scuba Instructor,IDC Staff Instructor and MasterInstructor levels. As a PADIDivemaster mentor, considereach candidate as someoneyou’re inviting into the ranks ofPADI leadership. In effect, byaccepting a candidate into theprogram, you’re saying thatyou recognize the person’spotential to succeed as a PADIDivemaster and you’re commit-ted to guiding that person tothat success.

RecommendationsThe PADI Divemaster course isdivided into Knowledge Devel-opment, Waterskills andStamina, and Practical Applica-tion sections. The course hasbeen designed for flexibility inassignments and sessions topermit the most effective coursestructure possible for your localteaching/diving environmentand the individual needs ofyour candidates. You’ll findsample schedules later in thissection; the following recom-mendations list suggestionsbased on the course instruc-tional philosophy.

1. Structure the course to includeindependent study andresearch. This reduces classtime by taking advantageof the PADI DivemasterVideo, Divemaster Manual,Encyclopedia of RecreationalDiving, Diving KnowledgeWorkbook and other re-sources, but it also trainsthe candidate to find infor-mation, which is an impor-tant skill for a leadership-level diver. You can inte-grate independent studyinto your course schedule sothat candidates work on itin their spare time betweenclass sessions and exercises.Educational studies showthat independent studyconsistently produces better-prepared candidates and,by reducing the need toestablish base concepts inthe classroom, allows theinstructor to devote moretime to applying informa-tion to individual needs, to

MentorRelationship

Course Conductand Structure

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide ix

addressing specific learningobstacles, and to developinga personal rapport withcandidates.

2. Encourage creativity and novelpoints of view. During thePractical ApplicationModule, candidates oftenhave unique approaches tosolving problems or tack-ling a situation. Sincethere’s rarely only one rightway to do something,encourage creativity bydiscussing the merits ofthese ideas, and permittingcandidates to pursue theirown approaches as appro-priate. This is a good wayfor you to learn as well asteach.

3. Develop candidates’ ability torecognize and reinforcethemselves internally. Inter-nal reinforcement meansthat candidates recognizewhen they’re doing some-thing well without youhaving to tell them. Forexample, if in discussingrole modeling you tellcandidates, “When astudent diver approachesyou to discuss a personaldiving problem, it meansyou’ve gained that person’srespect as a dive pro-fessional,” then this eventwill reinforce good rolemodeling whenever ithappens – even after thecourse concludes.

You increase internalreinforcement bydeemphasizing scorenumbers and your evalua-tion and emphasizing theirawareness of their ownperformance and abilities,so that candidates set goalsbased on their expectationsof themselves rather than

on simply attaining anumber. Avoid suggestionsthat insufficient perfor-mance comes from a lack ofability. Instead, emphasizethat insufficient perfor-mance means the candidateneeds to expend more effort(usually in the form ofpractice and study).

It’s also important toavoid the impression thatscoring is negative; treat itas neutral – a placemark bywhich candidates use yourobservations to gaugethemselves. Asking thecandidate questions about aperformance during coun-seling and following theanswers with reinforcement,additional information, andways to self-assess are waysto do this.

4. Be a role model and expectrole model behavior. In amentor role, your candi-dates will follow your lead,just as other divers followtheirs. One of the strongestinfluences on attitudes,value and judgment is arole model. To be an effectiverole model, the candidatesmust respect and identifywith you as a dive pro-fessional. Then, you need toportray the kind of diverand leader you want themto be. It’s important toremember that candidatescan learn unintendedattitudes as well as thoseyou want them to learn;this is why “do as I say, notas I do” frequently fails as ateaching method. Finally,make it clear that youexpect role model behaviorfrom your candidates.

5. Encourage curiosity. A PADIDivemaster is expected tohave a broad base of divingknowledge. You enhancethis base by getting candi-dates to pursue informationfor its own sake. At thislevel, it’s not so importantthat every piece of informa-tion relate directly to alearning objective — candi-date interest is enough.When candidates want toknow more about a topic,or ask “why?”, answer andapply the answer to thediscussion. Direct thecandidates to easily acces-sible sources of informationabout the question.

Candidates at the PADIDivemaster course levelhave a solid diving founda-tion from previous trainingand experience, and youcan present “extra” infor-

Self AssessmentExampleDuring demonstrationquality skill development,mask clearing:

You: What was your scorefor your mask clearingdemonstration?

Candidate: It was okay. Ithink I earned a 3.

You: That’s what I saw.You’ll do better with somepractice. What could youdo to make it a 4?

Candidate: I think I need toslow down some more.

You: Good. Exaggeratingand stopping before eachstep would help, too.Practice with your buddywhile I talk with the rest ofthe group, and let me knowwhen you’re doing it at the4 level or better.

x Divemaster Course Instructor Guide

mation (material not in theoutline or learning objec-tives) they ask for withouttoo much concern thatyou’ll be overteaching. Becautious about “volunteer-ing” extra informationwhen they don’t ask,however, because notasking may indicate thatthey’re struggling to learnthe primary material.

In addition to that,constantly find ways torelate information tocandidate needs and inter-ests. The more value infor-mation has for candidates,the more they will seek it.

6. Use discussions as a teachingmethod. While lectures work

well for delivering facts,and questions within alecture work as a generaltool for evaluating candi-date understanding, educa-tional research shows thatdiscussions promote problemsolving abilities and shapeattitudes more efficiently.

7. Have candidates run theirdebriefings. After exercises,rather than you leadingbriefings by telling candi-dates what you saw, havecandidates tell you whathappened, what theylearned and what theirperformance was. Thisfurther encourages problemsolving development, and itgives you a clearer idea

about why candidatesperform the way they do byletting you hear whatcandidates think. Oftenfollowing a poor perfor-mance, a candidate will tellyou that it was poor, why itwas poor, and what to doabout it the next time, allwithout prompting fromyou. The only caution inthis technique is that somecandidates set high expec-tations for themselves andtend to be harder on them-selves than you would be.Don’t let such individualsdiscourage themselves.Offer genuine positivecomments to maintain agood outlook.

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide 1-1

OneIntroduction

Professional Association

of Diving Instructors

Who is a PADI Divemaster?The dive community expectsseveral characteristics of an individualwith the PADI Divemaster rating.These include:

• Exemplary diving skills. The PADIDivemaster’s skills can be used asdemonstrations for student divers.

• Rescue skill. The PADI Divemastercan prevent and manage acci-dents, and role model rescue skillsfor student divers in training.

• Professional-level knowledge of divetheory. Depth of theoretical knowl-edge goes hand-in-hand withexpertise and professionalism. Thisis the foundation for problemsolving and creativity in thedivemaster’s duties, and for subse-quent growth as a PADI AssistantInstructor.

• Competence as a certified assistant.PADI Divemasters know how tosupport instruction by handlinglogistical, supervisory and limitededucational duties under aninstructor’s supervision.

• Dive management and supervisionabilities. PADI Divemasters acceptappropriate, limited responsibilityfor certified divers within thecontext of leading or managingdiving activities. This requires goodpeople skills and good judgmentalong with a strong workingknowledge of diveenvironments andactivities. The PADIDivemaster assists thedive operation with riskmanagement.

Goals and Purpose of the PADI Divemaster Course

As the entry to professional levels in diver training, the PADI Divemaster course

plays a pivotal role within the PADI System of diver education. Those who join

the PADI Divemaster ranks assist you and other instructors with training student

divers. They supervise diving activities for certified divers, snorkelers and skin

divers. Obviously, these entry-level professionals can strongly influence the

safety and fun divers enjoy during training and diving. At the same time,

many PADI Divemasters are looking ahead, gaining professional experience

they will apply as PADI Assistant Instructors and Open Water Scuba Instructors.

In conducting the PADI Divemaster course, you’re training today’s certified

assistants and laying the foundation for many of tomorrow’s instructors.

1-2 One: Introduction

• Ethical role model behavior. PADIDivemasters are expected todisplay common honesty andcourtesy, and follow accepted,responsible dive practices. Theirbehavior reflects well on them, thedive operation for which theywork, and the PADI organization.

• Enthusiasm and fun. People learn todive for the excitement, adven-

ture, and challenge – or broadly,for fun. They look to PADI Dive-masters to assist them in havingfun within their interests and skilllevels. Divers expect PADI Dive-masters to be pleasant and so-ciable individuals to interact with.The PADI Divemaster assists withthe dive community’s diver reten-tion efforts.

Course GoalsTo develop the previous characteristics in an individual, the PADI Dive-master course has five broad goals:

1. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills forsupervising certified divers in shore-based and boat-based divingactivities.

2. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills forassisting with training divers in PADI courses.

3. To develop the knowledge, attitudes, judgment and skills forindependently conducting specific PADI programs for certifieddivers and nondivers (e.g., Scuba Review, Discover Snorkeling,PADI Skin Diver course).

4. To develop the candidate’s dive theory knowledge, waterskills,rescue skills and experience to the levelsnecessary to enter the PADIAssistant Instructor courseand the PADI InstructorDevelopment Course.And to encourage thecandidate to continueinto those programs.

5. To promote eachcandidate’s growthto meet individualneeds and interests,and to meet the divecommunity’s needsand expectations indive leaders (e.g., riskmanagement, personalhealth and safety, the needsof the dive retailer).


PADI Divemaster DutiesThe following lists the duties andbenefits of PADI Divemasters as theyapply to PADI courses and PADIStandards.

Certified and new/renewed PADIDivemasters who are in Activestatus are authorized to:

1. Independently guide OpenWater Diver/Scuba Diverstudents on the tour portion ofOpen Water Diver courseTraining Dives 2 through 4, ata ratio of two student diversper certified divemaster.

2. Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver students under theindirect supervision of a PADIInstructor:

a. during surface swims to andfrom the entry/exit point.

b. during the navigationalexercises during Dive 4.

c. with the group, either onthe surface or underwater,while the instructor con-ducts a skill, such as anascent, with an individualstudent diver or buddyteam.

3. Conduct any subsequent divesfor Discover Scuba Divingparticipants, at a ratio of 2:1,if insured, after the partici-pants have satisfactorilycompleted the first dive underthe supervision of a PADIInstructor.

4. Conduct the PADI DiscoverLocal Diving experience,(provided the divemastermeets insurance require-ments).

5. Conduct the PADI DiscoverSnorkeling program, (providedthe divemaster meets insur-ance requirements).

6. Conduct the PADI Scuba Re-view program for certifiedOpen Water Divers or diverswith higher certifications(provided the divemastermeets insurance require-ments).

7. Accompany student diversduring training dives for thePADI Adventures in Divingprogram, Specialty Divercourses, or the Rescue Divercourse.

8. Generally supervise bothtraining and nontraining-related activities by assistingdivers and student divers inthe planning, organizing anddirection of dives.

9. Assist a Teaching status PADIInstructor in the open watertraining of divers. The allow-able student diver-to-instructorratio increases by four addi-tional student divers for eachcertified, renewed PADI Dive-master for all PADI programsand courses, unless statedotherwise by that course/program’s standards.

For the PADI Open WaterDiver/Scuba Diver course, theallowable student diver-to-instructor ratio increases bytwo additional student diversfor each certified, renewedPADI Divemaster, to a maxi-mum of 12 student divers toone instructor.

10.Assist a Teaching status PADIInstructor in the confinedwater training of divers. Use ofcertified, renewed PADI Dive-masters increases the allow-able student diver-to-instructorratio in confined water by fouradditional student divers perdivemaster for all courses,unless stated otherwise by thatcourse/program’s standards.

1-4 One: Introduction

11.Teach and certify PADI SkinDivers independently (pro-vided the divemaster meetsinsurance requirements). Thisincludes conducting the PADI SealTeam AquaMission: Skin DiverSpecialist following Skin Divercourse standards.

12.Conduct the skin divingskills segment of the OpenWater Diver Course duringeither Confined Water DiveTwo, Three, Four or Five(provided the divemastermeets insurance require-ments).

13.Teach Emergency First Re-sponse courses after success-fully completing an Emer-gency First Response Instruc-tor course.

14.Independently conductDiscover Scuba Diving (2003revised program) in a poolor in confined open water toa maximum depth of 6metres/20 feet if qualified asa Discover Scuba DivingLeader. Qualification includescompleting an internship thatconsists of conducting fourseparate Discover Scuba Divingpool or confined water experi-ences under the direct supervi-sion and guidance of a PADIInstructor. (See Discover ScubaDiving Leader InternshipCompletion Form in Appendix.)

Divemaster candidates (trainees) areauthorized under the direct supervi-sion of the instructor to:

1. Guide individuals who havecompleted all the requirementsfor the Scuba Diver or highercertification.

2. Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver student divers on thetour portion of Dives 2 through 4.

Benefits and RenewalRequirements of PADIDivemaster CertificationPADI Divemasters are membersof PADI. Membership providesbenefits, including a subscription toThe Undersea Journal, member pricingon selected PADI materials and ser-vices, and eligibility to purchaseprofessional underwater liabilityinsurance offered by PADI’s agents.(Other benefits vary based on localneeds and requirements and theserving PADI Office).

It is recommended that divemastersinvolved in training or supervisingactivities carry liability insurance. Re-quirements may vary from one PADIOffice to another.

Renewal requirements forPADI Divemasters include submit-ting a completed renewal applica-tion along with dues annually. APADI Divemaster whose membershiphas lapsed may also need to meetadditional requirements designated bythe PADI Training and Quality Man-agement Department to regain Activestatus. The requirements may varydepending on how long since thedivemaster’s last renewed member-ship, changes to the PADI System andStandards during that interval, andother factors.

When an individual becomes aPADI Divemaster, PADI assigns theperson a PADI Member number. Whenthe PADI Divemaster becomes a PADIAssistant Instructor or Instructor, thenumber remains the same, though theprefix/suffix changes to reflect the newlevel.


Course StandardsCourse PrerequisitesTo qualify to enter the PADI Dive-master course, an individual must:

1. Be certified as a PADI Ad-vanced Open Water Diver orhave a qualifying certificationfrom another training organi-zation. A qualifying certifica-tion is defined as proof ofcertification beyond entrylevel, and proof of 20 or morelogged dives documentingexperience in deep diving andunderwater navigation.

2. Be certified as a PADI RescueDiver or have a qualifyingcertification from anothertraining organization. A quali-fying certification is defined asproof of certification in divingrescue from a training organi-zation other than PADI.

If the candidate enters witha qualifying certification, thenthe candidate must submitproof of CPR and first aid

training within the past 24months. If the candidate demon-strates poor or inadequate perfor-mance during the diver rescueassessment, then the candidatemust complete a PADI RescueDiver course.

3. Have completed and loggedat least 20 dives as documentedby the individual’s personal logbook.

4. Be at least 18 years old atthe start of PADI Divemastertraining.

5. Submit, to the instructor, medicalclearance for diving signed by aphysician, attesting to fitness todive. The medical clearance mustbe current within the previous12 months. The physi-cian signing theform cannot bethe individual.

TwoGeneralStandards andCourse Overview



2-2 Two: General Standards and Course Overview

Certification RequirementsAt the time of certification, a PADIDivemaster candidates must:

1. Have successfully completed acourse in CPR within 24 monthsprior to the Divemaster certifica-tion date.

2. Have current training in firstaid. Since the PADI Rescue Divercertification includes first aid trainingand does not expire, this requirementis met if the candidate is PADI RescueDiver certified. If the candidate has aqualifying rescue diver certificationfrom another organization, thecandidate must have first aid trainingthat has not expired as defined by thefirst aid training organization.

3. Show proof of 60 logged divesdocumenting experience innight diving, deep diving andunderwater navigation.

4. Read and agree to abide by thePADI Membership and LicenseAgreement.

Instructor SupervisionThe maximum candidate-to-instruc-tor ratio for confined and openwater training activities is eightdivemaster candidates per instructor(8:1). This ratio may not be increasedthrough the use of certified assis-tants. You may use certified assistants toaid logistics, or play the role of studentdivers.

There is no maximum ratio forKnowledge Development activities.This limit is set by you based on logisticsand the ability to facilitate candidatelearning.

EquipmentCandidate equipmentDuring open water scuba training,each divemaster candidate must beequipped with the proper equipmentfor the diving environment. Thisincludes, but is not limited to: fins,mask, snorkel, cylinder, regulator,alternate air source, buoyancy con-

trol device (BCD) with low pressureinflator, backpack (if not integratedinto the BCD), weight system, appro-priate exposure suit for the environ-ment, timing device and depth gauge(or dive computer), compass, knife/dive tool (unless prohibited by locallaws or regulations) and an emer-gency signaling device (whistle, flare,inflatable signal tube).

Instructor/certified assistantequipmentYou must meet the same equipmentrequirements as the candidates. Inaddition, ensure that a dive flag isused if required by local law. You’reencouraged to use a float large enough toprovide buoyancy for a diver with thedive flag, when appropriate for the localdiving environment. You’re also encour-aged to have a first aid kit and emergencyoxygen on site, if available and legallypermitted in the local area.

Training MaterialsThe following materials are requiredin training PADI Divemasters:

1. PADI Divemaster Course Instruc-tor Guide.

2. PADI Instructor Manual. It’s recom-mended that candidates have a copyfor their own use and reference.

3. PADI Divemaster Manual. Allcandidates must read the manualand complete the KnowledgeReviews (unless unavailable in alanguage the candidate under-stands).

4. PADI Divemaster Video (unlessunavailable in a language thecandidate understands). It’srecommended that candidates watchthe diver version during independentstudy, and that you use the video forin-class review.

5. The Recreational Dive Planner,Table and Wheel versions

6. Forms and releases as requiredby the General Standardssection of the PADI Instructor


Manual, and any other formsrequired by your PADI Office.

7. All other equipment and materi-als needed to meet performancerequirements in confined andopen water training activities.It’s recommended that candidatespersonally provide materials theywill need regularly as PADI Dive-masters.

The following lists materials recom-mended in training PADI Divemasters.You may find other PADI materials thataren’t listed useful as well.

1. The Encyclopedia of RecreationalDiving Multimedia or book (forcandidate independent study of divetheory).

2. The PADI Diving Knowledge Workbook(for candidate independent study ofdive theory).

3. PADI Underwater Navigator Manualand Underwater Navigation video (fornavigation skill review and map-ping assignment)

4. PADI Deep Diver Manual and DeepDiving video (for deep diving knowl-edge development)

5. PADI Rescue Diver Manual and Video(for rescue accident managementknowledge development and train-ing exercises)

6. Giant RDPs, table and The Wheel

7. Discover the Underwater World video(for divemaster conducted programsknowledge development)

8. Scuba Tune-up Multimedia or guide-book (for divemaster conductedprograms knowledge development)

9. The Business of Diving (for business ofdiving knowledge development)

10. Divemaster Slates (for open watertraining exercises)

11. Dive Roster slate (for open watertraining exercises)

12. Divemaster Candidate Informationand Evaluation Form (for recordingcandidate performance throughoutthe program)

13. The Law and the Diving Professional(for risk management knowledgedevelopment)

14. The Best of the Undersea Journal (forrisk management, business ofdiving knowledge development,open water and confined watertraining dives )

15. Peak Performance Buoyancy video

16. Open Water Diver Multimedia (RDPtable and Wheel tutorial)

17. Skill Evaluation Slate (for confinedwaterskills evaluation and devel-opment)

18. Student Record File

19. Divemaster Skill DevelopmentScore Sheets

20. Practical Application Record Sheets

21. Adventure Log

22. All training materials for coursesleading up to the PADI Divemasterlevel, including the manuals,videos, and multimedia productsfor the PADI Open Water Divercourse, Adventures in Divingprogram and Rescue Diver course.

ReferralsReferrals allow divemaster candidateswho complete part of the course re-quirements with one PADI Instructor tofinish the requirements with anotherPADI Instructor in another location.The referral procedure is not needed orrequired between instructors who teamteach the course through a singlefacility where they can communicateand share records.

To refer someone who beginstraining with you, use the DivemasterCandidate Information and EvaluationForm (see Appendix), which should befilled out listing scores for all theperformance requirements that thecandidate has completed, along withinstructor signatures and numbers foreach. Make a copy of the form, as wellas the candidate’s medical approval,and forward both to the receivinginstructor. You may include copies ofexam answer sheets, practical evalua-


tion records, etc. Alternatively, you maygive the documentation to the candidate totake to another instructor. If feasible, it’srecommended, but not required, that youcontact the receiving instructor to discussthe candidate’s performance.

A referral expires after 12 months.Be sure to explain this to the candidate, andthat costs charged by another instructor arenot included in the initial course fees paidto you.

If you are the receiving instructor, itis your responsibility to ensure that thecandidate meets prerequisite require-ments, and meets the performancerequirements for training segmentsalready completed. Besides checking theDivemaster Candidate Information andEvaluation Form this may include anacademic evaluation and waterskill reviewas you deem necessary.

The PADI Instructor who completestraining is the certifying instructor andmust ensure that the candidate meetsall requirements for certification. Thecertifying instructor must observe thedivemaster candidates during at leastone open water training session.

The Divemaster Candidate Informationand Evaluation Form should be completelyfilled in when the candidate completes allthe requirements. It’s recommended, but notrequired, that you send copies of all com-pleted paperwork to the referring instructor.

Certification ProceduresAny Teaching status PADI Open WaterScuba Instructor or highermay conduct the PADIDivemaster training andcertify PADI Divemasters.When candidates havecompleted all courserequirements, have loggedat least 60 dives (includingdives showing experiencein night diving, deepdiving and underwaternavigation,) and meetcurrent CPR and first aidrequirements, you mayapply for certification.

To certify a candidate, submit a com-pleted and signed Divemaster Applica-tion (see Appendix) to your PADI Office,along with the required photo andregistration fees. Do not send theDivemaster Candidate Information andEvaluation Form or medical clearance,which you should retain in thecandidate’s Student Record File. It’srecommended that you make and filecopies of all submitted documentation.

Course OverviewThe PADI Divemaster course is a perfor-mance-based program, so courseduration depends on class size, logistics,and divemaster candidate performancecharacteristics. The recommended 50course hours is based on a class of sixcandidates learning through a combi-nation of independent study, classroom,confined water and open water sessions.

The PADI Divemaster course isdivided into three modules: the Knowl-edge Development Module, theWaterskills and Stamina Module, andthe Practical Application Module.

The Knowledge DevelopmentModule establishes the foundationcandidates need as professional-leveldivers and for continuing on to thePADI Assistant Instructor and Instructorlevels. They apply much of what theylearn in this module during theWaterskills and Stamina Module andthe Practical Application Module.Candidates meet the performance

Knowledge Development Module consists of 12 topics:

• The role and characteristics of a PADI Divemaster• Supervising diving activities for certified divers• Assisting with student divers in training• Dive theory introduction• Physics• Physiology• Equipment• Decompression theory and dive tables• Divemaster conducted programs• Risk management• Business of diving• Furthering your dive career


requirements for this module through acombination of independent study,classroom sessions and evaluation bywritten exams. As part of this module,candidates are also required to completean Emergency Assistance Plan.

The Waterskills and Stamina Moduledevelops candidate skill to the role modellevel appropriate for demonstrating tostudent divers, and to prepare for highertraining levels. The Stamina Assessmentand Development portion evaluatesbasic swimming skills, with opportunityfor you to develop those candidates whoneed to improve. During the Diver RescueAssessment and Development phase, youassess candidate rescues of a simulatedunresponsive, nonbreathing diver. Thegoal is to refine their skills beyond theRescue Diver level. In the ConfinedWaterskill Assessment and Development,you evaluate and develop to demonstra-tion quality the 20 basic scuba skills fromthe PADI Skill Evaluation.

In the Practical Application Module,candidates put into practice skills typicalof a divemaster. There are three RequiredTraining Exercises, followed by either aninternship with specific internshipcriteria or four Practical Training Exer-cises. The Required Training Exercisesinclude map making, underwater prob-lem solving, and a divemaster conductedprogram. The internship and PracticalTraining Exercises allow candidates topractice and develop divemaster skillswith real or simulated student divers,and with real or simulated superviseddivers, under your supervision.

Sequencing within the PADIDivemaster CourseThe PADI Divemaster course inte-grates knowledge and skill develop-ment through the three modules. Youhave a great deal of latitude in howyou sequence course components.There are a few requirements toensure that candidates develop thenecessary prerequisite knowledge andskills before attempting more complextopics and tasks.

• Knowledge DevelopmentTopic 1 – Course Introduction: TheRole and Characteristics of a PADIDivemaster must precede all othercomponents of the PADI Divemas-ter course.

• Knowledge DevelopmentTopic 9 – Divemaster ConductedPrograms must precede RequiredTraining Exercise 3 – DivemasterConducted Programs.

You may wish to cover indepen-dent study and emergency assistantplan assignments as part of your firstKnowledge Development Presenta-tion.

It’s highly recommended thatcandidates complete knowledgedevelopment sessions that deal withsupervising or assisting divers beforecompleting the Internship or PracticalTraining Exercises.

All other course sequencing is leftto your discretion based on class size,local conditions, logistics, candidateneeds and other variables. See SampleSchedules for suggestions.

Key StandardsPrerequisite Certification: Advanced Open Water Diver or qualifyingcertification, and PADI Rescue Diver or qualifying certification

Prerequisite Dives: 20 to start training. Prior to certification: 60

Minimum Age: 18 (by course start date)

Recommended Hours: 50 hours (based on a class of six candidates)

Maximum Candidate-to-Instructor ratio for confined and open watertraining activities: 8 to 1

Minimum Instructor Rating: PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor


SampleDivemaster Course Schedule

The following sample schedules suggest ways you can organize the PADIDivemaster course. Of course, you may rearrange the schedule to anysequence that fits your logistical and candidate needs. Independent studyassignments may shift around, or even precede the first meeting withcandidates, to meet scheduling requirements.

Session One

Classroom: Topic 1: The Role and Characteristics of a PADIDivemaster

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises One and Two –Confined Water

Independent Study: Chapters 1 and 2 of the Divemaster Manual

PADI Divemaster Video

Emergency Assistance Plan – assigned to becompleted before certification

Session Two

Classroom: Topic 2 (Part 1): Supervising General DivingActivities for Certified Divers (Objectives 1-18)

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises Three and FourEquipment Exchange – Required Training ExerciseTwo

Independent Study: The Physics of Diving

Session Three


Practical: Diver-Rescue Assessment Confined WaterskillsAssessment

Independent Study: The Physiology of Diving

Chapter 3 and 4 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Four

Classroom: Topic 3: Assisting with Students in Training

Independent Study: Mapping Project – Required Training Exercise One– Assigned to be completed before certification.

Equipment

Chapters 5 and 6 of the Divemaster Manual


Session Five

Classroom: Topic 9: Divemaster Conducted Programs

Topic 10: Risk Management

Practical: Divemaster Conducted Programs – RequiredTraining Exercise Three

Independent Study: Decompression Theory and the RDP

Chapter 7 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Six

Classroom: Topic 4: Dive Theory Introduction

Topic 5: The Physics of Diving – review and answerquestions

Topic 6: The Physiology of Diving – review andanswer questions

Practical: Makeup and Remedial Training

Begin Internship and/or Practical Training Exer-cises

Independent Study: Chapters 8 and 9 of the Divemaster Manual

Session Seven

Classroom: Topic 7: Equipment – review and answer questions

Topic 8: Decompression Theory and the RDP –review and answer questions

Topic 11: The Business of Diving

Practical: Internship and/or Practical Training Exercises

Session Eight

Classroom: Topic 12: Furthering Your Dive Career

Divemaster Exams



Sample Schedule

Weekend FormatIndependent Study: Chapters 1 and 2 of the Divemaster Manual (assigned

at registration to be completed prior to first weekend)

PADI Divemaster Video

Weekend One

Day One

Classroom: Topic 1: The Role and Characteristics of a PADIDivemaster

Topic 2 (Part 1): Supervising General DivingActivities for Certified Divers (Objectives 1-18)

Practical: Waterskills and Stamina Exercises One and Two –Confined Water

Equipment Exchange – Required Training ExerciseTwo

Independent Study: Emergency Assistance Plan – assigned to be com-pleted before certification

Chapter 3 of the Divemaster Manual

Day Two


Topic 3: Assisting with Students in Training

Practical: Diver-Rescue Assessment Waterskills Assessment

Waterskills and Stamina Exercises Three and Four

Independent Study: (complete before next weekend) The Physics ofDiving

The Physiology of Diving

Chapter 4, 6, 7 of the Divemaster Manual

Weekend Two

Day Three

Classroom: Topic 9: Divemaster Conducted Programs

Topic 10: Risk Management

Practical: Divemaster Conducted Programs – RequiredTraining Exercise Three

Independent Study: Mapping Project – Required Training Exercise One –Assigned to be completed before certification.


Day Four

Classroom: Topic 4: Dive Theory Introduction

Topic 5: The Physics of Diving – review and answerquestions

Topic 6: The Physiology of Diving – review andanswer questions

Practical: Makeup and Remedial Training

Begin Internship or Practical Training Exercises

Independent Study: (to be completed before next weekend) Decompres-sion Theory and the RDP

Equipment

Chapters 5, 8 and 9 of the Divemaster Manual

Weekend ThreeDay Five

Classroom: Topic 7: Equipment – review and answer questions

Topic 8: Decompression Theory and the RDP –reviewand answer questions

Topic 11: The Business of Diving


Day Six

Classroom: Topic 12: Furthering Your Dive Career

Divemaster Exams



ThreeKnowledgeDevelopment

ship-level divers, dive planningprinciples, rescue management, andrudimentary instructional concepts.During these discussions, you willguide candidates to shape the atti-tudes and skills they’ll apply in thePractical Application Module andlater, as certified PADI Divemasters.

Following the overall standardsthat apply to this module, you’ll finda subsection for each of the 12 Knowl-edge Development Topics. Eachsubsection provides the standards andlearning objectives/performancerequirements that relate to the topic,suggested methods for reaching thoseobjectives (e.g., independent study,presentations, discussions), suggestedand required study materials, and apresentation outline. Note that forseveral topics when using indepen-dent study a presentationmay not be required,though it’s recommendedthat you give candidates theopportunity to meet withyou to ask questions and

Conduct andStandardsMuch of this section focuses on devel-oping candidate knowledge of divetheory. This has two important roles.First, research into problem solvingshows that experts in a given fieldsolve problems well because they havea large knowledge base upon which todraw when looking for solutions.Second, many candidates will con-tinue on to the PADI Assistant Instruc-tor and Open Water Scuba Instructorlevels. Training at these levels buildsupon candidates’ established knowl-edge of dive theory, and there is notraining in the IDC for theory (exceptfor optional remediation).

Besides dive theory, the KnowledgeDevelopment Module establishesinformation important to an indi-vidual who will be working in or witha professional dive operation andinstructional staff. These include riskmanagement, customer perspectives,the needs of a dive business, andcareer opportunities. Other portions ofthis module address professionalismand the qualities expected in leader-

The Knowledge Development Module establishes the knowledge foundation

PADI Divemasters apply as certified assistants, while supervising general dive

activities with certified divers, and as they gain experience leading into the PADI

Assistant Instructor and Instructor Development Courses.



3-2 Three: Knowledge Development

review the material, prior to takingthe Divemaster Exams.

Learning objectives are written asquestions that you can read to yourcandidates. The outlines were writtenfor direct presentation to your studentdivers. You’ll find notes intended foryou to read but not present clearly setapart in brackets or boxes. Notes foremphasis to divemaster candidatesstand apart similarly, preceded by“Note to candidate:.”

EvaluationBecause the Knowledge DevelopmentModule develops different types ofknowledge for different purposes,you’ll apply different evaluations toassess whether candidates meet theperformance objectives.

ExamsThere are eight required PADI Dive-master Exams: Physics, Physiologyand First Aid, Equipment, Decompres-sion Theory and the RDP, Dive Skillsand the Environment, SupervisingActivities for Certified Divers, Super-vising Student Divers in Training, andPADI Divemaster Conducted Pro-grams. Prior to certification, eachcandidate must show mastery bydemonstrating acceptable perfor-mance on each of the PADI Dive-master Exams. Candidates takethe exams under direct staffsupervision, with no notes or aidsallowed except the RecreationalDive Planner (table and TheWheel), a calculator, scratchpaper and pencil or pen. Thecandidate may also use the PADIInstructor Manual with the PADIDivemaster Course InstructorGuide removed.

Acceptable performancemeans that the candidate scores75 percent or better on each exam(not averaged together). If thecandidate scores less than 75percent, then you must have thecandidate retest. Besides scoring75 percent or higher, the candi-date must show mastery of allexam items. To accomplish this,review questions missed or notcompleted until the candidateunderstands each.

The candidate signs and datesthe candidate statement on eachexamination after you score it andexplain missed, incomplete orunanswered questions to verifythat you reviewed these and thecandidate now understands them.It’s recommended, but not required,that you have candidates initialmissed questions in addition to sign-ing the candidate statement. Youmust keep a written record of theexam answer sheet in thecandidate’s permanent records(Student Record File).

Candidates who were certified asPADI Advanced Plus Divers havealready completed knowledge devel-opment in dive training theory.Therefore, you may, at your discretion,exempt them from presentations orindependent study for Topics 5, 6, 7,and 8. However, they must com-plete all evaluation areas includ-ing the Divemaster Exams.

Knowledge ReviewsEach chapter in the PADI DivemasterManual ends with a Knowledge Re-view. Divemaster candidates mustcomplete and turn in each Knowl-edge Review. Candidates mustmaster all items. Review any


AssignmentEmergency Assistance PlanEach divemaster candidate must complete an Emergency Assis-tance Plan individually (not in teams or pairs) for a dive site. It isrecommended the plan be for a destination commonly visited by diversfrom the local area. It’s recommended, but not required, that you assign adifferent site to each candidate.

You evaluate the Emergency Assistance Plans based on theircompleteness in providing information someone would need tomanage a diving accident at the assigned site. The plan may in-clude information such as local emergency medical contact information,contact information for local authorities involved in evacuating aninjured diver, contact for area diver emergency service (if present in thearea), nearest operational recompression chamber (for areas not servedby DAN or DES or a similar service), communication requirements (suchas if the area has no cellular service) and any other information youindicate would apply to the particular area. If a candidate’s Emer-gency Assistance Plan is incomplete, have the candidate revise theplan until it is complete. It’s a good idea to have candidates makecopies of their completed plans for each other’s reference and use.

questions missed or left incom-plete until the candidate under-stands each. The candidate signsand dates the candidate state-ment on each Knowledge Reviewto verify that you reviewed theseand the candidate now under-stands them. It’s recommended, but

not required, that you have candi-dates initial missed questions inaddition to signing the candidatestatement. You must keep a recordof the completed and signedKnowledge Reviews in thecandidate’s permanent records(Student Record File).


DM 1 - DM 1 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster

■ The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster

■ Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster Membership

■ Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI Divemaster Membership

■ How to Succeed in This Program■ How to Succeed in This Program

■ Course Logistics – Assignments, Responsibilities, Schedule and Administration

■ Course Logistics – Assignments, Responsibilities, Schedule and Administration

Topic 1 – Course Introduction

The Role and Characteristics of aPADI DivemasterRecommended Materials and Methods forCovering This TopicThis is the first presentation for the PADI Divemaster course andmust be conducted before any other course components. It’s mosteffective for you to use the following outline to present the information in aclassroom-like setting.

Much of this presentation sets the tone for the course and lays thegroundwork for developing professionalism and desired attitudes in candi-dates. Encourage discussion and interaction in your group, which not onlyassists in attitude development, but will help develop familiarity betweenyour candidates, you and your staff.

The first chapter of the PADI Divemaster Manual supports this topic. Ifpossible, have candidates read the chapter and complete the KnowledgeReview before attending. However this presentation covers additionalmaterial specific to the logistics that apply to your divemaster candidatesand the local area, and therefore aren’t covered by the manual.

The PADI Divemaster Video also strongly supports this presentation. It’srecommended that you have candidates watch the video prior to thispresentation, or immediately after it.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objectives

I. Introductions

II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster

1. What three broad characteristics may divers ex-pect in a PADI Divemaster?

2. What five criteria define “professionalism” as itapplies to the PADI Divemaster?

3. What is a “role model”?

4. What are the characteristics and attributes of agood role model PADI Divemaster?

5. What are the characteristics and attributes of apoor role model divemaster?

6. How may role model behavior affect other divers?

7. How may role model behavior affect your ability tofunction as a divemaster?

8. How may good role model behavior benefit studentdivers when you assist with training?

DM 1 - DM 1 - 11

PADI Divemaster Course


IntroductionIntroduction


DM 1 - DM 1 -

What criteria define professionalism?What criteria define professionalism?

44

■ Expertise■ Expertise

■ Judgment■ Judgment

■ Appearance and manner■ Appearance and manner

■ Interpersonal skills■ Interpersonal skills

■ Exemplary rescue skills■ Exemplary rescue skills

DM 1 - DM 1 -

The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster

The Role and Characteristics of a PADI Divemaster

33

What is a PADI Divemaster?

What is a PADI Divemaster?

III. Benefits and Responsibilities of PADI DivemasterMembership

9. What are the benefits and responsibilities of aPADI Divemaster?

IV. How to Succeed in This Program

V. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule andAdministration

OutlineI. Introduction

A. Introductions[Introduce yourself and have your staff and candidatesintroduce themselves. Encourage a relaxed, light atmo-sphere and try to get everyone interacting. This getsthe course off to a good start.]

B. [Paperwork]

II. The Role and Characteristics of a PADI DivemasterWhat is a PADI Divemaster?A. The goal of this course is to qualify you as a PADI

Divemaster. This raises the question, “What is a PADIDivemaster?”[Use the question to launch a five minute class discus-sion about what a PADI Divemaster is. Write the an-swers down as you go, and treat answers as a basis forfurther discussion.]

B. What three broad characteristics may diversexpect in a PADI Divemaster?[Use the candidates’ answers to note the characteristicsthat divers expect in a PADI Divemaster.]1. professionalism2. role model behavior3. ability to assist with supervising dive activities and

dive trainingC. What five criteria define “professionalism” as

it applies to the PADI Divemaster?1. “Professionalism” means different things depending

upon the activity. Specific to a PADI Divemaster, aprofessional is someone who:a. has expertise in diving: dive theory, dive skills

and dive management.


DM 1 - DM 1 -

What is a role model?What is a role model?

55

■ Positive behavior◆ Good dive skills

■ Positive behavior◆ Good dive skills◆ Committed to safe diving◆ Committed to safe diving◆ Uses well maintained equipment◆ Uses well maintained equipment◆ Maintains physical fitness◆ Maintains physical fitness◆ Agrees with PADI philosophy◆ Agrees with PADI philosophy◆ Empathetic, inspirational,

and supportive◆ Empathetic, inspirational,

and supportive◆ Earns respect, trust and confidence◆ Earns respect, trust and confidence

continued...continued...

b. has good judgment. The PADI Divemaster followsresponsible diving practices when conducting/assisting with PADI-sanctioned programs, followsPADI Standards, and errs to the conservativewhen making decisions that could affect diversafety.

c. maintains a professional appearance and man-ner.

d. has good interpersonal skills.e. has exemplary rescue skills.

[Ask the candidates why people expect these qualities.Encourage a five minute discussion about this topic,with you confirming and elaborating on appropriatecandidate responses.]

D. What is a “role model”?1. A “role model” is someone who other people base

their behavior on because they respect and identifywith the role model.

2. What are the characteristics and attributesof a good role model PADI Divemaster?a. good dive skillsb. commitment to beliefs – there’s no question that

the divemaster believes in responsible dive prac-tices and PADI Standards because the individualfollows them consistently.

c. uses up-to-date, well maintained dive equipment.d. maintains self – stays physically fit for diving and

stays up-to-date on dive trends, theory, equip-ment, etc.

e. agrees with the PADI training philosophy andsupports the instructor with that philosophy whenassisting with student divers in training.

f. accepts and empathizes with divers andstudents in supervisory situations.

g. inspires other divers to pattern their dive habitsafter the divemaster.

h. supports the business needs of the diveoperation.

i. easily establishes rapport with divers and custom-ers.

j. earns and maintains respect, trust and confidenceof divers and customers.


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How does role model behavior

affect other divers?

How does role model behavior

affect other divers?

77

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What is a role model?What is a role model?

■ Negative behavior■ Negative behavior

66

◆ Lacks conviction and commitment◆ Lacks conviction and commitment

◆ Disregards personal fitness◆ Disregards personal fitness

◆ Uncaring, contradictory, and unsupportive

◆ Uncaring, contradictory, and unsupportive

3. What are the characteristics and attributesof a poor role model divemaster?a. hypocrisy and lack of conviction – pays lip ser-

vice to responsible dive practices and standardsby saying one thing and doing another, or onlyfollowing those practices and standards whencompelled to do so by standards or an employer.Doesn’t appear to stand for anything that’s notconvenient at the moment – may take a “do as Isay, not as I do” approach.

b. disregards personal fitness and does not keepcurrent on dive information and practices.

c. uncaring and unempathetic of other divers andtheir skill levels. Behaves in ways that causesother divers to not respect the individual.

d. contradicts or disagrees with an instructor infront of student divers or other assistants.

e. not a “team player” and fails to support thecustomer service and equipment counselingaspects of the dive operation’s business needs.

4. How may role model behavior affect otherdivers?[Ask the class, based on the above attributes, “Howmight good and poor role modeling make you moreand less effective as divemasters?” Encourage a fiveminute discussion, elaborating on appropriatecandidate comments. The following summarizes theconclusions the class should reach – fill in anymissing concepts.]a. How may role model behavior affect your

ability to function as a divemaster?1. Good role model behavior can aid other divers

by giving them a behavior pattern to followwith respect to responsible dive practices andhabits. Poor role model behavior can causethem to question these practices and habits.People follow your example as much as (some-times more than) what you say.

2. Alternatively, poor role modeling can causedivers to question you and your suggestions.Divers may be less likely to act on your advice.Good role modeling is more likely to give youcredibility and encourages divers to followaccepted dive practices and consider yoursuggestions.


DM 1 - DM 1 -

What are the benefits of becoming a Divemaster?What are the benefits of becoming a Divemaster?

88

■ PADI Membership■ PADI Membership◆ Receive publications and updates

– The Undersea Journal ◆ Receive publications and updates

– The Undersea Journal ◆ Access to PADI materials and

educational consultation◆ Access to PADI materials and

educational consultation◆ Access to professional

liability insurance◆ Access to professional

liability insurance

■ Earn income by conducting PADI programs

■ Earn income by conducting PADI programs

b. How may good role model behavior benefitstudent divers when you assist with train-ing?1. Good role model behavior helps student divers,

who learn much by watching the instructor andassistants. Consistency between you and theinstructor reinforces what student divers learn.Good role model behavior earns student respect,which means they listen and learn from youbetter when you’re assisting in training.

III. Benefits and Responsibilities of thePADI Divemaster Membership[If possible, show the This is PADI video to start this sub-ject.]A. Benefits

1. As a PADI Divemaster you’ll be a member of PADI,the world’s largest and most respected diver trainingorganization.

2. As a PADI Member, you:a. receive regular mailings of information, standards

changes and industry alerts. [Identify the publica-tions they get from the applicable PADI Officeinstead of or in addition to The Undersea Journal,etc. If PADI Divemasters for your area receiveAssisting and Divemastering, either as part of theJournal or separately, call attention to this publica-tion dedicated specifically to their duties.]

b. have access to certain PADI materials at the PADIDivemaster rate as well as access to educationalconsulting at your PADI Office.

c. have access to Professional Liability Insurance andto the dive industry’s most experienced legal de-fense team. You’ll learn more about this later inthe course.

d. may earn income or benefits by assisting withPADI Diver courses, and by conducting some PADIprograms independently (more about these later).Divemaster also have access to PADI’s job place-ment information service.

B. Being a PADI Divemaster has responsibilities:1. Adhering to PADI Standards when assisting with

and/or conducting PADI programs as identified inthe PADI Instructor Manual or other PADI materials.Much of what you learn in this course applies to this.

DM 1 - DM 1 -

What are responsibilities of a Divemaster?What are responsibilities of a Divemaster?

99

■ Adhere to PADI Standards■ Adhere to PADI Standards

■ Stay current■ Stay current

■ Represent PADI favorably

■ Represent PADI favorably

■ Maintain PADI Membership

■ Maintain PADI Membership


DM 1 - DM 1 -

How to SucceedHow to Succeed■ Start independent study EARLY■ Start independent study EARLY

1010

◆ Read manual, watch video and complete Knowledge Reviews

◆ Read manual, watch video and complete Knowledge Reviews

■ Seek more information – don’t limit yourself

■ Seek more information – don’t limit yourself

■ Practice, practice, practice■ Practice, practice, practice

■ Ask for help – help others■ Ask for help – help others

2. Staying current with PADI Standards by reading thequarterly Training Bulletin.

3. Representing the PADI organization favorably asyou conduct yourself professionally.

4. Maintaining your PADI Membership. [Review re-newal requirements as listed in the Introduction ofthis instructor guide, page 1-4.]

5. Keeping PADI informed of your current address sothat you will receive important mailings, and so youcan connect with the appropriate PADI Office forservice.

V. How to Succeed in This ProgramA. Success in this program comes through applying your-

self to the assignments and exercises consistently andas directed by your instructor. Like any learning pro-cess, you get out of this course what you put into it.

B. Candidates usually find that the following suggestionsbenefit their learning at this level:1. Read each appropriate PADI Divemaster Manual

chapter, watch the PADI Divemaster Video and com-plete the Knowledge Reviews enough ahead ofschedule to do so without rushing. Write in yourbooks as you study – make notes, highlight impor-tant concepts to review, etc.

2. Start independent study and projects as soon asthey’re assigned. Take advantage of all study mediaavailable – video, multimedia products, manuals,etc. Each type has different advantages in learning;the more you use, the more effective your learning.

3. Don’t limit yourself. If you’re interested in some-thing, find out all you can about it, even if it’s be-yond the course requirements.

4. Practice outside scheduled sessions with classmates.This is useful with physics problems, demonstrationskill practice, rescue and other skills.

5. If you’re having trouble mastering or understandingsomething, let the instructor know as soon as pos-sible.

6. Help your fellow candidates and let them help you.You learn by helping and being helped.[Note to instructor: The professional edition of the PADI DivemasterVideo provides you with suggestions and techniques for conducting theprogram.]


DM 1 - DM 1 -

Welcome to Welcome to

1212

Your PADI Divemaster

Course!

Your PADI Divemaster

Course!

DM 1 - DM 1 -

Course LogisticsCourse Logistics

■ Assignments

■ Materials and Equipment

■ Schedule

■ Administrative Requirements

■ Assignments

■ Materials and Equipment

■ Schedule

■ Administrative Requirements

1111

VI. Assignments, Responsibilities, Course Schedule andAdministrationA. Assignments

1. [Tell candidates about assignments and due dates,including independent study assignments. It’s rec-ommended that you give independent study assign-ments for Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8 as early in the courseas possible. You may assign the Emergency Assis-tance Plan, tell candidates the locations they shouldprepare their plans for, the date due and the criteriafor a complete plan. You may also discuss the Map-ping Project]

2. [Advise candidates to watch the PADI DivemasterVideo, read the PADI Divemaster Manual and com-plete the Knowledge Review at the end of each chap-ter to hand in.]

B. In this course, you’re responsible for:1. Completing assignments on time.2. Conducting yourself in a professional manner.3. Following instructions from the instructor and staff.4. Providing equipment and materials [list all equip-

ment and materials candidates must provide].C. Schedule

[Give candidates the course schedule, including sessiontimes and locations, integrating assignment andKnowledge Review due dates.]

D. Monitoring progress[Give candidates a copy of the Skill Development ScoreSheet and Practical Application Record Sheet. Explainthat you’ll be tracking their progress and critiquingtheir performances regularly using these.]

E. Administration[Finish any paperwork, collect remaining course fees,additional fees not covered by the course fee (such asboat fees) etc.]

F. [It’s recommended that you finish this session with abreak that allows social interaction and a chance forcandidates and staff to get to know each other.]


Topic 2 – SupervisingGeneral Diving Activities forCertified Divers

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering This TopicThe PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of thematerial in this topic. Preferably, have candidates see the video, readChapter 2 and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation.Your presentation is important in this topic because it includes discussionsto begin establishing problem solving skills, judgment and attitudes.

This is a long topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presenta-tion, or deliver the presentation in two or more sessions. Use of independentstudy materials will allow you to go more quickly through much of thematerial, since candidates will already be familiar with it.

The following PADI materials support this topic: Adventures in Diving,(manual and video) Underwater Navigator Manual, Deep Diver Manual, DeepDiving video, Night Diver Manual, Night Diving video, Enriched Air DiverManual, Enriched Air Diving video.

Presentation - Part 1Overview and Learning Objectives

I. The Divers You Supervise

1. Why do certified divers want the assistance of aPADI Divemaster?

2. What individual differences in divers does a dive-master have to be prepared to accommodate?

3. What are six characteristics of responsible diverbehavior?

4. What are four ways to encourage responsible diving?

II. Dive Planning

5. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planningfor a group of certified divers?

6. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through thedive”?

7. What aspects of dive planning are and are not thedivemaster’s responsibility?

8. What aspects of dive planning and diving musteach diver retain responsibility for?

9. How do you assess divers before a dive for experi-ence level, possible stress and possible equipmentproblems?

DM 2 - DM 2 - 11



Supervising Diving Activities for Certified Divers


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Overview — Part 1Overview — Part 1

22

■ The Divers You Supervise■ The Divers You Supervise

■ Dive Planning■ Dive Planning

■ Dive Management■ Dive Management

■ Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress

■ Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress

■ Mapping Dive Sites■ Mapping Dive Sites


10. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is itintended?

11. How do you evaluate general dive conditions, andhow do conditions affect diving?

12. What are three aspects of planning dives for remoteareas?

III Dive Management

13. What are four aspects of supervision in managingdives?

14. What are the advantages and disadvantages ofinwater versus out of water supervision, and theadvantages and disadvantages of supervision van-tage points inwater versus out of water?

15. What eight types of equipment can assist in super-vising certified divers?

16. What is the primary purpose of diver accountingprocedures?

IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress

17. What are the characteristics of predive stress, andhow do you help divers deal with it?

V. Mapping Dive Sites

18. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site,and what elements do you include in a dive site map?

OutlineI. The Divers You Supervise

A. Why do certified divers want the assistance of aPADI Divemaster?1. Although there may be some situations in which

divers need supervision, the primary reason theydive under divemaster supervision is they want theservices, education and benefits a divemaster pro-vides. Practices vary greatly from one area to an-other and the successful divemaster recognizes thatneither supervisory recommendations nor proce-dures apply to all locales and circumstances.a. The divemaster makes the dive more fun by guid-

ing divers to the best diving.b. The divemaster can help divers improve their safety

by providing information such as local dive condi-tions and protocols/techniques, and by being avail-able to manage and assist with a dive accident.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Why do certified divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?

Why do certified divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?

33

■ Guidance■ Guidance

■ Safety■ Safety

■ Handling logistics■ Handling logistics

■ FUN■ FUN


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What individual differences might you encounter?What individual differences might you encounter?

66

■ Skill level■ Skill level

■ Physical and intellectual challenges

■ Physical and intellectual challenges

■ Cultural differences■ Cultural differences

■ Responsible behavior■ Responsible behavior

c. The divemaster often assists with boat handlingand logistics, freeing the divers to simply relaxand enjoy the trip.

d. The divemaster can help divers assess whethertheir skills and experience level match theplanned dive, by being available to answer ques-tions, and by helping them brush up on skillswhen they feel it necessary.

e. The divemaster adds to the enjoyment by being afun person – friendly, approachable, warm, andsomeone others like to be around. The divemasteradds to the fun by giving local area informationor history of a dive site.

B. Being a person other divers want as a divemaster isimportant to your success and the success of the diveoperation you represent.

C. What individual differences in divers does adivemaster have to be prepared to accommo-date?1. As a professional divemaster, you need to accept

divers you supervise as they are.[Ask candidates: Why? Encourage a brief discussionabout this before continuing. How candidates an-swer is less important than that they think aboutthis and come up with their own reasons.]

2. Divers will vary in several ways:a. Skill level — adapt your interaction based on

general skill levels. (e.g., known skill levels mayinfluence where you take the boat, or suggestedtechniques or courses to follow.)[Ask candidates: If everyone had leadership-leveldive skills, would there be any need fordivemasters?]

b. Physical/intellectual challenges — individualswith special challenges may need your assistancewith unusual, but acceptable, dive techniques.

c. Different cultures — culture affects how peopleapproach the social interaction side of diving. Besensitive to cultural needs of those you supervise,and the local culture where you work.

d. Responsible behavior — a divemaster can encour-age responsible behavior in divers. The divemas-ter is alert for the appropriate behavior or lack of,and tries to encourage it, but this doesn’t imply

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Demand for you as a divemaster

= Success

Demand for you as a divemaster

= Success

44

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Why do divemasters need to accept people

as they are?

Why do divemasters need to accept people

as they are?

55


DM 2 - DM 2 -

How can you encourage responsible behavior?How can you encourage responsible behavior?

88

■ Role modeling■ Role modeling

■ Dive planning and briefings■ Dive planning and briefings

■ Logistical arrangements■ Logistical arrangements

■ Reward and acknowledgment■ Reward and acknowledgment

that the divemaster is responsible for the behaviorof trained and certified divers. This would be nei-ther realistic nor appropriate.

D. What are six characteristics of responsiblediver behavior?1. Stays within personal limits – plans dives within

limits of training and experience for diver and buddy.2. Properly equipped – uses the equipment generally

accepted as required for a dive.3. Equipment care – maintains equipment properly and

checks it before diving.4. Conservative air supply management – checks air

supply frequently and ends dive with an appropriatereserve.

5. Conservative computer/table use – stays well withinno stop limits, avoids “sawtooth” profiles and makessafety stops.

6. Environmental awareness – avoids contact with sensi-tive aquatic life, dives in an environmentally sensi-tive manner.

E. What are four ways to encourage responsiblediving?1. Role modeling – ensure that your dive habits reflect

the characteristics of a responsible diver.2. Dive planning and briefings – it may be appropriate

at times to suggest or remind of responsible divingbehaviors during dive planning and briefings (You’lllearn more about dive planning next and briefingsshortly).

3. When practical make responsible behaviors easierlogistically (e.g., in some situations, a bar at 5metres/15 feet assists safety stops, etc.)

4. Reward responsible behaviors (e.g., after a guided dive,acknowledge appropriate behavior and skills, etc.)

II. Dive PlanningA. What is the role of the divemaster in dive plan-

ning for a group of certified divers?1. Your role as a divemaster is to provide broad planning

for the group – basic logistics and emergency prepa-ration, and helping divers plan their own dives.

B. How do you plan a dive by “thinking throughthe dive”?1. Thinking through the dive is an effective way to plan

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What is responsible diver behavior?What is responsible diver behavior?

77

■ Knows and abides by personal limits■ Knows and abides by personal limits■ Uses proper equipment■ Uses proper equipment

■ Maintains equipment■ Maintains equipment

■ Manages air supply conservatively ■ Manages air supply conservatively

■ Uses dive computer or table conservatively

■ Uses dive computer or table conservatively

■ Remains environmentally aware■ Remains environmentally aware

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive PlanningDive Planning

99

What is the divemaster’s role

and responsibility?

What is the divemaster’s role

and responsibility?


a dive. Imagine everything on a dive – predivepreparation, loading, diver check in, on the boat/atthe beach, postdive, etc. – make a list of what needsto be done, in order. Think through possible inci-dents or emergencies that you should prepare forand add them to the list.

2. Think through the information that individualdivers need to plan their own dives (conditions,depth, training requirements, etc.) so you can pro-vide as much as reasonably possible to the divers.

3. Thinking through a dive gives you a list of what todo, in order, preparations for possible emergencies,and information to gather for divers. Much of whatyou learn in this course teaches you how to find,gather and use information for dive planning.

C. What aspects of dive planning are and are notthe divemaster’s responsibility?1. Your responsibility – plan a dive envelope the group

stays within and that prepares for reasonably fore-seeable diving emergencies. Advise divers of knownunusual hazards. Orient divers to site.

2. You are not normally responsible for planning theindividual dives of certified divers.

D. What aspects of dive planning and diving musteach diver retain responsibility for?1. Divers’ responsibility – Each diver must retain re-

sponsibility for planning the individual characteris-tics of the dive within the limits you set and imple-menting the plan.a. Divers will bear the consequences of the dive

plan, so they must accept responsibility for it.b. Conditions change, – divers may have to revise

dive plan accordingly within their personal limi-tations.

c. You cannot control a diver; divers are responsiblefor their own actions.

d. You cannot know divers’ comfort/training/experi-ence levels as well as they do – they have to settheir own limits.

E. Although divers are responsible for their plans, youcan assist them with their individual plans. If asked,you can help them choose responsible courses of ac-tion. The information you provide assists them to plantheir individual dives.

DM 2 - DM 2 - Dive PlanningDive Planning

Divemaster’s RoleDivemaster’s Role■ Basic logistics and site orientation■ Basic logistics and site orientation

1010

■ Emergency preparation■ Emergency preparation

■ Help diver’s plan their individual dives

■ Help diver’s plan their individual dives

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Diver’s ResponsibilityDiver’s Responsibility■ Planning and implementation of

own dive plan ■ Planning and implementation of

own dive plan

1111Dive PlanningDive Planning


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What is an environmental orientation?

What is an environmental orientation?


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Diver AssessmentDiver Assessment■ How do you assess divers

before a dive?■ How do you assess divers

before a dive?


Indirectequipment

behavior

signs of illness or injury

Indirectequipment

behavior

signs of illness or injury

Directlog book

registration

interview

Directlog book

registration

interview

F. How do you assess divers before a dive for expe-rience level, possible stress and possible equip-ment problems?1. Diver assessment – while it’s often impossible for a

divemaster to assess the skill and review the equip-ment of all divers, the following techniques may beused to estimate skill level, stress and equipmentconcerns during normal interaction with divers. Ifyou observe possible problems, you should alert thediver and provide opportunities to rectify the prob-lems. General observations may assist with recom-mendations for group planning and individual plans.

2. Indirect assessment – observations include:a. Equipment condition, configuration and age. For

example, all rental gear may indicate a novice orinfrequent diver. Inappropriate or missing gearfor the dive may require your counsel. Old gearmay indicate a rusty diver returning to diving.Dangling equipment may indicate inexperienceor lack of familiarity with environmentally sensi-tive dive techniques.

b. Behavior. For example, withdrawal, excessivetalking, excessive time preparing may indicatestress or concerns about the dive. Overdependenceon a dive buddy for planning, gear setup, etc.may indicate inexperience.

c. Signs or symptoms of illness or injury.3. Direct assessment – depending on circumstances, the

following may be useful techniques:a. Check log books and certifications.b. Have divers fill out contact, certification, experi-

ence and other emergency contact informationwhen they register for the dive.

c. Interview – if practical, ask the diver about con-cerns, experience, etc., particularly if indirectassessment raises a question.

G. What is Discover Local Diving, and for who is itintended?1. Discover Local Diving, an environmental orientation,

is a briefing that covers the unique aspects of aparticular dive environment so divers can includethese in their dive plans.

2. It is intended for certified divers who have little orno experience in the local environment.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive ConditionsDive Conditions


■ How do you evaluate general dive conditions and how do conditions affect diving?

■ How do you evaluate general dive conditions and how do conditions affect diving?

◆ What’s acceptable?◆ What’s acceptable?

◆ Weather◆ Weather

◆ Tides and current◆ Tides and current

◆ Visibility◆ Visibility

3. You can include an environmental orientation inyour supervision when your assessment suggestsdivers may benefit from it, or when asked.

4. Discover Local Diving is PADI’s environmentalorientation program. You’ll learn more about this ina later presentation.

H. How do you evaluate general dive conditions,and how do conditions affect diving?1. Dive conditions affect diving, and therefore are an

important part of dive planning.a. Determining “acceptable” conditions may depend

partly on the skill and experience of the divers.Your briefings and recommendations help diversdetermine whether the conditions are acceptablefor them.

b. It helps divers plan their own dives when you tellthem your observations and conclusions regard-ing the conditions. It also teaches them aboutevaluating conditions.

c. There is a broad range of acceptable conditions.You advise divers of the conditions, but diversmust accept the responsibility of assessing theirown skills and deciding whether or not to dive.

2. Weathera. Information sources include:

1. TV, radio and newspaper2. Government radio broadcasts, such as Na-

tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-tion (NOAA) National Weather Service broad-casts on VHF-FM (marine) radio in NorthAmerica

3. Telephone services4. Your experience with local weather behavior

b. Effect of weather on dive conditions:1. Wind – can cause waves, surf and surge, plus

poor visibility. Offshore wind can calm surfand cause an upwelling and good visibility.

2. Rain – runoff can cause poor visibility or poorwater quality. Prolonged rain can cause riversto back up into lakes and springs.

3. Temperature – can cause discomfort before orafter dive. Air temperature can sometimeschange water temperature in a couple of days.


3. Tide and currentsa. Information sources include:

1. Tide charts2. Local weather reports may provide tide and

current information.3. Local dive reports may provide tide and current

information.4. Your experience with local conditions – you

can often observe tides and currents from anelevated vantage point – watch boats at an-chor and drifting flotsam (note that wind andcurrent may be from different directions, affect-ing where a boat sits at anchor).

b. Effect of tides and currents on dive conditions:1. Major currents may have eddies that run

counter to the main current direction.2. Long shore currents – caused by eddies or

waves striking shore at an angle – createswater flow down the coast.

3. Tidal currents flow in and out of restrictedareas (bays, etc.) – strength depends on timeduring tidal cycle, how restricted the flow, andthe amount of water entering or exiting thearea.

4. Ideal dive time is usually slack tide when hightide peaks.

4. Visibilitya. weather – as mentioned, rain runoff and surge

due to wind or waves can stir up sediment.b. season – warm temperature can cause plankton

blooms. Some seasons associated with more windand rain

c. bottom composition – the finer the bottom, suchas mud or silt, the easier it is disturbed.

d. waves – can reduce light that penetrates thesurface, and stir up sediment.

e. time of day – affects the amount of light. Propor-tionately more reflects off surface when sun is lowin sky.

f. oceanic currents – can affect the amount of nutri-ents in water and therefore, plankton blooms.

g. tides – incoming (rising) tides usually bring inclear water; outgoing tides (falling) tides usuallypick up sediment and have poorer visibility.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?

What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?

1717Dive ManagementDive Management

■ Preparation ■ Preparation

■ Communication■ Communication

■ Vantage Point■ Vantage Point

■ Recognition■ Recognition

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive Management

Supervision of certified divers

Dive Management

Supervision of certified divers

1616

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What are three aspects of dive planning for remote areas?

What are three aspects of dive planning for remote areas?


■ More involved logistics■ More involved logistics

■ More complex emergency procedures

■ More complex emergency procedures

■ Increased self-sufficiency■ Increased self-sufficiency

h. location – determines the prevailing nature of theaquatic environment (e.g., warm clear current,silty lake, clear spring water, etc.)

I. What are three aspects of planning dives forremote areas? (e.g., those that are hours away fromdive services, emergency medical personnel, etc.)1. Plans need to cover more logistics – food, sleeping

arrangements, compressors for filling tanks, etc.2. Emergency procedures – may need to plan for com-

plex evacuations, having appropriate medical sup-plies available and people who can use them (e.g.,several hours worth of emergency oxygen).

3. Think in terms of self-sufficiency. (e.g., What wouldyou do if the boat engine broke down?)

III. Dive ManagementA. Dive management involves supervision of certified divers.

1. It is difficult or impossible to exercise direct, physicalcontrol of certified divers (though it may be appro-priate when supervising student divers).

2. Therefore, supervision means nonphysical influence,by providing adequate and appropriate informationand advice.

B. What are four aspects of supervision in manag-ing dives?1. Preparation – adequate dive planning as just dis-

cussed, having appropriate equipment, and beingready to respond to problems.

2. Communication – informing the divers about proce-dures, the dive plan, and other information, usuallyin a dive briefing (discussed shortly).

3. Vantage Point – putting yourself in the most effec-tive position to see and assist divers.

4. Recognition – anticipating and identifying possibleproblems so you can prevent, correct or respond tothem.

C. What are the advantages and disadvantages ofinwater versus out of water supervision, andthe advantages and disadvantages of supervi-sion vantage points inwater versus out of water?1. Choose your vantage point for supervising certified

divers by considering:a. Your ability to spot and respond to a problem.DM 2 - DM 2 -

Choosing a Vantage PointChoosing a Vantage Point

■ Inwater supervision◆ Advantages?◆ Disadvantages?

■ Inwater supervision◆ Advantages?◆ Disadvantages?


■ Out of water supervision◆ Advantages?◆ Disadvantages?

■ Out of water supervision◆ Advantages?◆ Disadvantages?


1. You want to be in the most advantageous spotto see or be aware of divers’ locations.

2. You want to be at the most advantageous spotto lend assistance – anticipate likely problemareas based on diver skill level, environment,etc.

3. These may conflict (e.g., the best place towatch isn’t always the best place to respondfrom) – you may need to compromise.

b. The skill and experience level of diversc. Number of divers and diver groups or buddy

teamsd. Environmental conditions

2. Inwater supervision – you dive with the group, orescort on surface by snorkel, etc.a. Advantages:1. Puts you close to divers to respond to or prevent

problems.2. Minimizes problems such as divers accidentally

exceeding their maximum depth, makingnavigation errors or running low on air be-cause you’re there to guide and remind themto check air, etc.

3. Diving with group adds to interest because youcan guide divers to best spots, etc.

b. Disadvantages:1. You can only watch one group, so may not be

appropriate with multiple groups or buddyteams diving independently (depends on diverexperience, environment, etc.) unless there areother supervisors at the surface.

2. Some divers don’t like diving in a group. Itmay reduce their enjoyment if they prefer toexplore independently.

c. Procedures:1. Identify most likely problem sources – diver,

environmental effects, etc. and accompanygroup where you can best prevent or respondto these problems.

2. Brief divers so they know where you will be inrelation to the group, and your role (guide,escort following their lead, etc.)

3. Out of water supervision – you supervise from boator shore.


DM 2 - DM 2 -

What types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?

What types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?


■ Management equipment – roster, binoculars, site maps

■ Management equipment – roster, binoculars, site maps

■ Emergency equipment – oxygen, first aid kit, float, radio/phone

■ Emergency equipment – oxygen, first aid kit, float, radio/phone

■ Other dive equipment – tool kit, flag and float, scuba equipment

■ Other dive equipment – tool kit, flag and float, scuba equipment

a. Advantages:1. Usually most effective way to supervise mul-

tiple buddy teams and groups at once.2. Usually puts you close to emergency related

equipment (oxygen, first aid, radio, etc.) forrapid deployment.

3. Often gives diver teams more individual op-tions in where they go during the dive.

b. Disadvantages:1. You’re not on hand to remind divers of their

responsibilities to follow appropriate diveprocedures.

2. You can’t show divers around the points ofinterest on the site.

c. Procedures:1. Choose the best vantage point for visibility and

ability to respond as previously discussed.2. Have appropriate emergency and response

equipment at hand.3. During the briefing, tell divers where you’ll be

and establish surface signals, recall procedures,etc. (more detail about briefings shortly)

D. What eight types of equipment can assist insupervising certified divers?1. Management equipment – may be useful depending

upon the environment.a. clipboard/dive rosterb. binocularsc. dive site maps

2. Emergency response equipment (see also Chapter 3of the PADI Rescue Diver Manual)a. emergency oxygenb. first aid w/pocket mask and barriersc. rescue float or life ring with lined. marine radio/cellular telephone

3. Other useful equipmenta. tool kit with spare o-rings/fin straps, weight belt

buckles, etc.b. dive flag/floatc. spare regulator, BCD and other equipment (in

case of malfunction or loss)


d. spare equipment specific to conditions (e.g., divelights for night diving, inflatable signal tube fordiving in currents, etc.)

E. What is the primary purpose of diver account-ing procedures?1. When supervising more than a handful of divers,

the primary concern is making sure each diver is backaboard/ashore after a dive.

2. Procedure – Names usually recorded on dive rosteras divers arrive on board/at dive site, and as theyenter and exit water. Typically, you call roll aftereach dive with all divers visually present to confirmeveryone is out of the water.

3. When practical in some situations, it may be usefulto record additional information, which may assistin selecting subsequent dive sites.a. time entered waterb. time exited water

Note that certified divers are responsible for tracking theirown dive profiles.

F. Integrating customer service and management.1. Divers come to you for convenience and to

enhance their fun as well as the safety benefits.They’re customers.

2. Dive management requires influencing and advis-ing divers to dive safely without ignoring the enjoy-ment of the dive.

3. Customer service dive management tips:a. Explain the basis for guidelines and procedures so

they don’t seem arbitrary.b. Be open to alternative ways to accomplish some-

thing, such as an entry, to accommodate indi-vidual preferences.

c. Be flexible within the limits of responsible diving– the supervision procedures you apply withnovices may not be appropriate or necessary witha very experienced Rescue Diver, for example.

d. Give as much attention to assuring convenience,fun and adventure as you do to assuring safety.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

What is the primary purpose of diver

accounting procedures?

What is the primary purpose of diver

accounting procedures?


DM 2 - DM 2 -

Customer Service TipsCustomer Service Tips

2121

■ Explain the basis for guidelines — why?

■ Explain the basis for guidelines — why?

Dive ManagementDive Management

■ Be open to alternative methods

■ Be open to alternative methods

■ Be flexible ■ Be flexible

■ Consider convenience, fun and adventure along with safety

■ Consider convenience, fun and adventure along with safety


IV. Helping Divers Manage Predive Stress[Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual –Chapter 1]A. What are the characteristics of predive stress,

and how do you help divers deal with it?1. You may notice physical and/or psychological stress

in a diver. Signs and symptoms include:a. Behavior change – diver becomes withdrawn,

irritable, talkative, distracted, etc.b. Perceptual narrowing – diver focuses on an action

or task to the exclusion of alternative actions orconsiderations; often associated with distracted orirritable behavior

c. Physical signs or symptoms – sweating profusely,exhaustion, vomiting or nausea

d. Diver expresses concerns about the dive to abuddy or to you.

e. A diver may report stress observed in anotherdiver.

B. Consequences of stress[Refer to Stress Management Chart]1. Stress response cycle

a. Stress causes psychological and physical stressresponses.

b. If the diver recognizes stress, the diver will reduceactivity, think and begin problem solving. Thisusually solves problem and ends stress.

c. If the diver doesn’t recognize stress, anxiety re-sults. Anxiety produces psychological and physi-cal stress and adds to original stress.

d. Raised stress increases stress responses. This be-gins an uncontrolled cycle of rising stress untilstress is excessive.

e. Eventually, stress exceeds the diver’s ability to self-control emotions. The diver reverts to instinctivereactions and uncontrolled behavior (panic).

f. In the water, this can cause an accident requiringa rescue.

2. Therefore, it is best to handle stress as much aspossible prior to a dive.

C. Some stress is normal; it is how the mind and bodyactivate mechanisms for handling perceived threats. Itbenefits divers by helping them focus on equipment

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Helping Divers Manage StressStress Management Chart

Helping Divers Manage StressStress Management Chart

2222

ProblemProblem

StressStress ResponseResponse

AnxietyAnxiety

RecognitionRecognition StopThink Breathe

StopThink Breathe

Action = SolutionAction = Solution

ReactionReaction

PanicPanicRescue

RequiredRescue

Required


preparation, dive planning, etc. Certified divers areresponsible for expressing concerns and monitoringtheir own psychological/physical state, but if youobserve possible excessive stress, you may be able toassist the diver cope with it.1. Try to confirm that the diver is stressed – usually it’s

simplest to ask the diver about the signs observed.2. Try to determine cause of stress.

a. May be obvious, such as physical stress caused byoverheating.

b. If willing, the diver may tell you what the stressoris.

c. In some instances, you may not be able to deter-mine the stressor and the diver may not tell you –use your best judgment as to what the stressormay be.

D. Relieving stress. Stress is relieved by either removingthe stressor, or by changing the diver’s perception ofthe stressor so that it’s no longer threatening, or chang-ing the perception of the diver’s ability to cope with thestressor. The dive briefing often helps, but sometimesyou may be able to individually assist divers managetheir stress.1. Physical stressors – simple actions may relieve these.

(e.g., diver overheated in exposure suit, offer tospray with water, suggest slowing activity, or open-ing suit to cool a bit.)

2. Explain procedures – stress about dive often comesfrom lack of information about how to handle aperceived threat or concern; providing informationmay reduce or relieve stress. (e.g., divers concernedabout strong currents may feel better if you reviewcurrent diving procedures and explain what to do ifthe current carries them past the boat.)

3. Offer choices – you may be able to offer alternativesthat relieve stress. (e.g., diver who is concernedabout successful navigation during a dive mayappreciate the option to make a guided dive. Diverconcerned about making a deep dive may appreci-ate option to swim in shallows along top of wall.)

4. Provide information – new or accurate informationmay reduce stress by removing perception of threat.(e.g., diver hears that nurse sharks are common atdive site and may experience stress through fear ofshark attack. Telling the diver that nurse sharks are


docile and not associate with attacks (except whenmolested) may greatly reduce stress.)

5. Let them off the hook – make it clear to all diversthat if someone doesn’t feel up to a dive for anyreason, it’s okay not to dive.

V. Mapping Dive SitesA. There are several reasons to map a dive site.

1. as a briefing tool2. to provide you a navigation reference when leading

dive tours3. to provide divers you supervise with a navigation

reference when diving independently4. to show divers local facilities, entry and exit points,

and points of interest5. to have a reference against which to observe

changes in the dive site over timeB. Mapping tools – the following will be necessary or

helpful in mapping.1. dive compass2. large slate3. buoys/markers with lines and weights4. graph paper5. protractor and ruler

C. What are the general steps for mapping a divesite, and what elements do you include in a divesite map?[see also the PADI Underwater Navigator Manual]

Note to instructor: This is one technique. There are others youmay wish to recommend. Consider drawing a sample map toillustrate these steps for candidates.

1. Identify a central point, or place a buoy from whichto gather data, and determine the map boundaries.

2. Swim a large search pattern, such as a U-pattern,that covers the map area, away from the point. Youmay need to use several sets of patterns to cover thewhole area.

3. Count kick cycles and record depth and features asyou go, noting the pattern leg and distance whenyou find features.

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Mapping Dive SitesMapping Dive Sites

2323

■ Why?■ Why?

◆ Use during briefings◆ Use during briefings

812

18

◆ Provide navigation reference◆ Provide navigation reference

◆ Orient divers to site

◆ Orient divers to site

◆ Note changes to site over time

◆ Note changes to site over time

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Mapping ToolsMapping Tools■ How?■ How?

2424

◆ Tools✚ Compass, slate, markers and line,

graph paper, protractor and ruler

◆ Tools✚ Compass, slate, markers and line,

graph paper, protractor and ruler

◆ Steps✚ Define area✚ Use appropriate search pattern✚ Record depth and features✚ Plot data on graph paper

◆ Steps✚ Define area✚ Use appropriate search pattern✚ Record depth and features✚ Plot data on graph paper


4. On each leg, record the kick cycle where you hitspecified depths to show contour (e.g., 3 metre/10foot increments).

5. Draw the pattern on graph paper in pencil. Useprotractor to keep heading angles accurate, rulerand graph lines to maintain scale. Include depthsand features noted on the pattern.

6. Connect same depths with lines to show contour,and fill in headings and distance from shore refer-ence to points of interest.

7. Fill in shore line, facilities and topside features.8. To finish map, use ink on parts of map you wish to

keep and erase the pencil portions. Or, use bluepencil and blue graph paper to draw map, thenblack ink for final version and photocopy throughblue gelatin.

D. [Mapping Project – If you have not given mappingproject assignments, you may want to do so now. Ifnecessary, review search pattern procedures and havecandidates practice a U-pattern in open water prior tobeginning the Mapping Project.]

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Part 1

Questions? Supervising Diving Activities

for Certified Divers

Part 1

Questions? Supervising Diving Activities

for Certified Divers

2525


Topic 2Presentation - Part 2

Overview and Learning ObjectivesVI. Dive Briefings

19. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?

20. What predive suggestions can you give to helpdivers interact responsibly with the environmentand aquatic life?

VII. Problem Management and Judgment

21. How do you prepare to handle problems that mayoccur at a dive site?

22. What are the general steps for handling a noveldive problem?

23. When does dive supervision and problem manage-ment call for your judgment, and how do youdevelop good judgment?

VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management

24. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster inthe event of a dive accident?

IX. Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

25. What general equipment, concerns and proceduresapply when supervising each of the followingactivities:

• deep diving?

• boat diving?

• altitude diving?

• drift diving?

• shore/surf diving?

• night diving?

• cold water diving?

• enriched air and technical diving?

OutlineVI. Dive Briefings

[Begin this section by giving a typical dive briefing foryour local area. As you cover the following topics, refer tothe relevant components in your example.]

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Overview — Part 2Overview — Part 2

2626

■ Dive Briefings■ Dive Briefings

■ Problem Management and Judgment

■ Problem Management and Judgment

■ Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management

■ Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management

■ Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

■ Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

DM 2 - DM 2 -

Dive Briefings

Enhance diver safety and increase fun

Dive Briefings

Enhance diver safety and increase fun

2727


A. A dive briefing has two main goals: to enhance diversafety, and to make the dive fun.

B. Treat the briefing as an overview of your thinkingwhen you planned the dive.1. This gives credibility to your recommendations.2. It cues divers to adapt if conditions change.3. It provides a basis for alternative recommendations

when necessary.C. On a dive boat, boat-specific information (rules, off-

limit areas, personal flotation devices, etc.) isn’t techni-cally part of the dive briefing, but may be combinedwith the briefing.

D. What 10 points does a dive briefing usuallyinclude?(Order may vary and you may need to include addi-tional information depending upon the circumstances)1. Dive site name2. Site description: topography, points of interest, haz-

ards to avoid, water conditions, depth range, facili-ties (a map helps, when available), where to locateemergency equipment, etc.

3. Your role (topside supervisor, guide, etc.) May wantto tell divers how to recognize you (e.g., you alwayswear a ball cap or bright colored fins.)

4. Entry and exit techniques5. Dive procedures – suggested course to follow, prob-

lem avoidance in local conditions, safety stops, airreserves, group control, etc.

6. Emergency proceduresa. Discuss protocols, and review problems unique to

dive site and those most likely to occur in theconditions.

b. Buddy separationc. Low-on-air/out-of-air proceduresd. If appropriate for local practices, diver recall

procedures.7. Signal review – review signals that you’ll use with

the group (surface or underwater). It may be appro-priate to remind buddy teams to review their ownsignals.

8. Roster/buddy check – you can do this apart from thebriefing, but you may find it convenient to do thiswhile everyone’s together. Check that you have

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Ten briefing points...Ten briefing points...

6 – Emergency procedures 6 – Emergency procedures

2929Dive BriefingsDive Briefings

7 – Signal review 7 – Signal review

8 – Roster/Buddy check 8 – Roster/Buddy check

9 – Environmental awareness 9 – Environmental awareness

10 – Predive safety check10 – Predive safety check

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What ten points does a briefing usually include?What ten points does a briefing usually include?


1 – Site name1 – Site name

2 – Site description2 – Site description

3 – Divemaster’s role3 – Divemaster’s role

4 – Entry and exit techniques4 – Entry and exit techniques

5 – Dive procedures/group control5 – Dive procedures/group control


everyone on the dive roster and everyone has a buddy.Identify those without buddies so they can choose buddyteams among themselves.

9. What predive suggestions can you give to helpdivers interact responsibly with the environmentand aquatic life?Environmental interaction suggestions:a. Identify organisms divers need to respect and be

cautious about.b. Tell divers how to avoid damage to sensitive organ-

isms (e.g., maintain buoyancy control, stay well offreef, avoid touching, etc.); suggest techniques in apositive context and remind divers to be AWAREdivers.

c. If divers will be hunting, require any necessary li-censes and ask divers to take only what they will eat.

d. Discourage feeding by destroying organisms to do so(e.g., cutting up urchins to feed fish)

e. Leave the environment as you find it (e.g., don’t turnover rocks, don’t leave anything behind, etc.)

10. Predive safety check – remind divers of their responsibil-ity to perform a predive safety check (BWRAF).a. As divers suit up to enter water, it’s customary to

confirm that they have ample air for the dive.b. Although it is neither practical nor necessary to indi-

vidually assess certified divers, who are responsible fortheir own safely, being alert for the following mayhelp the diver who makes an error with equipmentsetup:1. Low pressure inflator that isn’t connected or diver

has insufficient air to float in BCD (if floating isappropriate to entry technique).

2. Weight that looks excessive or insufficient.3. Disconnected releases or the weight system not

clear for release.4. Equipment not in correct place.

E. Make the briefing fun, interesting and relate each topic totheir needs, experience level and interests (not to yours).1. Divers pay attention, respond and remember better

when its fun.2. Divers are there to have fun – this is an important part

of customer service.F. It’s a good idea to remind divers that your briefing doesn’t

replace their own dive planning – they should plan their

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Make briefings positive, interesting and short!

Make briefings positive, interesting and short!


Remind divers to plan their own dives

Remind divers to plan their own dives


individual dives with the information and within thelimits you provide, and following responsible divingpractices.

G. Things to avoid in briefings include:1. Being negative in a way that takes the fun out of the

dive.2. Overstressing hazards – give realistic appraisals of

possible hazards.3. Being long, redundant and boring. They’re called

“briefings” because they’re supposed to be brief.4. Ignoring people’s comfort. Be sensitive to those who

may not feel well on a rocking boat Give briefingbefore divers climb into hot exposure suits.

Note to instructor: Remind candidates that they will apply whatthey’re learning here by giving briefings during the PracticalTraining Exercises. Suggest that they review their notes and thePADI Divemaster Manual prior to sessions in which they willpractice giving briefings.

VII. Problem Management and JudgmentA. As a divemaster, you’ll be looked upon as a problem

solver. Problems at a dive site can range from inconve-niences to emergencies, but you can group them intotwo categories – “routine” and those you’ve neverencountered.2. Routine problems are those for which you already

have a solution, (e.g., a diver breaks a mask strapand you have spares.)a. Through experience, you already know how to

handle many routine problems.b. Assuming you have the resources, you usually

handle routine problems easily.3. Those you’ve never encountered are called “novel”

problems, (e.g., the boat arrives at the dive site andfor the first time ever, the mooring buoy is missing).a. You’ll need to determine how to handle these on

the spot.b. Proper preparation, specific dive skills and follow-

ing the steps for problem solving increase yourability to successfully manage novel problems.

c. After handling a novel problem, it becomes part

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Problem Management and

Judgment

Routine vs. Novel

Problem Management and

Judgment

Routine vs. Novel3131


of your experience; the next time it arises, youalready know the solution – this is why experi-ence as a diver is important to being a profes-sional.

B. How do you prepare to handle problems thatmay occur at a dive site?1. Have a strong knowledge base of dive theory – good

problem solvers have a lot of knowledge resources todraw upon. (More about this in Topic 4 – DiveTheory Introduction)

2. Have the physical resources to handle problems,such as spare equipment, tools, first aid kit, oxygen,etc., that you’ve learned about in this and previousPADI courses, and through experience

3. Continue your education regularly (PADI Specialtycourses, Assistant Instructor course, equipmentrepair, seamanship, etc.)a. Continuing education provides exercise for the

brain – improves your thinking skills and prob-lem solving ability. It gives you more knowledgeand skills that you can apply to solve a problem.It also provides experience opportunities so youencounter fewer novel problems.

C. Problem solving is a skill. You normally solve problemswithout thinking consciously about the process, muchof which is intuitive. But, to improve, pay attention tothe steps. Improving each step increases problemsolving skill. With experience, you go through thesesteps quickly and automatically.

D. What are the general steps for handling anovel dive problem?:1. Identify the problem precisely. The more specific the

problem, the more specifically you can apply asolution.

2. Inventory your resources. Think about what re-sources you can apply to the problem, includingtools, hardware, your skills and knowledge andthose of other people who may help.

3. Create several possible solutions. Try to make theseas different as possible.

4. Choose the best. Pick the most feasible and likely tosucceed and devote your energy to that solution.

5. Assess and revise. As you handle the problem, assessyour progress and adjust the solution as you go,

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How do you prepare to handle problems at a dive site?

How do you prepare to handle problems at a dive site?

3232Problem ManagementProblem Management

■ Develop strong knowledge base

■ Develop strong knowledge base

■ Have equipment and tools

■ Have equipment and tools

■ Continue your education

■ Continue your education

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What are the steps for handling a novel problem?What are the steps for handling a novel problem?

3333Problem ManagementProblem Management

■ Identify the problem precisely■ Identify the problem precisely

■ Inventory resources■ Inventory resources

■ Create several possible solutions■ Create several possible solutions

■ Choose a solution■ Choose a solution

■ Assess and revise as necessary■ Assess and revise as necessary


building on the ideas and experience you gain byapplying the solution.

E. When does dive supervision and problem man-agement call for your judgment, and how doyou develop good judgment?1. Dive supervision and problem management call for

your judgment when you have incomplete informa-tion, or when the information doesn’t direct a cleardecision.

2. You apply your judgment to many elements of diversupervision, such as:a. Evaluating whether dive conditions are accept-

able.b. Choosing which dive techniques to recommend.c. Picking a vantage point for supervising dive

activities.d. Choosing the best of several possible solutions to

problems.3. To develop good judgment:

a. Gain experience with more experienced profes-sionals who can explain their judgments to you(in this course, instructors and staff members).

b. When in doubt or making decisions that youhave less experience with, decide to the conserva-tive. Being unnecessarily cautious is generallybetter than being insufficiently cautious.

c. Be cautious to avoid letting emotions or desiresinappropriately influence your judgment. Forexample, you wouldn’t want to continue a dive inpoor conditions just because you don’t want thedivers to be disappointed.

d. As with problem solving, dive experience andcontinuing your education provide you withknowledge that help you make good judgments.

Note to instructor: Tell candidates that they’ll work on develop-ing good judgment as part of the Practical Application sessions.

VIII. Divemaster’s Role in Accident Management[Refer candidates to the PADI Rescue Diver Manual –Chapter 3 and the dive management section of theRescue Diver Video as a review for this subject.]

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JudgmentJudgment■ When do you apply judgment?■ When do you apply judgment?

3434

■ How do you develop good judgment?

■ How do you develop good judgment?

◆ Gain experience◆ Gain experience

◆ Be conservative◆ Be conservative

◆ Avoid emotional influences◆ Avoid emotional influences

◆ Continually learn◆ Continually learn


A. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster inthe event of a dive accident?1. If you’re the most qualified person present, you will

probably manage the accident. As a PADI Divemaster,this would be the expected situation when supervisingcertified divers. In these situations, you’ll want to have aplan ready (Emergency Assistance Plan) to deal withemergencies.

2. If a more qualified person is present, you will probablyassist under that person’s management. This would bethe expected situation when assisting an instructor withstudent divers.

B. Emergency Management Steps1. Assess the situation — as with any problem, the strategy

is to first consider resources and possible plans of action,then choose the plan most likely to be successful.

2. Act on your plan — take control of the situation andstart the action.

3. Delegate — assign tasks to suitably qualified individuals.Handle tasks yourself if no one qualified is available.Even untrained people can help under your direction,such as contacting emergency medical care– but don’task people to do things for which they’re not trained orqualified if doing so might put them in a hazardoussituation.

4. Provide basic life support (BLS) and first aid as necessaryfor the patient. Use barriers to protect yourself and thepatient.

5. Control the scene — keep bystanders under control andmake sure that first aid and BLS continue until emer-gency care arrives. Do not speculate or draw conclusionsabout what caused the accident or assign blame.

6. Evacuate the patient — in a serious emergency, you needto get the patient to the closest appropriate medicalfacility. If not done already, contact the local EMS, andDAN or DES if the area is served by either. Ideally, referto your Emergency Assistance Plan for the area for thelocal emergency contact information.

C. Emergency Oxygen1. Emergency oxygen is the primary first aid for decom-

pression illness (DCI) and near drowning.2. When supervising divers, if permitted by local law, be

sure that emergency oxygen is available. Be familiar

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Accident Management

Accident Management

3535

Divemaster Roles: Manage or AssistDivemaster Roles: Manage or Assist

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Emergency Management Emergency Management

3636

■ Assess the situation■ Assess the situation

Accident ManagementAccident Management

■ Act on your plan■ Act on your plan

■ Delegate■ Delegate

■ Provide basic life support/first aid■ Provide basic life support/first aid

■ Control the scene■ Control the scene

■ Evacuate the patient■ Evacuate the patientBe familiar with emergency oxygen protocolsBe familiar with emergency oxygen protocols


with emergency oxygen protocols and stay currentin emergency oxygen recommendations.

Note to instructor: This section is primarily a review of prin-ciples candidates will already know from prerequisite trainingand experience. Emphasize that now candidates need to thinkabout specialized dive activities in a supervisory context. Refercandidates to the PADI Adventures in Diving, Rescue Diver, DeepDiver, Night Diver, Altitude Diver, Boat Diver, Drift Diver, IceDiver and Enriched Air Diver specialty instructor guides, manu-als and videos.

IX.Supervising Specialized Dive ActivitiesA. What general equipment, concerns and proce-

dures apply when supervising specialized diveactivities?1. The following discussion covers the equipment,

concerns and procedures distinct to various special-ized activities that you should consider along withgeneral supervisory considerations.

2. You can learn more and gain experience by com-pleting the appropriate specialty course.

B. Deep diving activities – generally defined in recre-ational diving as dives between 18 metres/60 feet and40 metres/130 feet.1. Equipment – for deep diving you and the divers you

supervise need to consider:a. Regulator – in good condition, properly main-

tained according to manufacturer recommenda-tions.

b. Cylinder – adequate for the planned dive andsafety stop with an adequate reserve.

c. Exposure suit – adequate for the cooler water atdepth; wet suits compress with depth and insulateless.

d. Emergency air source – it’s common to have aspare tank and regulator or regulator on a hosefrom the surface to assure ample air for safetystops or emergency decompression stops.

e. Dive computers and tables – divers usually wantto carry dive tables so they can recalculate timesif they accidentally exceed planned time or depth,or if using a computer, in case the computer fails.

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Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

Supervising Specialized Dive Activities

3737

■ Deep diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Deep diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Boat diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Boat diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures


f. Ascent/descent line – if there’s no contour tofollow, it’s usually easier and more reassuring tofollow a line down and back up; this may be aweighted line from the stern, or the anchor/moor-ing line may suffice.

g. Gauges – if not using a computer, it’s best foreach diver to have a timer and depth gauge.

h. Divers using enriched air – this may help themstay well within no stop limits for dives between18 metres/60 feet and 30 metres/100 feet (moreabout this consideration later).

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – remind divers to

make deep dives within the limits of their train-ing or experience, and to increase their experi-ence under appropriate supervision.

b. Dive site selection1. Currents can be a problem in deep water sites

and need to be planned for.2. Dives along walls/slopes have the concern of

accidentally descending below the planneddepth or recreational depth limits.

3. Temperature at depth may be cooler than atthe surface.

c. Decompression sickness1. Deep diving frequently takes divers closer to

the no decompression limits.2. Post dive activities – exercise, alcohol con-

sumption may predispose divers to DCS.d. Nitrogen narcosis – may affect diver judgment.

3. Proceduresa. Choosing a vantage point – inwater supervision

may be a good choice (dive site and diver experi-ence determining factors).1. Easier to help divers stay above maximum

depth, especially along walls.2. You’re present if narcosis becomes a factor.3. You can remind divers to check their air more

frequently.b. Contingency planning – during briefing, it’s a

good idea to present contingency plans if diversaccidentally exceed planned depth and time toassist them with their personal plans.


c. Encourage divers who have questions about diveplanning or who are rusty with table use to askfor your assistance and recommendations.

d. Remind and encourage divers to practice behav-iors that reduce DCI risk:1. Safety stops2. Remain hydrated, avoid alcohol and caffeine.3. Avoid strenuous exercise before and immedi-

ately after a dive.4. Avoid sawtooth profiles. Make each dive pro-

gressively shallower and start at the deepestpoint and work shallower.

5. Avoid rapid ascents.6. Watch air supply closely to avoid emergency

ascent situations.e. Provide ascent/descent line and emergency

breathing equipment at 5 metres/15 feet if practi-cal and appropriate.

C. Boat diving activities1. Equipment

a. The boat itself – style affects diving techniquesand conditions in which it may operate and thenumber of divers it may carry.

b. Lines – those used by divers (swim lines, traillines, gear lines, safety stop/descent line etc.) andthose used by the boat (mooring line, dock lines,etc.).

c. Boat safety equipment – personal flotation de-vices, fire extinguishers, signal devices (horns,lights, flares) and radio

d. dive safety equipment – dive flags, emergencyoxygen, first aid, life ring, etc., as appropriate forlocal diving practices and procedures.

2. Concernsa. diver familiarity – some divers may have no boat

experience, or may not be familiar with localboat diving procedures.

b. space – usually at a premium on a dive boat anddictates equipment setup and stowage procedures.

c. entries and exits – boat configuration (deckheight, presence or absence of ladder/swim step,etc.) will affect preferred entry and exit methodsand locations.


d. seasickness – advise divers prone to seasickness tostay on deck in the center of the boat and out ofboat’s exhaust, to avoid greasy food, and to takeseasickness medication prior to departure accord-ing to instructions/doctor recommendations. Ifseasick, vomit over leeward rail (wind headedaway from boat)

Note to candidates: If your function involves the diving activitiesand you’re not part of the boat’s staff, you’re not usually consid-ered part of the boat crew. If you’re employed by the dive boatand are expected to assist with boat operation, you’re usuallyconsidered crew as well as a divemaster. Since this is a commondivemaster employment opportunity, training in boat handlingand seamanship is an excellent additional skill for a divemaster.

3. Proceduresa. Welcome divers aboard. Have them sign in on

roster and list certification information, signliability release, and stow/secure equipmentbefore the boat departs. Reconfirm all aboard bycalling roll from roster before departure.

b. Orient divers to boat facilities and rules (e.g., off-limits areas, where to put cameras, time to divedestination, where to locate safety equipment.)Crew may do this if you’re not part of the boatstaff.

c. Equipment setup – may be before boat departs orunderway, depending on boat size and time todive site. Remind divers to work in and out ofgear bags to reduce deck clutter.

d. Anchoring/mooring – captain determines whenboat is secure. You may determine whether condi-tions are suitable for diving.

e. Briefing – include boat specific techniques forentries, exits, use of swim lines/current lines,surface signals to boat, emergency/recall proce-dures, what to do if seasick, etc.

f. Entry – suggest that divers avoid walking aroundwith fins on

g. Post dive – may need to remind divers exit proce-dures (e.g., don’t wait under someone climbingladder, etc.), keep deck clear of equipment, callroll and make sure that you actually see eachdiver.


h. Before boat leaves the site – assure equipmentstowed properly, conduct final visual roll call.

D. Altitude diving activities – dives above 300 metres/1000 feet to maximum 3000 metres/10,000 feet ofaltitude.1. Equipment

a. Exposure suit – altitude diving is usually coolerwater diving.

b. Depth gauge/computer – older depth gauges/computers designed for sea level may not read/compute properly at altitude.

c. Theoretical Depth at Altitude tables – used toconvert depths at altitude to a depth that may beused on the RDP. You find these tables in Adven-tures in Diving. (Capillary depth gauges readtheoretical depth at altitude and do not needfurther conversion.)

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – divers may not

be familiar with altitude diving procedures, ormay not be aware a site is at altitude.

b. Arrival at altitude – diver must wait six hours ordetermine a pressure group before diving if usingRDP. Many computers account for arrival ataltitude – check manufacturer instructions.

c. Thin air – divers may tire more easily duringentries, exits and surface swims.

3. Proceduresa. Confirm diver familiarity with altitude proce-

dures. For those not familiar, assist in dive tableplanning/computer use to accommodate altitudeconsiderations – advise divers that your supervi-sion isn’t a training course.

b. Confirm use of suitable tables, computers, expo-sure suits, etc.

c. To reduce likelihood of exhaustion at altitude,recommend a dive plan that minimizes strenuousactivity at the surface.

E. Drift diving activities – diving in which divers driftwith the current and exit downstream1. Equipment

a. Surface float, descent line, reel or caddie (if used –depends on technique)

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Altitude diving

◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Altitude diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

3838

■ Drift diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Drift diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures


b. Surface signal devices (inflatable signal tubes,mirrors, etc.) recommended for each diver.

2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – divers may not

be familiar with drift diving procedures, or thespecific procedures used at the dive site.

b. Depth – drift dives are often deep dives.c. Group contact – drift diving is often a single

group dive. It’s important for the group to staytogether and know what to do if separated.

d. Change of current direction – can disrupt coordi-nation with boat.

3. Proceduresa. Briefings – brief group on procedures that will be

used on the dive and include what to do if sepa-rated from group, unable to descend, etc.

b. Vantage point – consider inwater supervision andsupervision on the boat. Divemaster handlesfloat/line in the water (if used).

c. Entries and descents – usually made as a group,quickly with divemaster paying out line thatother divers keep contact with and follow todivemaster’s depth. Group then drifts along to-gether.

d. Ascents and exits – techniques vary; everyonesurfaces and makes safety stop along line whenfirst diver reaches low air or teams may surfaceindividually along line and get picked up byboat. In both cases, advise divers not to swimtoward boat – let boat come to them.

F. Surf diving activities – diving from shore throughwaves large enough to cause divers to lose their bal-ance.1. Equipment

a. Equipment loss – the stronger the surf, the morepotential for equipment loss or damage – a con-sideration for underwater photographers/videographers.

b. Regulator freeflowing – most models of regulatorsare prone to freeflowing if they get sand in them.

c. Equipment caused delays – entries and exitsthrough surf are made by moving quicklythrough surf zone – equipment that causes delayscan cause problems.

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Shore/surf diving


■ Shore/surf diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

3939

■ Night diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Night diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures


2. Concernsa. Diver training and experience – Divers may not

be familiar with surf diving procedures.b. Air reserve for exits – divers may accidentally run

low on air before exiting, leaving little to useduring exit through surf zone

c. Assessing conditions – need to watch wave pat-tern long enough to determine how high thelargest surf is and when it hits.

d. Large surf – experienced divers may be able toenter and exit effectively, but diving conditionsusually aren’t worth the effort.

3. Proceduresa. Briefing usually includes entry technique remind-

ers — don all equipment before entering surf(except fins, depending on entry technique),deflate BCD, breathe from regulator and moverapidly through surf zone, walk backwards withfins on, turn sideways, hold mask and leanagainst waves or duck through base of tall waves,tow float behind, as soon as possible either sub-merge and swim out on bottom, or inflate BCDand swim quickly past surf zone.

b. Briefing usually includes exit technique reminder—save enough air to breathe from regulatorduring exit, pause outside surf zone and observewaves to time exit, swim under waves as close aspossible to shore then exit quickly watchingwaves, and if you fall, it’s usually easier to staydown and crawl out.

c. Vantage point – elevated positioning makes iteasier to see over waves.

d. Supervisory personnel should have equipmentstanding by to enter water and assist if necessary.

G. Night diving activities1. Equipment

a. Dive lights – one dive light per diver, with twoeach recommended. Have spares at hand in casea diver forgets a light, or one doesn’t work.

b. Chemical light/personal marker light – one foreach diver recommended.

c. Surface lights – area lights for gearing up, markerlights to identify exit point. Avoid anything thatmight be confused with navigational markers.


d. Underwater markers – strobes or a suspended lightcan aid navigation in reasonably clear water.

e. Exposure protection – because it’s easier to bump intothings in the dark, full exposure protection is recom-mended even in warm water.

f. Descent/ascent line – may make controlled ascent/descents easier, especially if bottom isn’t visible fromthe surface.

2. Concernsa. Light failure – encourage divers to carry backup

lights.b. Disorientation – easier to lose your way in the dark.c. Diver familiarity – night diving isn’t difficult, but it

can be stressful to a diver who has never done it.d. Timing – some divers prefer to enter water with some

daylight so it gets dark during the dive while othersprefer a later dive to see nocturnal organisms. Itsometimes helps to plan the dive so everyone sets upgear during daylight.

3. Proceduresa. Supervision is generally effective from boat or shore

because you can see glow of dive lights a long way.b. Briefing usually includes these reminders – watch

depth, time, direction and air more frequently thanusual, maintain good buoyancy control to reduce silt,to avoid damage to the environment and avoid con-tact with potentially harmful organisms, plan to staycloser to exit to simplify navigation, be careful not toshine lights in eyes of supervisors/other divers duringentries and exits.

c. Emergency plans generally need to include assuringthat rescuers have lights/personal markers so they canbe tracked in the water.

H. Cold water diving activities1. Equipment

a. Exposure protection – full wet suit that double layerstorso area (6 or 7 mm/1/4 in) with hood and boots, ordry suits with undergarment rated for water tempera-ture and recommended hood. Gloves usually requiredin all cases.

b. Weight systems – cold water exposure suits require lotsof weight. Weight system needs to accommodateweight in a manner that allows dumping enoughquickly to attain positive buoyancy.

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Specialized Activities...Specialized Activities...■ Cold water diving


■ Cold water diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

4040

■ Enriched air and technical diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures

■ Enriched air and technical diving◆ Equipment◆ Concerns◆ Procedures


c. Pre/post dive wear – maintaining body heatbefore and after dive requires proper exposureprotection for air temperature.

2. Concernsa. Diver comfort – cold divers aren’t having fun.b. Hypothermia – divers who over-cool may suffer

hypothermia.c. Dry suit use – divers who have never used a dry

suit should seek an orientation or training whenusing one for the first time.

3. Proceduresa. Briefings usually remind divers to stay warm

before and after dives, and to end the dive if theybegin shivering uncontrollably.

b. If divers seem insufficiently protected, advisethem accordingly.

c. Divers need to be sure that weight systems areclear for release, and that they won’t releaseaccidentally and cause a runaway ascent.

d. Supervisory personnel who may have to enterwater in an emergency need to account for watertemperature and exposure protection in emer-gency planning.

e. Emergency planning will generally include howto handle a diver with hypothermia.

f. Plan dives and surface intervals to allow sufficientrewarming between dives.

g. It’s a good idea to remind divers to plan coldwater dives with a depth 4 metres/10 feet deeperthan actual on the RDP, or as instructed by theircomputer manufacturer.

I. Enriched air and technical diving[Refer candidates to the PADI Enriched Air Diver coursematerials, and the Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving ]1. For the purposes of this discussion, “enriched air

diving” is the use of enriched air for no stop recre-ational diving to depths of 40 metres/130 feet or less.“Technical diving” is noncommercial diving usingextensive equipment and procedures to make divesbeyond the no stop limits or deeper than 40 metres/130 feet.

2. Enriched Air Equipmenta. Dedicated cylinders – Enriched air cylinders are

usually assigned to a specific diver.


b. Manufacturers recommendation – many manu-facturers have specific recommendations for usingtheir equipment with enriched air with respect tothe need for oxygen cleaning.

c. Special tables/computers – tables designed forenriched air use and special enriched air comput-ers may be used.

3. Technical Diving Equipment – equipment is exten-sive and varies with the specific technical divingactivity. Commonly includes, but isn’t limited to:a. Double cylinders (may have helium blends or

enriched air)b. Stage bottles – single tanks worn on the side,

often for decompression purposesc. Specialized high capacity BCDsd. Three or more regulators per divere. Lift bags, lines, and reels

4. Concernsa. Separating equipment – keeping divers from

inadvertently using enriched air or other cylindersdedicated to technical divers. Enriched air diversalways personally verify the oxygen content ofthe cylinder they will use, so divers can’t grab justany tank available.

b. Separating activities – recreational divers need tounderstand that technical divers follow differentand more complex procedures and, therefore,have differing rules and limits. They should notattempt to follow technical divers on the dive.

c. Qualifications – enriched air divers are expectedto be certified before using enriched air. Technicaldivers may be certified in their particular activityor have other experience/qualification.

d. Beyond help – technical divers frequently takethemselves into situations in which there is nopractical way to respond (overhead environment,extreme depth) This is part of the risk they acceptas individuals.

5. Enriched Air Diving Proceduresa. Enriched air divers usually try to buddy together

to take advantage of longer no stop time.b. Enriched air divers may have shallower depth

limit depending on the blend they use.


c. May be useful to ask divers to be back by a spe-cific time that balances enriched air diver’s longerno stop time with consideration for other diverswaiting.

d. When diving in multiple groups, it’s common toget enriched air divers into water first so there’sless gap between when they return and whenother return.

e. Aside from depth and time limits, and equipmentconsiderations, other enriched air dive proceduresare the same as those for air recreational diving.

Note to candidates: No dive operation is under any obligation toaccept and supervise technical diving if it doesn’t wish to. Thispolicy should be clear to potential technical divers well in ad-vance of the dive. In addition, exceeding recreational divinglimits without using specific equipment and procedures tomanage the added risk is not considered technical diving; If youroperation caters to technical divers, the operation is not obli-gated to accept individuals who want to disregard both acceptedsafe diving practices and accepted technical diving practices.

5. Technical Diving Proceduresa. Technical divers may have depth and time limits

very different from recreational divers. It’s com-mon to ask technical divers when to expect tofind them at a certain point, such as decompress-ing.

b. While its not unusual to confirm a recreationaldiver’s tank valve is open, the general practice intechnical diving to not touch any equipmentunless asked by the diver.

c. Technical divers may have special support re-quests, such as having someone check on themduring decompression (within recreationaldepths) Both you and the divers need to agree onwhat will and won’t be possible in this regard.

d. If technical divers tell you they will be leavingstage bottles unattended within recreationallimits (common for wreck penetration), it’s a goodprecaution to remind recreational divers thatsuch equipment isn’t abandoned and should beleft alone.

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Questions?Questions?4141


Topic 3 – Assisting withStudent Divers in Training

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering This TopicThe PADI Divemaster Video and the Divemaster Manual cover much of thematerial in this topic. Preferably, have candidates watch the video, readChapter 3 and complete the Knowledge Review prior to this presentation.Your presentation is important in this topic because it includes discussionsthat will be the basis for assisting with student divers in training. This is along topic, so you may want to plan breaks in the presentation, or deliverthe presentation in two or more sessions.

You’ll introduce and refer to the PADI Instructor Manual in this presen-tation. Encourage candidates to have personal copies of the manual.


I. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship

1. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemastercompared to that of a PADI Instructor in an in-structional setting?

2. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfill asan instructional assistant in confined and openwater?

3. What is the primary characteristic that makes aPADI Divemaster an ideal instructional assistant?

4. What is a “mentor relationship” between theinstructor and you?

5. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemasterbenefits by having a personal copy of the PADIInstructor Manual?

II. The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship

6. What is your primary role in the relationshipbetween you and student divers in training?

III. PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities

7. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant bya “certified assistant”?

8. Under PADI Standards, what can a certified assis-tant do?

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Assisting with Students in Training


DM 3 - DM 3 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Instructor/Assistant Relationship■ The Instructor/Assistant Relationship

■ The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship

■ The Student Diver/Assistant Relationship

■ PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities

■ PADI Certified Assistant Responsibilities

■ Control, Supervision and Logistics■ Control, Supervision and Logistics

■ Demonstrating Skills■ Demonstrating Skills

■ Assisting Student Divers with Problems■ Assisting Student Divers with Problems


IV. Control, Supervision and Logistics

9. How does positioning affect your ability to assistwith student diver control?

10. What are two common examples of Open WaterDiver course student arrangement for skill practiceand assistant positionings, and what are theiradvantages and disadvantages with respect to yourrole?

11. What are five examples of logistical functions youcan perform to assist with diver training at thesurface, and what are five examples of logisticalfunctions you can perform to assist with divertraining underwater?

V. Demonstrating Skills

12. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate askill, and for what reasons?

13. What are the characteristics of a demonstrationquality skill?

14. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI Skill Evalu-ation?

15. How do you develop demonstration quality skills?

VI. Assisting Student Divers with Problems

16. What common problems may you encounter asstudent divers develop skills in confined and openwater?

17. What four steps can you take to help a studentdiver master a dive skill?

18. Where do you find skill performance requirementsstudent divers must master for PADI courses?

OutlineI. The Instructor/Assistant Relationship

A. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemastercompared to that of a PADI Instructor in aninstructional setting?1. PADI Divemasters are not authorized to teach scuba

courses. (You’ll learn about programs you can con-duct in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs.)

2. As a PADI Divemaster, you can enhance the effi-ciency of PADI Diver courses by assisting a PADIInstructor.

DM 3 - DM 3 -

What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster in an

instructional setting?

What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster in an

instructional setting?

33

Handling Logistics Assisting With Students

Handling Logistics Assisting With Students


3. In assisting with a course, you’re part of a team ledby the PADI Instructor. It’s your job to support theinstructor’s decisions and efforts.

4. In an instructional setting, your primary role, underthe instructor’s direction, is handling logistics andassisting with student diver supervision. Theinstructor’s primary role is to focus on teaching andindividual student diver learning.

B. What seven functions may a divemaster fulfillas an instructional assistant in confined andopen water?1. Supervise the predive equipment distribution to

student divers, postdive equipment collection, andhandling equipment difficulties.

2. Supervise student divers not being immediatelywatched by the instructor.

3. Handle logistics and coordinate student diver flowto keep things moving during training.

4. Conduct the tour for experience portion of dives.5. Provide the instructor with additional information

about student diver performance.6. Check divers in and out of the water at a training

site.7. Help student divers with learning difficulties on an

individual basis.C. [Ask candidates, based on the previous list, “What is

the primary characteristic that makes a PADIDivemaster an ideal instructional assistant?”Start a discussion that identifies characteristics andleads to the following conclusion:]

The primary characteristic that makes a PADI Dive-master an ideal instructional assistant is anticipatingand providing what is needed by the instructor to meetthe needs of student divers.

D. What is a “mentor relationship” between theinstructor and you?

1. Your relationship with me [the instructor] will be moreof a mentor relationship than simply a teacher-studentdiver relationship. This means I’m trying to guide orcoach you toward the ranks of PADI Assistant Instruc-tor and Instructor. This relationship extends beyondthis course and applies to any instructor you mayassist.

2. A mentor relationship benefits you by:

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What functions may a divemaster fulfill?What functions may a divemaster fulfill?

44

■ Supervise predive and postdive activities

■ Supervise predive and postdive activities

■ Watch students not under the instructor’s control

■ Watch students not under the instructor’s control

■ Handle logistics■ Handle logistics

■ Conduct tours■ Conduct tourscontinued...continued...

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Divemaster functions...Divemaster functions...■ Advise instructor about

student performance■ Advise instructor about

student performance

55

■ Check students in and out of the water

■ Check students in and out of the water

■ Assist students who are having difficulty

■ Assist students who are having difficulty

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What characteristic makes a divemaster an ideal

instructional assistant?

What characteristic makes a divemaster an ideal

instructional assistant?

66

Anticipate and ProvideAnticipate and Provide

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What is a mentor relationship?

What is a mentor relationship?

77


a. Giving you hands-on experience with studentdivers in training.

b. Helping you learn about decision making andjudgment by giving you access to the instructor’sexperience and thinking.

c. Letting you learn to handle the logistics and otherduties under an instructor’s ultimate responsibility– the same responsibilities you will have later asan instructor.

E. What are four reasons why a PADI Divemasterbenefits by having a personal copy of the PADIInstructor Manual?1. The manual gives you access to the standards the

instructors you assist follow. This makes you moreeffective as an assistant.

2. The manual gives you access to standards for pro-grams you can conduct independently as a PADIDivemaster (more about these in Topic 9). This givesyou additional opportunities beyond supervisingcertified divers and assisting with classes.

3. Becoming familiar with using the manual is a re-quired skill of a PADI Instructor. Starting now givesyou a head start on the process.

4. As a PADI Divemaster, you will receive the TrainingBulletin and other updates to the manual. This per-mits you to stay current and informed on trainingstandards.

II. The Student Diver/Assistant RelationshipA. What is your primary role in the relationship

between you and student divers in training?1. The relationship between you and student divers is

similar to, but not identical to, the relationshipbetween student divers and the instructor.

2. Your primary role in this relationship is as a rolemodel and as an intermediary between the studentdivers and the instructor. Fulfilling this role includes:a. Behaving as a role model consistent with PADI

Standards and the instructor. Student divers learnas much (or more) by what they see you do asfrom what they’re told to do. Make good divehabits conspicuous so they’re imitated and ide-ally, don’t have any bad ones.

b. Listening to concerns and problems. As a dive-

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Why should you have a PADI Instructor Manual?Why should you have a PADI Instructor Manual?

88

■ Access to PADI Standards■ Access to PADI Standards■ Access to guidelines for programs

you can conduct independently■ Access to guidelines for programs

you can conduct independently■ Preparation for becoming a

PADI Instructor■ Preparation for becoming a

PADI Instructor■ Staying current – incorporate

changes and announcements■ Staying current – incorporate

changes and announcements

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What is your relationship with students?What is your relationship with students?

99

■ Act as a role model■ Act as a role model

■ Listen to concerns and problems■ Listen to concerns and problems

■ Keep training enjoyable■ Keep training enjoyable

■ Help new divers dive as soon as possib le

■ Help new divers dive as soon as possib le


master, you’re closer to the student’s level andmay appear less threatening to talk to than theinstructor. You take these concerns to the instruc-tor, as appropriate.

c. Keeping training enjoyable. People learn to diveto have fun, so you need to help make the train-ing process fun. [Ask candidates to suggest waysto keep training fun while adhering to the needsof safety and training requirements.]

d. Doing all you can to get new divers diving assoon as possible. Diver education is increasinglyemphasizing diving as soon as possible. Indepen-dent study helps minimize formal class sessionsand increases interaction with instructional anddive operation staff to fulfill personal needs.

B. Part of the performance criteria for the Practical Appli-cation Internship or Practical Training Exercises 2 and3 include fulfilling your relationship with the instruc-tor, and with the student divers.

III. PADI Certified Assistant ResponsibilitiesA. With respect to PADI programs, what is meant

by a “certified assistant”?1. Under PADI Standards, a certified assistant is a

renewed PADI Instructor, PADI Assistant Instructoror PADI Divemaster. Individuals in nonrenewedstatus, who are inactive, or who are suspended,expelled or on administrative hold cannot functionas PADI certified assistants.

2. Instructors, assistants or divemasters from othertraining organizations do not qualify as certifiedassistants.

3. PADI Divemaster candidates do not qualify as certi-fied assistants. [Explain to candidates who will par-ticipate in the Practical Application Internship thatthey will work with actual student divers. However,apart from the candidates, there will be fully quali-fied instructors or certified assistants present asrequired by standards to supervise the studentdivers.]

B. Under PADI Standards, what can a certifiedassistant do?1. As a renewed PADI Divemaster, you will be qualified

to act as a certified assistant. Under PADI Standards,certified assistants may be used to increase the num-

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What is a certified assistant?What is a certified assistant?

1010

A renewed PADI Instructor, PADI Assistant Instructor

or PADI Divemaster

A renewed PADI Instructor, PADI Assistant Instructor

or PADI Divemaster


ber of student divers and perform specific functions,as noted by each course’s standards.

2. [Review the duties of a certified, renewed PADI Dive-master in Section 1 of this guide.]

IV. Control and Supervision, and LogisticsA. Compared with supervising certified divers in general

diving activities, you can usually apply more directcontrol when supervising student divers in training.1. Usually, the instructor is responsible for maintaining

control. You are one of the resources the instructoruses to do so.

2. In many training situations, your role is to maintaincontrol and respond to problems for the bulk ofstudent divers while the instructor works with asingle student.

3. Through practice and experience, you learn tech-niques that let you supervise the group, while per-mitting the instructor to direct the overall activities.

B. How does positioning affect your ability toassist with student diver control?1. Positioning affects how close you are to student

divers and your ability to see them.2. Good positioning:

a. Where you can see the entire group, and theinstructor.

b. Where you can quickly respond to a student diverwho has problems.

c. Where you can direct student diver movement toand from the instructor (if required).

d. Where student divers can alert you easily if theyneed your assistance.

C. What are two common examples of Open WaterDiver course student arrangement for skillpractice and assistant positionings, and whatare their advantages and disadvantages withrespect to your role?1. Example 1 — student divers form semicircle or line

with instructor centered in front; you supervise frombehind – directly opposite instructor. Typically,instructor moves from student to student to conductexercises.a. Advantage – you can see entire group and in-

structor, and you’re close to all student divers.

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Control and SupervisionControl and Supervision

1111

CA = Certified AssistantS = Student DiverI = Instructor

CA = Certified AssistantS = Student DiverI = Instructor

— Good Positioning— Good Positioning

Example #1Example #1

CACASS SSSS

SSSS

IIExample #2Example #2

CACASS SSSS SSSS

II


b. Disadvantage – student divers can’t see you andwill need to turn around to get your attention.

2. Example 2 — student divers in a line with instructorat one end, you at the other. Each student completesexercise and swims to you. You put student at end ofline and line moves down until all student diverscomplete exercise.

a. Advantage – you can see entire group andinstructor, and they can see you.

b. Disadvantages – you are at one end, puttingyou far from student divers at other end(though instructor is there). Student diversmore likely to kick up silt, affecting visibility.

3. There are variations on these arrangements. Theinstructor will tell you which system to use.

4. Whatever your position, maintain communicationwith the instructor to reduce any delays the instruc-tor may have in giving you directions.

D. What are five examples of logistical functionsyou can perform to assist with diver training atthe surface, and what are five examples oflogistical functions you can perform to assistwith diver training underwater?1. Surface logistical functions:

a. Coordinate student divers – at training site, showstudents where to go and what to do (set upequipment, change into swimsuit, etc.). Directstudent flow during multiple level training.

b. Enforce safety or facility rules – remind studentsnot to run in pool area, not to practice scubaskills before the instructor covers them, etc.

c. Equipment – assist with loading and unloading ofvehicles, picking equipment up from a remotesite, handling air fills between dives, etc.

d. Student diver preparation – assist with studentsgearing up and performing initial equipmentchecks.

e. Escort student divers in and out of the water or toand from the boat or shore to the float.

f. Handle paperwork – assist by separating groups,recording scores, etc. under instructor’s direction.

3. Underwater logistical functionsa. Lead or follow – either lead the group with the

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Logistical FunctionsLogistical Functions■ What logistical functions can you

perform at the surface?■ What logistical functions can you

perform at the surface?

1212

◆ Coordinate students◆ Coordinate students

◆ Enforce safety rules◆ Enforce safety rules

◆ Assist with equipment◆ Assist with equipment

◆ Help students prepare◆ Help students prepare

◆ Escor t students in/out of the water◆ Escor t students in/out of the water

◆ Handle paperwork◆ Handle paperwork

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What logistical functions can you perform underwater?

What logistical functions can you perform underwater?

1313

■ Lead or follow the class■ Lead or follow the class■ Escor t students■ Escor t students■ Check air supplies■ Check air supplies■ Supervise students while the

instructor works with one student■ Supervise students while the

instructor works with one student■ Assist with navigation■ Assist with navigation


instructor taking up the rear, or take up the rearwhen the instructor leads.

b. Escort – for training of certified divers in manyactivities (specialties), the instructor doesn’t needto be with student divers. You can escort studentdivers.

c. Air checks – reminding students at regular inter-vals to check air. Tell instructor how much theyhave.

d. Standby supervisor – staying with student divers ifone separates, such as when the instructor has toassist someone with unequalized ears and rest ofclass continues descending.

e. Navigation – helping keep track of course tofollow back to exit.

V. Demonstrating SkillsA. When would a PADI Divemaster demonstrate a

skill, and for what reasons?1. Particularly in the PADI Open Water Diver course,

the instructor demonstrates skills for student divers.However, there are times and reasons when you willdemonstrate.a. To assist with a two-person demonstration – skills

such as alternate air source use require a twopeople.

b. When helping a student diver with a problemlearning a skill – the student diver would havealready seen the instructor’s demonstration, butyou may demonstrate additional times to helpthe student (more about helping student diversshortly).

c. To maintain instructor control – instructor mayprefer at times to keep an eye on student diverswhile you demonstrate. The instructor must beconfident that you have demonstration qualityskills to accomplish this.

B. What are the characteristics of a demonstra-tion quality skill?1. To someone unfamiliar with a skill, a skill is actu-

ally a series of key subskills or steps performed insequence. The steps are called critical attributes be-cause without them, the student diver will not beable to perform the skill correctly.

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Demonstrating SkillsDemonstrating Skills■ When would a divemaster

demonstrate skills?■ When would a divemaster

demonstrate skills?

1414

■ What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?

■ What are the characteristics of a demonstration quality skill?◆ Slow◆ Slow◆ Emphasiz es critical attributes◆ Emphasiz es critical attributes◆ Shows sequence◆ Shows sequence◆ Easil y seen◆ Easil y seen◆ Fluid, mastered and automatic◆ Fluid, mastered and automatic


2. A demonstration quality skill performance is conduct-ing a skill in a manner that allows student divers tolearn how to perform the skill themselves. It has thesecharacteristics:a. Slow – You perform it slowly so that student divers

can see the details of the skill.b. Critical attribute emphasis – You emphasize criti-

cal attributes, especially those that may be easy tomiss by someone who has never performed theskill.

c. Sequence emphasis – You emphasize critical at-tribute sequence when it is important to the skill.

d. Adequately seen – You perform it so all studentdivers can see it adequately, repeating if necessaryto show more than one angle, or so all studentdivers in a group can see it.

e. Mastered and automatic – You not only performthe skill correctly, but fluidly with little or no con-scious attention to the steps. The skill is automatic.

D. What are the 20 basic skills of the PADI SkillEvaluation? 1. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation,

donning and disassembly 2. Predive safety check (BWRAF) 3. Deep water entry 4. Buoyancy check at surface 5. Five point descent 6. Remove and replace weight system 7. Fin pivot (neutral buoyancy) 8. Five point ascent 9. Snorkel-regulator/regulator snorkel exchange10. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater11. Hovering (15 seconds in midwater)12. Buddy breathing stationary, donor and receiver13. Buddy breathing while swimming, donor14. Mask removal, replacement and clearing15. Buddy breathing while swimming, receiver16. Alternate Air Source (AAS) stationary.17. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent (CESA)18. Free flow regulator breathing19. Underwater swim without a mask20. Air depletion exercise

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What 18 skills are part of the PADI Skill Evaluation?

What 18 skills are part of the PADI Skill Evaluation?

1515

Fin Piv o tFin Piv o t

Five Point DescentFive Point Descent

Buoyancy CheckBuoyancy Check

Predive Safety CheckPredive Safety Check

Equipment PreparationEquipment Preparation

Snorkel-Regulator Exc hangeSnorkel-Regulator Exc hange

Five Point AscentFive Point Ascent

Remove/Replace WeightsRemove/Replace Weights

Deep Water EntryDeep Water Entry

Free Flow Regulator BreathingFree Flow Regulator Breathing

Controlled Emergency Swimming AscentControlled Emergency Swimming Ascent

Alternate Air Source UseAlternate Air Source Use

Mask Remo val/ReplacementMask Removal/Replacement

Buddy Breathing (swimming)donor and receiverBuddy Breathing (swimming)donor and receiver

Buddy Breathing (stationary )Buddy Breathing (stationary )HoverHoverRemove/Replace ScubaRemove/Replace Scuba


E. How do you develop demonstration qualityskills?1. Watch demonstrations of the skills (instructor, PADI

Open Water Diver Video or Multimedia, etc.) and notethe critical attributes. The Skill Evaluation Slateand Divemaster slate lists all 20 of the skills forreference in confined water.

2. Consult the PADI Instructor Manual for the perfor-mance requirements of each skill. [Explain to candi-dates that demonstrations don’t always have tomeet all performance requirements. For example,student divers perform freeflow regulator breathingfor 30 seconds, but you can demonstrate the skill fora shorter period.]

3. Practicea. Only way to master a motor skills is through

repeated practice with knowledge of results (howwell you perform the skill).

b. If you can’t assess your performance (was it slowenough, etc.), practice with someone who can tellyou how you’re doing.

c. Practice until each skill is fluid and automatic.

VI. Assisting Student Divers with ProblemsA. Helping student divers with problems is an important

role of a training assistant.1. You may need to assist student divers with problems

when they occur, especially if the instructor is work-ing with another student diver.

2. You may work with student divers who need addi-tional time to master a skill while instructor contin-ues with the rest of the class.

B. What common problems may you encounter asstudent divers develop skills in confined andopen water?1. Most student diver problems are predictable, so with

training and experience you’ll know appropriateresponses in advance.

2. [Discuss potential student problems with the follow-ing skills. Encourage candidates to mention prob-lems they’ve seen during their diving experiencesand refer them to the list in the PADI DivemasterManual.]• Equipment assembly/suiting up

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Assisting Students with ProblemsAssisting Students with Problems■ What common problems do

students encounter?■ What common problems do

students encounter?

1717

■ How can you help students master skills?

■ How can you help students master skills?◆ Evaluate critical attributes◆ Evaluate critical attributes

◆ Redemonstrate skill◆ Redemonstrate skill

◆ Take it slow to assure early success◆ Take it slow to assure early success

DM 3 - DM 3 -

How do you develop demonstration quality skills?How do you develop demonstration quality skills?

1616

■ Observe■ Observe

■ Consult■ Consult

■ Practice■ Practice


• Donning scuba/weights• BCD inflation/deflation• Regulator recover and clear• Mask clearing• Fin use• Equalization• Ascents/descents• Controlled seat entry• Snorkel clearing blast method• Snorkel/regulator exchange• No mask breathing• Deep water exit• Giant stride entry• No mask swim• Fin pivot• Alternate air source use• Freeflow regulator breathing• Controlled emergency swimming ascent• Head first skin dive• Snorkel clear – displacement method• Hovering• Buddy breathing• Weight system remove/replace• Scuba unit removal and replacement• Underwater tour• Compass use

C. What three steps can you take to help a studentdiver master a dive skill?1. Helping student divers who have difficulty with a

skill requires patience, but it also gives you experi-ence for when you become an instructor.

2. At the Open Water Diver level, student divers alwaysbegin by seeing the instructor’s demonstration andpracticing with the instructor.

3. To assist the student diver with difficulty, follow thesethree steps:a. Look for missing or improperly performed critical

attributes while having the student attempt theskill.1. If the student’s actions create a safety concern

(such as a rapid ascent), tell the student diver


to stop, or stop the student’s action yourselfimmediately.

b. Redemonstrate the skill, pointing out the missedattribute(s). Repeated demonstrations help be-cause student divers see more detail as they be-come familiar with a skill.

c. Assure early success1. Failure is discouraging – success is needed for

motivation.2. Have student diver practice successful at-

tributes and give positive reinforcement first ifnecessary to maintain encouragement.

3. Keep the student challenged, but add attributesslowly enough so the student enjoys success asthe skill develops

4. Continue until the student diver can performthe entire skill successfully without unduedifficulty or stress

4. Remember that after you feel the student diver isperforming the skill adequately, the instructor as-sesses student skill mastery personally before thestudent rejoins the class and begins learning newskills under the instructor’s direction.

D. Where do you find skill performance require-ments student divers must master for PADIcourses?1. The PADI Instructor Manual lists the skill perfor-

mance requirements student divers must meet ineach course. Keep in mind that there are differenttechniques for meeting the same performance re-quirements. Individuals with physical challengesmay use unusual techniques and still meet therequirements.

DM 3 - DM 3 -

Check your PADI Instructor Manual for skill performance requirements

Check your PADI Instructor Manual for skill performance requirements

1818

Professional Association of Diving Instructors


Instructor Manual

Instructor Manual

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Topic 4 –Dive Theory Introduction

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering This TopicThis section acquaints candidates with why they need to be familiar with divetheory, and their expected performance requirements. This is important be-cause divemaster candidates don’t always recognize the usefulness of beingfamiliar with dive theory. Although this is a brief presentation, it shapescandidate attitudes so that they put serious effort into learning dive theory.


I. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge

1. In a given field, what characteristic allows expertsto more easily solve problems than nonexperts?

2. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemastercourse emphasizes learning dive theory?

3. Why does it benefit you to have a dive referencelibrary, and what might you include in such alibrary?

4. How does completing specialty training help youlearn dive theory?

II. Dive Theory Performance in This Course

5. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive theoryfor this course?

6. Where will you get the dive theory informationyou must learn for this course?

7. How do you continually improve and update yourdive theory knowledge as a dive professional?

OutlineI. The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge

A. In a given field, what characteristic allowsexperts to more easily solve problems thannonexperts?1. Research in cognitive psychology shows that experts

in a given field solve problems better than

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Dive Theory IntroductionDive Theory Introduction

DM 4 - DM 4 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge

■ The Need for Broad Theoretical Knowledge

■ Dive Theory Performance in This Course

■ Dive Theory Performance in This Course

DM 4 - DM 4 -

Broad Theoretical KnowledgeBroad Theoretical Knowledge

33

■ Why?■ Why?◆ Experts identify, avoid and solve

problems better than nonexperts◆ Experts identify, avoid and solve

problems better than nonexperts

◆ Divemasters are experts, professionals and leaders

◆ Divemasters are experts, professionals and leaders

◆ You’ll apply knowledge during the Practical Application Module

◆ You’ll apply knowledge during the Practical Application Module


nonexperts because they have a large knowledgebase to draw upon.a. This base helps identify cause/effect relationships

or allows you to make reasonable speculations ofthem.

b. You learn to handle some “problems” before youever encounter them.

c. Familiarity enables you to more quickly identify aproblem’s cause so you can apply the right solu-tion.

B. What are three reasons why the PADI Divemas-ter course emphasizes learning dive theory?[Have candidates briefly discuss why they’re learningdive theory at this point in their training. Identify thefollowing three reasons.]1. A large knowledge base is the mark of an expert,

and expertise is one characteristic of a professional –the PADI Divemaster level is the first leadership levelin the PADI System.

2. You will need to apply theoretical knowledge withinthe Practical Application Module of this course.

3 You will need this knowledge as an instructionalassistant, and later as an instructor. [Explain thattheory isn’t covered in the IDC because you learn itas a divemaster, but you are tested on it in the IE.]

C. Why does it benefit you to have a dive referencelibrary, and what might you include in such alibrary?1. You benefit because it:

a. Provides a ready place to look up information.b. Keeps you up-to-date with changing theory.c. Increases your expertise by broadening your

knowledge beyond what you learn in this course.2. A dive reference library may include:

a. PADI manuals, books, videos and multimediaproducts

b. Technical and scientific dive textsc. Dive magazine subscriptionsd. Underwater wildlife guides and magazinese. Dive travel guides and mapsf. Historical nautical references to dive sites and

wrecks

DM 4 - DM 4 -

What should you include in your diving reference library?What should you include in your diving reference library?

44

■ PADI Manuals■ PADI Manuals

■ Technical and scientific texts■ Technical and scientific texts

■ Dive magazines■ Dive magazines

■ Underwater wildlife guides■ Underwater wildlife guides

■ Dive travel guides■ Dive travel guides

■ Historical nautical references■ Historical nautical references


D. How does completing specialty training helpyou learn dive theory?1. Specialties often go into more theoretical detail of a

specific area. (e.g., underwater photography andthe behavior of light.)

2. Specialties often give you a chance to apply theoreti-cal knowledge. (e.g., search and recovery andBoyle’s Law/gas expansion in the lift bag.)

Note to instructor: As part of this discussion, review the specificmeetings and methods you’ll have candidates use to master divetheory in the course.

II. Dive Theory Performance in This CourseA. How will you demonstrate mastery of dive

theory for this course and where will you getthe dive theory information you must learn forthis course?1. You will study dive physics, physiology, equipment

and decompression theory by:a. attending class presentations [if applicable].b. by reading the appropriate sections of the Ency-

clopedia of Recreational Diving and completing theDiving Knowledge Workbook.

c. You will complete an examination in each ofthese areas with a score of 75 percent or better ineach – if lower, you must restudy and take amakeup exam.

d. You will be expected to successfully and appropri-ately apply dive theory principles during thePractical Application Module.

2. You will also take an exam on dive skills and theenvironment.a. There are no particular books or presentations

directed specifically to this exam.b. You learn these aspects of dive theory through

your previous training and experience, andthrough the various training and experiencecategories of this course.

c. You must earn 75 percent or better.d. You will be expected to successfully and appropri-

ately apply dive skills and the environment

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How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?

How does completing specialty training help you learn dive theory?

55

■ Specialties often go into specific theoretical detail

■ Specialties often go into specific theoretical detail

■ Specialties allow you to apply theoretical knowledge

■ Specialties allow you to apply theoretical knowledge

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Dive Theory and YouDive Theory and You■ How will you learn dive theory

during this course?■ How will you learn dive theory

during this course?

66

■ Exam passing score = 75%(100% mastery)

■ Exam passing score = 75%(100% mastery)


theory principles during the Practical ApplicationModule.

B. You will also complete exams on supervising certifieddivers, supervising student divers, and on PADI pro-grams you can conduct, based on what you learn inthis course.

C. How do you continually improve andupdate your dive theory knowledge as a diveprofessional?1. After this course, it’s important to maintain your

dive theory knowledge as a professional – failure todo so reduces your expertise and skill as a leader:a. Subscribe to and read dive magazines.b. Reread and review the Encyclopedia and other

materials periodically.c. Help others who are learning dive theory – teach-

ing helps you learn.d. Take specialty courses that apply your knowledge.e. Attend seminars and meetings about diving

science, the environment, etc.

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Dive Theory IntroductionDive Theory Introduction



Topic 5 – The Physics of DivingRecommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering This TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about dive physics isto have candidates read the Physics of Diving section of The Encyclopedia ofRecreational Diving and complete the physics section in the Diving KnowledgeWorkbook. Have them consult the related objectives in the Appendix of thePADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet all the performancerequirements.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in agroup. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook,then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery andreview the material, based on how they completed their workbooks. Usethe presentation outline as a guide for a complete review.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving KnowledgeWorkbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can de-velop knowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. To aidlearning, use lots of problem examples and have candidates work throughthem for you.


I. Light, Heat and Sound in Water

1. Why does water dissipate body heat faster thanair does, and at what rate does it do so?

2. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heathave on a diver?

3. What does light do when it passes from air intowater, or vice-versa, and how does this affect adiver?

4. What is refraction?

5. What is visual reversal, and how does it affect adiver?

6. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air,and how much faster is it in water?

7. How does the speed of sound in water affect hear-ing?

II. Buoyancy and the Weight of Water

8. Given the weight and displacement of an object,calculate the buoyancy change by adding air or

DM 5 - DM 5 - 11



The Physics of DivingThe Physics of Diving

DM 5 - DM 5 -

OverviewOverview■ Light, Heat and Sound in Water■ Light, Heat and Sound in Water

22

■ Buoyancy and the Weight of Water■ Buoyancy and the Weight of Water

■ Pressure and Water■ Pressure and Water

■ The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and Temperature

■ The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density and Temperature

■ The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressure

■ The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressure

■ The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption and Elimination

■ The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption and Elimination


adding weight required to either float, sink ormake neutral the object in both fresh and sea water.

III. Pressure and Water

9. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambient pres-sure?

10. Calculate the absolute and gauge pressure at anydepth in fresh or sea water in atmospheres/bar,and convert it to another pressure measurement.

IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume, Density andTemperature

11. What is the relationship between changes in abso-lute pressure and the volume of a gas?

12. Calculate the volume changes that occur to a gaswhen raised or lowered in the water in a flexiblecontainer.

13. What is the relationship between depth and thedensity of the air a diver breathes?

14. Given a diver’s air consumption rate at one depth,calculate how that consumption rate changes withdepth.

15. What is the relationship of pressure, volume andtemperature with a gas in a flexible container andwith a gas in an inflexible container?

V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial Pressures

16. What is partial pressure?

17. Given their percentages, calculate the partial pres-sures of gases in a mixture at any depth.

18. How does the physiological effect of breathing agiven percentage of gas at depth compare tobreathing the same percentage of the gas at thesurface?

19. For a given percentage of a gas in mixture, and thedepth at which a diver breathes that gas, calculatethe percentage of the gas that would produce thesame physiological effects on a diver at the sur-face.

VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorption andElimination

20. What happens when you raise the pressure of a gasin contact with a liquid?

21. What is supersaturation?

22. What happens when you quickly reduce the pres-sure on a liquid that is saturated with dissolved gasat a higher pressure?


DM 5 - DM 5 -

Light, Heat and SoundLight, Heat and Sound

33

■ Why does water dissipate heat faster than air?

■ Why does water dissipate heat faster than air?◆ Water has a high heat capacity◆ Water has a high heat capacity◆ Molecules are closer together◆ Molecules are closer together

■ What effect does this have on a diver?

■ What effect does this have on a diver?◆ Body loses heat more than

20 times faster than in air◆ Body loses heat more than

20 times faster than in air

Outline

I. Light, Heat and Sound in WaterA. Why does water dissipate body heat faster

than air does, and at what rate does it do so?1. Water absorbs tremendous amounts of heat (high

heat capacity). Water conducts heat moreefficiently than air because water molecules arecloser together. Air is, however, a good insulatorbecause it does not conduct heat efficiently.

B. What effect does water’s ability to dissipateheat have on a diver?1. Because of water’s high heat capacity, the human

body when submerged in water loses heat morethan 20 times faster than in still air.

2. This means a diver will become chilled in water attemperatures that would be considered comfort-able in air.

C. What does light do when it passes from airinto water, or vice-versa, and how does thisaffect a diver?1. The speed of light depends on the density of the

medium it is traveling through – the denser themedium, the slower the speed.

2. When light goes from one medium to another, itchanges speed. This causes the light ray to changedirection, or “bend.”

3. What is refraction? This bending of light isreferred to as refraction.

4. Light coming to a diver’s eyes underwater movesthrough three different media – water, glass andair – refracting each time.

5. To the diver, refraction magnifies objects, makingthem appear larger/closer. This magnificationoccurs a ratio of about 4:3 according to their actualand apparent distance. When viewed underwater,objects tend to be magnified by a factor of about33 percent.

D. What is visual reversal, and how does it affecta diver?1. Turbidity can partially obscure an object so that it

appears hazy, which in air the eye associates with

DM 5 - DM 5 -

What is visual reversal?What is visual reversal?

55Light, Heat and SoundLight, Heat and Sound

■ Turbidity may cause objects to appear farther away

■ Turbidity may cause objects to appear farther away

RefractionRefraction

actualactualperceivedperceived

perceivedperceivedactualactual

Visual ReversalVisual Reversal

DM 5 - DM 5 -

What does light do when it passes from one medium to another?

What does light do when it passes from one medium to another?


■ Speed of light depends on density of medium — denser = slower

■ Speed of light depends on density of medium — denser = slower

■ Changing speeds cause light to bend — refraction

■ Changing speeds cause light to bend — refraction

■ To a diver, refraction magnifies objects at a ratio of about 4:3

■ To a diver, refraction magnifies objects at a ratio of about 4:3


being distant. So, the diver may perceive objects asfarther away than they actually are. This phenom-enon is referred to as visual reversal.

E. Why does sound travel faster in water than inair, and how much faster is it in water?1. Because sound travels in pressure waves, it travels

faster in more dense mediums such as water than inless dense mediums like air.

2. Sound travels slightly more than four times faster inwater than in air.

Note to instructor: Some candidates may observe that fastersound speed in a medium is a function of superior elasticity,not density. This is correct, but most (but not all) mediums thatare denser also have greater elasticity, so it is “loosely” correctto say sound travels faster in denser materials.

F. How does the speed of sound in water affecthearing?1. Your brain determines sound direction by the slight

delay between when a sound reaches one ear or theother. In water, the faster speed of sound reduces thedelay so much that the brain interprets the sound asreaching both ears at the same time. This makesmost sounds seem to come from directly overhead,despite their actual source.

II. Buoyancy and the Weight of WaterA. The Greek mathematician Archimedes determined

that “An object wholly or partially immersed in a fluidis buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluiddisplaced by the object.”1. An object that weighs less than the water it dis-

places floats and is positively buoyant. The buoy-ancy is expressed as a positive number, such asbeing “two kilograms positive.”

2. An object that weighs exactly the same as the waterit displaces neither floats nor sinks. It is called neu-trally buoyant, and adding or removing weight willmake it sink or float.

3. An object that weighs more than the water it dis-places will sink and is called negatively buoyant. Itsbuoyancy is expressed as a negative number, suchas “two pounds negative.”

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Why does sound travel faster in water and how does it affect hearing?

Why does sound travel faster in water and how does it affect hearing?


■ Sound (pressure waves) travel faster in denser, more elastic mediums

■ Sound (pressure waves) travel faster in denser, more elastic mediums◆ Four time faster in water than in air◆ Four time faster in water than in air

■ Brain determines sound direction by delay between waves reaching the ears

■ Brain determines sound direction by delay between waves reaching the ears ◆ Speed of sound underwater makes

direction difficult to determine◆ Speed of sound underwater makes

direction difficult to determine

DM 5 - DM 5 -

BuoyancyBuoyancy

77

Archimedes determined that: “An object wholly or partially

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the

fluid displaced by the object.”

Archimedes determined that: “An object wholly or partially

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the

fluid displaced by the object.”

WATER

OBJECTOBJECTPositivePositive

WATEROBJECTOBJECT

NeutralNeutralWATER

OBJECTOBJECT

NegativeNegative


B. To determine the buoyancy of an object in water, youneed to know:1. The object’s weight out of water.2. How much water the object displaces (the object’s

volume).3. The weight of the displaced water.

C. The weight of water:1. 1 litre of sea water weighs 1.03 kg.2. 1 litre of fresh water weighs 1 kg.3. A cubic foot of sea water weighs 64 lbs.4. A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 62.4 lbs.

D. To determine the buoyancy of an object, subtract itsweight from the weight of the water it displaces.1. A negative number means the object is negatively

buoyant, a positive number means it’s positivelybuoyant, and zero means it is neutrally buoyant.

2. To make a negatively buoyant object neutral, thebuoyancy must increase by the amount it is nega-tive (usually by adding air to a lifting device toincrease the volume displaced). To make it positive,it must increase by more than that.

3. To make a positively buoyant object neutral, thebuoyancy must decrease by the amount it is posi-tive (usually by adding weight to the object). Tomake it negative, it must increase by more thanthat.

4. Sample problems:

METRIC — Example #1

You plan to recover a 150 kg outboard motor in sea waterthat displaces 60 litres. How much air must you put in alifting device to make the motor neutrally buoyant?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Determining BuoyancyDetermining Buoyancy

88BuoyancyBuoyancy

■ You must know:◆ Weight of the object ◆ Volume of the object ◆ Weight of the displaced fluid

■ You must know:◆ Weight of the object ◆ Volume of the object ◆ Weight of the displaced fluid

■ Constants – weight of water:◆ Litre of sea water – 1.03 kg (1.03 kg/l)◆ Litre of fresh water – 1.0 kg (1.0 kg/l)◆ Cubic foot sea water – 64 lbs (64 lb/ft3)◆ Cubic foot fresh water – 62.4 lbs (62.4 lb/ft3)

■ Constants – weight of water:◆ Litre of sea water – 1.03 kg (1.03 kg/l)◆ Litre of fresh water – 1.0 kg (1.0 kg/l)◆ Cubic foot sea water – 64 lbs (64 lb/ft3)◆ Cubic foot fresh water – 62.4 lbs (62.4 lb/ft3)

DM 5 - DM 5 - 99

Calculating Changes in BuoyancyCalculating Changes in Buoyancy■ Object’s volume x constant

= weight of water displaced■ Object’s volume x constant

= weight of water displaced

BuoyancyBuoyancy

■ Object’s weight – water weight = up/down buoyancy

■ Object’s weight – water weight = up/down buoyancy◆ Positive number = sinks (downward force)◆ Positive number = sinks (downward force)

◆ Negative number = floats (buoyant force)◆ Negative number = floats (buoyant force)

◆ Zero = neutral◆ Zero = neutral

DM 5 - DM 5 -


You plan to recover a 150 kilogram/300 pound outboard motor in sea water that displaces 60 litres/2 cubic feet. How much air must you put in a lifting device to make the motor neutrally buoyant?

You plan to recover a 150 kilogram/300 pound outboard motor in sea water that displaces 60 litres/2 cubic feet. How much air must you put in a lifting device to make the motor neutrally buoyant?

1010BuoyancyBuoyancy

Given the weight and displace-ment of an object, calculate thebuoyancy change by adding airor adding weight required toeither float, sink or make neu-tral the object in both freshand sea water.


METRIC — Answer: 85.6 litres of air.

A 150 kg motor that displaces 60 litres of sea water has a buoy-ancy the weight of the sea water it displaces less 150 kg.

60 litres of sea water weighs 61.8 kg (60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg)

The motor is 88.2 kg negatively buoyant in sea water(61.8 kg - 150 kg = -88.2 kg).

The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 88.2kg to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the airand the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weightof water per litre to get the required litres of air to add.

You must add 85.6 litres of air to the lift bag.(88.2 kg ‚ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l).

IMPERIAL — Example #1 You plan to recover a 300-pound outboard motor that displaces two cubic feet fromthe bottom in sea water. How much water must you displaceby adding air to a lift bag to make it neutrally buoyant?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 2.68 ft3

A 300 lb motor that displaces 2 ft3 of sea water has a buoyancythat’s the weight of the sea water it displaces less 300 lbs.

2 ft3 of sea water weighs 128 lbs (64 lb/ft3 x 2 ft3 = 128 lb)

The motor is 172 lbs negatively buoyant in sea water(128 lb - 300 lb = -172 lb).

The lift bag must displace an amount of water that weighs 172lbs to make the object neutral (disregard the weight of the airand the lift bag). Divide the water weight desired by the weightof water per cubic foot to get the required cubic feet of air to add.

You must add 2.68 cubic feet of air to the lift bag.(172 lbs ‚ 64 lb/ft3 = 2.68 ft3).

METRIC — Example #2You’re assisting a research study and must sink into freshwater an object that weighs 50 kg. and displaces 300 litres.Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, howmuch lead weight do you need to affix to the object tomake it 10 kg negative on the bottom?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Answer #1Answer #1

Metric = 85.6 litres

Imperial = 2.68 cubic feet


Imperial = 2.68 cubic feet


60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg

2 ft3 x 64 lb/ft3 = 128 lb

60 l x 1.03 kg/l = 61.8 kg

2 ft3 x 64 lb/ft3 = 128 lb

150 kg - 61.8 kg = 88.2 kg

300 lb - 128 lb = 172 lb

150 kg - 61.8 kg = 88.2 kg

300 lb - 128 lb = 172 lb

88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l

172 lb ÷ 64 lb/ft3 = 2.68 ft3

88.2 kg ÷ 1.03 kg/l = 85.6 l

172 lb ÷ 64 lb/ft3 = 2.68 ft3

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Example #2Example #2You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 50 kilograms/100 pounds and displaces 300 litres/5 cubic feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 10 kilograms/20 pounds negative on the bottom?

You’re assisting a research study and must sink into fresh water an object that weighs 50 kilograms/100 pounds and displaces 300 litres/5 cubic feet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead, how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object to make it 10 kilograms/20 pounds negative on the bottom?



METRIC — Answer: 260 kg

The weight of water displaced is 300 kg (300 l x 1 kg/l = 300 kg)

The object weighs 50 kg, so it is 250 kg positively buoyant (300 kg - 50 kg = 250 kg)

Add 250 kg to make it neutral, plus 10 kg to make it 10 kgnegative for 260 kg total lead to add (250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg)

IMPERIAL — Example #2You’re assisting a research study and must sink into freshwater an object that weighs 100 lbs. and displaces 5 cubicfeet. Disregarding the minimal displacement of the lead,how much lead weight do you need to affix to the object tomake it 20 lbs negative on the bottom?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 232 lbs

The weight of water displaced is 312 lbs (5 ft3 x 62.4 lbs/ft3 = 312lbs)

The object weighs 100 lbs, so it is 212 lbs positively buoyant (312 lbs - 100 lbs = 212 lbs)

Add 212 lbs to make it neutral, plus 20 lbs to make it 20 lbsnegative for 232 lbs total lead to add (212 lbs + 20 lbs = 232 lbs)

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine the amount of waterto displace, or weight to add, to make an object negative, posi-tive or neutral in fresh water or sea water.

III. Pressure and WaterA. Pressure is equal to the force over a unit of area, and

may be expressed as kilograms per square centimeteror pounds per square inch.1. In diving, the easiest pressure unit to use is the

atmosphere or bar. One atmosphere or bar is thepressure equal to the air pressure at sea level.There’s a slight difference between bar and atmo-spheres, but in diving they’re treated as equal.

2. 10 metres/33 feet of sea water exerts 1 atmosphere/bar of pressure.

3. 10.3 metres/34 feet of fresh water exerts 1 atmo-sphere/bar of pressure.

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

1414

PRESSURE =PRESSURE =FORCEFORCE

AREAAREA

■ Pressure is equal to force per unit area kg/cm2 or lb/in2

■ Pressure is equal to force per unit area kg/cm2 or lb/in2

■ Atmospheric pressure is the air pressure at sea level 1 atm/bar, 760 mmHG,1.03 kg/cm2 or 14.7 psi

■ Atmospheric pressure is the air pressure at sea level 1 atm/bar, 760 mmHG,1.03 kg/cm2 or 14.7 psi

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Answer #2Answer #2

Metric = 260 kilograms

Imperial = 232 pounds

Metric = 260 kilograms

Imperial = 232 pounds


300 l x 1.0 kg/l = 300 kg

5 ft3 x 62.4 lb/ft3 = 312 lb

300 l x 1.0 kg/l = 300 kg

5 ft3 x 62.4 lb/ft3 = 312 lb

50 kg - 300 kg = –250 kg

100 lb - 312 lb = –212 lb

50 kg - 300 kg = –250 kg

100 lb - 312 lb = –212 lb

(positively buoyant)




250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg

212 lb + 20 lb = 232 lb

250 kg + 10 kg = 260 kg

212 lb + 20 lb = 232 lb


B. What is meant by gauge, absolute, and ambientpressure?1. Gauge pressure is a measurement that ignores the

atmospheric pressure. At sea level with no addedpressure, gauge pressure is zero. Your submersiblepressure gauge is an example.

2. Absolute pressure uses a vacuum as its zero point, sothat it is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.You generally add an “a” or the word “absolute” topressure units: “psia” for pounds per square inchabsolute, “ata” for atmospheres absolute, and “barabsolute.”

3. Ambient pressure means “surrounding pressure,” andmay be expressed as absolute or gauge pressure.

C. Calculating pressures underwater1. To determine the pressure in ata/bar at any depth:

a. Divide the depth by 10 metres/33 feet for saltwater, or 10.3 metres/34 feet for fresh water. Thisgives you atmospheres gauge at that depth.

b. Add 1 to account for the atmosphere of air andconvert to absolute pressure.

Example: How many ata of pressure are there at 18 metres/60 feet of seawater?

Answer: 2.8 ataMETRIC – 18m ‚ 10m/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ataIMPERIAL – 60ft ‚ 33ft/atm = 1.8 atm; 1.8 atm + 1 atm = 2.8 ata

2. To convert to another pressure measure, multiplyata by:a. 10 for msw (metres of sea water)b. 10.3 for mfw (metres of fresh water)c. 1.03 for kg/cm2

(kilograms per centimetre squared)d. 14.7 for psi (pounds per square inch)e. 33 for fsw (feet of sea water)f. 34 for ffw (feet of fresh water)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Pressure TerminologyPressure Terminology■ Gauge – measured pressure minus

atmospheric pressure (atm gauge or psig)

■ Gauge – measured pressure minus atmospheric pressure (atm gauge or psig)

1515Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

■ Absolute – total pressure exerted, gauge plus atmospheric(ata)

■ Absolute – total pressure exerted, gauge plus atmospheric(ata)

■ Ambient – surrounding pressure, same as absolute pressure

■ Ambient – surrounding pressure, same as absolute pressure

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Calculating Pressure UnderwaterCalculating Pressure Underwater


SEA WATER =1 atm every 10 m/33 ftOR .100 ATM per metre

OR .445 psi per foot

SEA WATER =1 atm every 10 m/33 ftOR .100 ATM per metre


FRESH WATER =1 atm every 10.3 m/34 ftOR .097 ATM per metre


FRESH WATER =1 atm every 10.3 m/34 ftOR .097 ATM per metre

OR .432 psi per footGauge PressureGauge Pressure

0 01 ft

10 ft

20 ft

33 ft

1 m

5 m

10 m

.100 ATM

4.45 psi

8.9 psi

14.7 psi

.500 ATM

1 ATM

.445 psisea level

Calculate the absolute andgauge pressure at any depthin fresh or sea water in atmo-spheres/bar, and convert it toanother pressure measurement.


DM 5 - DM 5 - 1717

Example #1Example #1What are the gauge and absolute pressures (in atmospheres) at a depth of 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water?

What are the gauge and absolute pressures (in atmospheres) at a depth of 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water?

Pressure and WaterPressure and Water

Metric and Imperial = 2.18 atm gauge and 3.18 ata

22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atm gauge 74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atm gauge

add 1 atm = 3.18 ata

Metric and Imperial = 2.18 atm gauge and 3.18 ata

22.5 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atm gauge 74 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atm gauge

add 1 atm = 3.18 ata

Can you find the pressures in kg/cm2 or psi?Can you find the pressures in kg/cm2 or psi?

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Example #2Example #2The pressure at 18 metres/60 feet in sea water equals the same pressure at what depth in fresh water?

The pressure at 18 metres/60 feet in sea water equals the same pressure at what depth in fresh water?


Metric = 18.5 metres

Imperial = 61.2 feet

Metric = 18.5 metres

Imperial = 61.2 feet

18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gauge

60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gauge

18 m ÷ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gauge

60 ft ÷ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gauge

1.8 atm gauge x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m

1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

1.8 atm gauge x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m

1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

Example #1What are the gauge and absolute pressures in at a depthof 22.5 metres/74 feet in fresh water?What is the pressure in kg/cm2 / psi?

Answer: 2.18 atm gauge/3.18 ataMETRIC — 22.5 m ‚ 10.3 m/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata

IMPERIAL — 74 ft ‚ 34 ft/atm = 2.18 atmospheres gauge2.18 atm + 1 atmosphere = 3.18 ata

METRIC — Answer: 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge/3.28 kg/cm2 absolute2.18 atm x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 2.24 kg/cm2 gauge3.18 ata x 1.03 kg/cm2 = 3.28 kg/cm2 absolute

IMPERIAL — Answer: 32 psi gauge/46.7 psia2.18 atm x 14.7 psi/atm = 32 psi gauge3.18 ata x 14.7 psi/atm = 46.7 psia

Example #2The pressure at 18 metres/60 feet in sea water equals thesame pressure at what depth in fresh water?(Depth = 0 at the surface, so this is a gauge pressure problem.)

METRIC — Answer: 18.5 m18 m ‚ 10 m/atm = 1.8 atm gauge1.8 atm x 10.3 m/atm = 18.5 m

IMPERIAL — Answer: 61.2 ft60 ft ‚ 33 ft/atm = 1.8 atm gauge1.8 atm x 34 ft/atm = 61.2 ft

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine the atmospheresabsolute and gauge pressures at various fresh and saltwaterdepths, and convert them into other pressure measures.

IV. The Relationship of Pressure and Gas Volume,Density and TemperatureA. What is the relationship between changes in

absolute pressure and the volume of a gas?1. As absolute pressure increases on a gas, the volume

of the gas will decrease proportionately.DM 5 - DM 5 - 1919

Pressure, Volume and Density Relationship

Pressure, Volume and Density Relationship

0 1 ATM 0 1 1

10 33 2 ATM 1 ATM 1/2 2

20 66 3 ATM 2 ATM 1/3 3

30 99 4 ATM 3 ATM 1/4 4

40 132 5 ATM 4 ATM 1/5 5

60 litres

30

20

15

12

DEPTH ABSOLUTE GAUGE AIR SURFACE VOLUME EXAMPLE PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME EQUIVALENT

DEPTH ABSOLUTE GAUGE AIR SURFACE VOLUME EXAMPLE PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME EQUIVALENT metres feet


For example, at 2 ata (10 m/33 ft in sea water) thevolume is 1/2 the surface volume; at 3 ata (20 m/66ft in sea water), 1/3 the surface volume, etc.

Formula: pressure (atm) x volume = new pressure x new volume

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

2. As absolute pressure decreases on a gas, the volumewill increase proportionately. For example, bring agas volume to the surface from 2 ata the volumewill be twice volume it was at depth; from 3 ata,three times the volume at depth, etc.

3. By determining ata/bar at depths, you canuse this relationship todetermine how much agas volume changes in aflexible container (liftbag, BCD, balloon, etc.)when taken from onedepth to another.

Formula: new volume = original ata ‚ new ata x original volume

V2 = P1 ‚ P2 x V1

Example #1: You take a gas volume of 14 litres/3 cubicfeet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet in sea water. Whatwill the new volume be?

METRIC — Answer: 3.5 litresOriginal pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)New pressure = 4 ata (30 m ‚ 10 m/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata)New volume = (1 ata ‚ 4 ata) x 14 lNew volume = 3.5 l

IMPERIAL — Answer: .75 cubic feetOriginal pressure = 1 ata (normal surface pressure)New pressure = 4 ata (99 ft ‚ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm; 3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata)New volume = (1 ata ‚ 4 ata) x 3 ft3

New volume = .75 cubic feet

METRIC — Example #2 : You take a gas volume of 27litres from 32 metres to 17 metres in fresh water. What willthe new volume be?

METRIC — Answer: 41.8 litresDM 5 - DM 5 -

Example #2Example #2If you take a gas volume of

27 litres from 32 metres to 17 metres in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?

If you take a gas volume of 17 cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?

If you take a gas volume of 27 litres from 32 metres to 17

metres in fresh water, what will the new volume be?

If you take a gas volume of 17 cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water, what will the

new volume be?2121Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

DM 5 - DM 5 -


2020

If you take a gas volume of 14 litres/3 cubic feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet sea water, what will the new volume be?

If you take a gas volume of 14 litres/3 cubic feet at the surface to 30 metres/99 feet sea water, what will the new volume be?

Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

Metric = 14 l ÷ 4 = 3.5 litres (30 metres is 4 ata)

Imperial = 3 ft3 ÷ 4 = .75 ft3

(99 feet is 4 ata)

Metric = 14 l ÷ 4 = 3.5 litres (30 metres is 4 ata)

Imperial = 3 ft3 ÷ 4 = .75 ft3

(99 feet is 4 ata)

Calculate the vol-ume changes thatoccur to a gas whenraised or lowered inthe water in a flex-ible container.


Original pressure = 4.1 ata (32 m ‚ 10.3 m/atm = 3.1 atm;3.1 atm + 1 atm = 4.1 ata)

New pressure= 2.65 ata (17 m ‚ 10.3 m/atm = 1.65 atm;1.65 atm + 1 atm = 2.65 ata)

New volume = (4.1 ata ‚ 2.65 ata) x 27 lNew volume = 41.8 litres

IMPERIAL — Example #2: You take a gas volume of 17cubic feet from 122 feet to 58 feet in fresh water. What willthe new volume be?

IMPERIAL — Answer: 29 cubic feetOriginal pressure = 4.6 ata (122 ft ‚ 34 ft/atm = 3.6 atm;

3.6 atm + 1 atm = 4.6 ata)New pressure = 2.7 ata (58 ft ‚ 34 ft/atm = 1.7 atm;

1.7 atm + 1 atm = 2.7 ata)New volume = (4.6 ata ‚ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft3

New volume = 29 cubic feet

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems as neces-sary until candidates can easily determine new volumes.

B. What is the relationship between depth andthe density of the air a diver breathes?1. As volume decreases with pressure increase, air

molecules squeeze closer together taking up lessspace, increasing the density of air within the space.For example, at 2 ata, air is 2 times denser than atthe surface; at 3 ata it is 3 times denser, etc.

2. This increase in densityaffects the diver’s rate of airconsumption because as depthand pressure increase, withineach breath the diver inhalesmore molecules of air to fillthe same lung volume. This iswhy the deeper the dive, thefaster the diver uses air.

3. You can calculate density changes based onchanges in absolute pressure (ata), and use thechanges to determine changes in a diver’s air con-sumption.

4. Simplify depth-to-depth density/air consumptionproblems by converting to surface density first:

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Answer #2Answer #2Metric = 41.8 litres

Imperial = 29 ft3


Imperial = 29 ft3

2222Pressure and VolumePressure and Volume

Initial pressure – 32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 3.1 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 4.1 ata

Initial pressure – 122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 3.6 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 4.6 ata

Initial pressure – 32 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 3.1 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 4.1 ata

Initial pressure – 122 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 3.6 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 4.6 ata

New pressure – 17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 1.65 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 2.65 ata

New pressure – 58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 1.7 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 2.7 ata

New pressure – 17 m ÷ 10.3 m/atm = 1.65 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 2.65 ata

New pressure – 58 ft ÷ 34 ft/atm = 1.7 atm gauge; add 1 atm = 2.7 ata

(4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 l = 41.8 l

(4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft3 = 29 ft3

(4.1 ata ÷ 2.65 ata) x 27 l = 41.8 l

(4.6 ata ÷ 2.7 ata) x 17 ft3 = 29 ft3

DM 5 - DM 5 -

What is the relationship between depth and the density of the air a diver breathes?

What is the relationship between depth and the density of the air a diver breathes?

2323

■ Increased air density results in each breath containing more molecules

■ Increased air density results in each breath containing more molecules

■ The deeper the dive, the faster the diver uses air

■ The deeper the dive, the faster the diver uses air

Given a diver’s airconsumption rate atone depth, calculatehow that consump-tion rate changeswith depth.


Example #1: A diver’s air consumption rate is 2 bar perminute (200 kPa/min)/25 psi per minute at the surface.What will the air density be at 30 metres/99 feet comparedto the surface, and what will the diver’s air consumption be?

METRIC — Answer: 4 times as dense; 8 bar/min (800 kPa/min)30 m ‚ 10 m/atm = 3 atm3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense).4 x 2 bar per min (200 kPa per min) = 8 bar per min (800 kPa per min)

IMPERIAL — Answer: 4 times as dense; 100 psi/min99 feet ‚ 33 ft/atm = 3 atm3 atm + 1 atm = 4 ata (therefore 4 times as dense)4 x 25 psi/min = 100 psi/min.

Example #2: If a diver’s air consumption rate is 8 bar perminute (800 kPa/min)/100 psi per minute at 10 metres/33feet, what will it be at 40 metres/132 feet?

METRIC — Answer: 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)Find surface consumption rate:10 m ‚ 10 m/atm = 1 atm1 atm +1 atm = 2 ata8 bar/min (800 kPa/min) ‚ 2 ata = 4 bar/min surface rate (400 kPa/min)Determine rate at new depth:40 m ‚ 10 m/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata5 x 4 bar/min (400 kPa/min) = 20 bar/min (2000 kPa/min)

IMPERIAL — Answer: 250 psi/minFind surface consumption rate:33 feet ‚ 33 ft/atm = 1 atm1 atm + 1 atm = 2 ata100 psi/min ‚ 2 ata = 50 psi/min surface rateDetermine rate at new depth:132 feet ‚ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm+ 1 atm = 5 ata5 x 50 psi/min = 250 psi/min

Note to instructor: Work through additional problems asnecessary until candidates can easily determine gas consump-tion rates.

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Example #1Example #1A diver’s air consumption rate is 2 bar/25 psi per minute at the surface. What is the diver’s air consumption rate likely to be at 30 metres/99 feet?

A diver’s air consumption rate is 2 bar/25 psi per minute at the surface. What is the diver’s air consumption rate likely to be at 30 metres/99 feet?

2424Pressure and DensityPressure and Density

Metric = 2 bar/min x 4 = 8 bar/min (30 metres is 4 ata)

Imperial = 25 psi/min x 4 = 100 psi/min (99 feet is 4 ata)

Metric = 2 bar/min x 4 = 8 bar/min (30 metres is 4 ata)

Imperial = 25 psi/min x 4 = 100 psi/min (99 feet is 4 ata)

DM 5 - DM 5 - 2525Pressure and DensityPressure and Density


If a diver’s air consumption rate is 8 bar/100 psi per minute at the 10 metres/33 feet, what is it likely to be at 40 metres/132 feet?

If a diver’s air consumption rate is 8 bar/100 psi per minute at the 10 metres/33 feet, what is it likely to be at 40 metres/132 feet?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Answer #2Answer #2

Metric = 20 bar/min Find surface rate – 8 bar/min at 2 ata = 4 bar/min at 1 ata

Imperial = 250 psi/minFind surface rate – 100 psi/min at 2 ata = 50 psi/min at 1 ata

Metric = 20 bar/min Find surface rate – 8 bar/min at 2 ata = 4 bar/min at 1 ata

Imperial = 250 psi/minFind surface rate – 100 psi/min at 2 ata = 50 psi/min at 1 ata

2626Pressure and DensityPressure and Density

4 bar/min x 5 (40 m is 5 ata) = 20 bar/min

50 psi/min x 5 (132 ft is 5 ata) = 250 psi/min

4 bar/min x 5 (40 m is 5 ata) = 20 bar/min

50 psi/min x 5 (132 ft is 5 ata) = 250 psi/min


C. What is the relationship of pressure, volumeand temperature with a gas in a flexible con-tainer and with a gas in an inflexible container?1. Heat is the energy of molecular motion, therefore, if

you heat gases in a nonflexible container and thevolume remains unchanged (as in a scuba tank),the molecules move more rapidly.

2. This causes molecules to impact the interior of thecontainer with more force – thereby increasing thepressure.

3. Cooling means the molecules lose heat and slowdown, reducing their impact and decreasing thepressure.

4. Pressure changes are calculated using absolutetemperature, but for diving purposes, as a rule ofthumb with scuba cylinders, the pressure change is0.6 bar per 1 C/5 psi per 1 F.

Example: A scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20C/70 F. What would happen to the pressure in that tank ifit were put into a freezer at 0 C/32 F?

METRIC — Answer: The pressure would drop to 188 bar.20 C - 0 C = 20 C change20 C x .6 bar = 12 bar200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar

IMPERIAL — Answer: 2810 psi70 F - 32 F = 38 F change38 F x 5 psi = 190 psi3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi

D. Gas pressure, volume and temperature are interre-lated. For a given quantity of gas, if you change one,either or both of the others must change proportion-ately.1. You can predict diving-related changes to gas pres-

sure, volume and temperature.2. If you increase pressure by adding gas to a fixed

volume, the temperature will rise (such as a scubatank being filled).

3. If you decrease pressure by releasing gas from afixed volume, the temperature will fall. This ex-plains why a tank cools when you let the air out

DM 5 - DM 5 - 2727

What is the relationship of pressure, volume and

temperature with gas in both flexible and inflexible containers?

What is the relationship of pressure, volume and

temperature with gas in both flexible and inflexible containers?

Heat is the energy of molecule motion

Heat is the energy of molecule motion

BEFOREBEFORE

AFTER HEAT ADDED

AFTER HEAT ADDED

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Pressure and TemperaturePressure and Temperature

2828

■ As general rule of thumb, the pressure change is 0.6 bar per 1°C/5 psi per 1°F

■ As general rule of thumb, the pressure change is 0.6 bar per 1°C/5 psi per 1°F

■ Example: If a scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20°C/70°F then placed in a freezer at 0°C/32°F, what is the likely new pressure?

■ Example: If a scuba tank is filled to 200 bar/3000 psi at 20°C/70°F then placed in a freezer at 0°C/32°F, what is the likely new pressure?

DM 5 - DM 5 -

AnswerAnswerMetric = 188 bar

Imperial = 2810 psi

Metric = 188 bar

Imperial = 2810 psi

2929Pressure and TemperaturePressure and Temperature

20°C - 0°C = 20° change

70°F - 32°F = 38° change

20°C - 0°C = 20° change

70°F - 32°F = 38° change

20 x 0.6 bar = 12 bar

38 x 5 psi = 190 psi

20 x 0.6 bar = 12 bar

38 x 5 psi = 190 psi

200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar

3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi

200 bar - 12 bar = 188 bar

3000 psi - 190 psi = 2810 psi


rapidly, and why manufacturers recommend specialmodifications so that regulators won’t freeze whenice diving.

V. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Partial PressuresA. What is partial pressure?

1. In a mixture of gases, such as air, each gas exerts itsindividual pressure independent of other gases inthe mixture (Dalton’s Law). The independent pres-sure of a gas is its partial pressure – that is, the part ofthe pressure exerted by the gas.

B. If you take a gas mixture underwater (the air youbreathe, for example), the pressure increases withdepth. The partial pressure of each gas in the mix alsoincreases proportionately to its fraction in the mix.

1. You can easily deter-mine partial pressureby multiplying the gaspercentage in the mix-ture by the total abso-lute pressure.

Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen in air ata depth of 40 m/132 ft?

Answer: Oxygen partial pressure (abbreviated “PO2”) = 1.05ataThe absolute pressure is 5 ata40 m ‚ 10 atm/m = 4 atm / 132 ft ‚ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ataAir consists of 21% oxygen.5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata.

Example: What is the partial pressure of oxygen whenbreathing 100% oxygen at the surface?

Answer: PO2 = 1.0 ata. The absolute pressure is 1 ata. The gas is100% oxygen. 1 ata x 1.00 = 1 ata. (This illustrates that with apure gas, the absolute pressure and the partial pressure are thesame.)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Behavior of Gases UnderwaterBehavior of Gases Underwater

3030

■ What is partial pressure?■ What is partial pressure?◆ In a gas mixture, each gas exerts its

individual pressure independent of other gases in the mixture

◆ In a gas mixture, each gas exerts its individual pressure independent of other gases in the mixture

O

O

O

PARTIAL PRESSUREOF OXYGEN

(21%)

PARTIAL PRESSUREOF OXYGEN

(21%)

++

N N NNN NNN N

N N

N

PARTIAL PRESSURE

OF NITROGEN(79%)

PARTIAL PRESSURE

OF NITROGEN(79%)

==

NN

NNN NNN N

N N

NO

O OTOTAL

PRESSURE OF AIR(100%)

TOTAL PRESSURE

OF AIR(100%)

DM 5 - DM 5 -

Partial PressurePartial Pressure■ What is the partial pressure of

oxygen (in atmospheres) at 40 metres/132 feet?

■ What is the partial pressure of oxygen (in atmospheres) at 40 metres/132 feet?

3131

◆ PO2 = 5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata◆ PO2 = 5 ata x .21 = 1.05 ata

■ The body responds to a gas based on its partial pressure — the higher the partial pressure, the greater the potential physiological effect

■ The body responds to a gas based on its partial pressure — the higher the partial pressure, the greater the potential physiological effect

Given their percent-ages, calculate thepartial pressures ofgases in a mixture atany depth.


DM 5 - DM 5 -

ExampleExampleAn air mixture has 0.5% carbon monoxide. Breathing this air at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent of breathing what percent at the surface?

An air mixture has 0.5% carbon monoxide. Breathing this air at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalent of breathing what percent at the surface?

3232Partial PressurePartial Pressure

Answer = 2.5%5 ata x .005 = .025; 2.5% surface equivalency

NOTE: This level of CO is considered toxic

Answer = 2.5%5 ata x .005 = .025; 2.5% surface equivalency

NOTE: This level of CO is considered toxic

C. How does the physiological effect of breathinga given percentage of gas at depth compare tobreathing the same percentage of the gas atthe surface?1. The body responds to a gas you breathe based on its

partial pressure – not on the percentage of the gas inthe mix. This means that as pressure increases, thephysiological effect increases.

2. The increased partial pressure of nitrogen (alsocalled “PN2”) causes nitrogen narcosis.

3. The increased partial pressure of oxygen can causeoxygen toxicity (more of a concern when divingwith enriched air nitrox than with air within recre-ational limits).

4. The body’s response to partial pressure is importantregarding contaminated air because contaminationlevels that are harmless at the surface may becometoxic under elevated partial pressures at depth.

5. In the previous examples, the physiological effect ofoxygen from breathing air (21% oxygen) at 40 m/132 feet (PO2 = 1.05 ata) is approximately the sameas breathing 100% oxygen at the surface (PO2 = 1.0ata)

D. Surface equivalency is the fraction of a gas you wouldhave to breathe at the surface to produce the same

effect at a particulardepth. To find surfaceequivalency, use thegas partial pressureat depth as the frac-tion of the gas at thesurface.1. Note that if thepartial pressure atdepth exceeds 1.0ata, there can be no

surface equivalency because the partial pressurewould exceed the total pressure available at thesurface (1.0 ata).

Example: An air mixture has .5% carbon monoxide (CO).Breathing it at 40 metres/132 feet would be the equivalentof breathing what percent at the surface?

For a given percentage ofa gas in mixture, and thedepth at which a diverbreathes that gas, calcu-late the percentage of thegas that would produce thesame physiological effectson a diver at the surface.


DM 5 - DM 5 -

Absorption and EliminationAbsorption and Elimination

3333

■ What happens when you raise the pressure of gas in contact with a liquid?

■ What happens when you raise the pressure of gas in contact with a liquid?◆ More gas dissolves into the liquid◆ More gas dissolves into the liquid◆ Equilibrium or saturation is

reached eventually◆ Equilibrium or saturation is

reached eventually

■ What is supersaturation?■ What is supersaturation?◆ Gas pressure within a liquid is

greater than the pressure of gas in contact with the liquid

◆ Gas pressure within a liquid is greater than the pressure of gas in contact with the liquid

Answer: 2.5%. (this level of CO would be considered toxic).Absolute pressure = 5 ata40m ‚ 10 m/atm = 4 atm / 132 ft ‚ 33 ft/atm = 4 atm4 atm + 1 atm = 5 ata5 ata x .005 = .025 partial pressure.025 = 2.5% surface equivalency

Example: Central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity isonly expected with oxygen partial pressures above 1.4 ata.Would CNS toxicity ever be likely breathing any gas mix-ture with oxygen at the surface?

Answer: No. The highest fraction of oxygen you can have is100%. Breathing 100% oxygen at the surface is a PO2 of 1.0ata. – the highest partial pressure you can have at the surface.Therefore, you cannot reach the 1.4 ata required for CNS toxicity.

VI. The Behavior of Gases Underwater: Gas Absorptionand EliminationA. What happens when you raise the pressure of a

gas in contact with a liquid?1. Gases in contact with a liquid dissolve into the

liquid proportionately to the pressure.2. If the pressure increases, more gas dissolves into the

liquid.3. If the pressure decreases, the gas dissolves out of the

liquid (Henry’s Law). Carbonated beverages are agood example of this.

4. Because the human body is comprised mainly ofwater, this is the principle underlying decompres-sion sickness and the basis for dive tables/comput-ers.

B. Gases dissolved in a liquid still exert pressure, which isreferred to as gas tension.

C. Gas does not dissolve instantly into or out of a liquidwhen the pressure changes.1. It does so gradually over a period that depends on

the liquid, the gas, and the contact area betweenthe gas and the liquid.

2. Eventually, however, the pressure of the gas dis-solved within the liquid will become equal to thepressure of the gas in contact with it and no more


DM 5 - DM 5 -

What happens when you quickly reduce the

pressure on a liquid that is saturated?

What happens when you quickly reduce the

pressure on a liquid that is saturated?

3434Absorption and EliminationAbsorption and Elimination

DM 5 - DM 5 -

The Physics of DivingThe Physics of Diving


gas will dissolve in or out. This equilibrium is re-ferred to as saturation.

3. If the gas pressure in contact increases (such aswhen a diver descends), then the liquid will now becapable of holding even more gas than before. Gasexchange will continue as before until the new levelof equilibrium is achieved.

D. What is supersaturation?1. If the pressure in contact with the liquid is reduced

(as when a diver ascends), gas tension within theliquid will be greater than the pressure in contactwith the liquid.

2. The liquid is then referred to as supersaturated. It willgradually be less supersaturated as the gas dissolvesout of the liquid and equilibrium returns.

E. What happens when you quickly reduce thepressure on a liquid that is saturated with dis-solved gas at a higher pressure?1. A liquid can have a moderate degree of supersatura-

tion and still hold gas in solution. If a pressure re-duction takes place gradually, then the gas willdissolve out of the liquid without forming bubbles.

2. If the pressure reduction is too great causing anexcessive supersaturation, the gas within the liquidcannot remain in solution and bubbles form.

3. This phenomenon explains the basic mechanism ofdecompression sickness and why the condition can-not occur until the diver leaves depth, or reduces thepressure in contact with the blood.

4. Dive tables/computers help the diver control thesupersaturation to avoid bubble formation. [Explainthat candidates will learn more about this in Topic6, the Physiology of Diving.]


DM 6 - DM 6 -

OverviewOverview■ Circulatory and Respiratory Systems■ Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

22

◆ Diving Problems with These Systems◆ Diving Problems with These Systems

■ Physiological Responses■ Physiological Responses

◆ Nitrogen◆ Nitrogen

◆ Thermal Changes◆ Thermal Changes

◆ Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces◆ Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

■ Problems in Body Air Spaces■ Problems in Body Air Spaces

Topic 6 -The Physiology of Diving

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about diving physiol-ogy is to have candidates read the Physiology of Diving section of TheEncyclopedia of Recreational Diving and complete the physiology section inthe Diving Knowledge Workbook. Have them consult the related objectives inthe Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to be sure they can meet allthe performance requirements.After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group.Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, thenanswer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review thematerial, based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presenta-tion outline as a guide for a complete review.If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Workbookdon’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can develop knowl-edge by giving the following presentation in detail.


I. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

1. What are the primary purposes of the respiratoryand circulatory systems?

2. What are the organs, structure and functions of thecirculatory and respiratory systems?

3. What is dead air space, and how do you avoidproblems caused by it?

4. How does the body respond when breath-holddiving, and how can you extend breath-hold time?

II. Diving Problems with Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

5. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you avoidit?

6. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?

7. What are hypocapnia and shallow water blackout,and how do you avoid them?

8. What are the physiological effects of carbon mon-oxide while diving, and how do you avoid them?

9. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and howdo you avoid them?

DM 6 - DM 6 - 11



The Physiology of DivingThe Physiology of Diving


III. Physiological Responses to Nitrogen

10. What are the physiological mechanisms by whichthe body absorbs and releases nitrogen (or otherinert gases) while diving?

11. What are silent bubbles, and how do they relate todecompression?

12. What causes decompression sickness (DCS), andwhat are the two types?

13. What is meant by decompression illness (DCI)versus decompression sickness?

14. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?

15. What are the recommendations and physiologicalrationales for DCS first aid and treatment?

16. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approximatelywhat depth is it likely, and what are commonsigns and symptoms of it?

IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal Changes

17. How does the body respond to excess heat?

18. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke, andhow do they differ physiologically?

19. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?

20. What causes hypothermia, and what happensphysiologically when it occurs?

V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes onBody Air Spaces

21. What are the basic functions, organs and structureof the ears and sinuses?

22. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changingpressure?

23. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?

VI. Problems in Body Air Spaces

24. What are barotrauma and squeeze?

25. What are the causes and physiologies of eardrumrupture, middle ear squeeze, reverse squeeze, earplug problems, round window rupture and sinussqueeze?

26. What is vertigo, and what may cause it while diving?

27. What is the cause and physiology of lung squeeze?

28. What are the causes and physiologies of the lungoverexpansion injuries: air embolism, pneumotho-rax, mediastinal emphysema and subcutaneousemphysema?


29. What are the recommendations and physiologicalrationales for lung overexpansion injury first aidand treatment?

30. What are the cause and physiology of mask anddry suit squeezes?

OutlineI. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

A. What are the primary purposes of the respira-tory and circulatory systems?1. The primary, most urgent purpose of these systems is

to supply body tissues oxygen and to remove andeliminate waste carbon dioxide.

2. The process of using oxygen is oxidative metabolism.3. Oxidative metabolism turns chemical energy into

usable energy to support life.B. What are the organs, structure and functions of

the circulatory and respiratory systems?1. Circulatory System

a. Blood: red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the plasma(liquid portion of blood) carry oxygen to thetissues via hemoglobin, a protein that easily bondsand unbonds with oxygen. Plasma carries carbondioxide away from tissues.

b. Cardiovascular system - heart, arteries, capillariesand veins1. The heart is a four chamber organic pump that

circulates blood.2. Arteries carry blood away from heart.3. Veins carry blood toward heart.4. Capillaries are microscopic vessels between

arteries and veins; gas exchange occurs in thecapillaries.

2. Respiratory system structure and functionsa. What triggers the breathing cycle?

1. Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitorcarbon dioxide levels in body.

2. When carbon dioxide rises, they signal thediaphragm, a large muscle below the lungs, toflex downward, causing lower internal pres-sure.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Circulation and Respiration

Circulation and Respiration

33

What are the purposes, structure and functions of

the respiratory and circulatory systems?

What are the purposes, structure and functions of

the respiratory and circulatory systems?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

PurposesPurposes

44

■ Supply tissues with oxygen

and remove and eliminate

carbon dioxide

■ Supply tissues with oxygen and remove and eliminate carbon dioxide

Circulation and RespirationCirculation and Respiration

■ What is oxidative metabolism? ■ What is oxidative metabolism?

— the process of turning chemical

energy into usable energy

— the process of turning chemical energy into usable energy

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Structure and Function— Circulatory

Structure and Function— Circulatory

55Circulation and RespirationCirculation and Respiration

PlasmaRed Blood Cells

Hemoglobin

PlasmaRed Blood Cells

Hemoglobin

Oxygen

carried

to

tissues

Oxygen

carried to

tissuesCarbon

dioxide

carried

away

from

tissues

Carbon dioxide

carried away from

tissues

DM 6 - DM 6 - 66Circulation and RespirationCirculation and Respiration

Cardiovascular SystemCardiovascular System■ Heart – a four chamber pump

that circulates blood

■ Heart – a four chamber pump that circulates blood

■ Arteries carry blood away

from the heart

■ Arteries carry blood away

from the heart

■ Veins carry blood toward heart■ Veins carry blood toward heart

■ Capillaries – microscopic vessels

between arteries and veins where

gas exchange occurs

■ Capillaries – microscopic vessels between arteries and veins where gas exchange occurs

DM 6 - DM 6 - Circulation and RespirationCirculation and Respiration

Respiratory SystemRespiratory System■ What triggers the breathing cycle?■ What triggers the breathing cycle?

77

◆ Reflex respiratory centers in the

brain monitor the body’s carbon

dioxide level

◆ Reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor the body’s carbon dioxide level

◆ When CO2 rises, diaphragm is

signalled to flex downward

◆ When CO2 rises, diaphragm is

signalled to flex downward


3. Air enters through sinuses and mouth past theepiglottis into the trachea (windpipe), whichbranches into the bronchi leading into lungs.

4. Bronchi divide into smaller and smaller bron-chi until reaching tiny alveoli, which are airsacs surrounded by the pulmonary capillaries. Itis here that the blood releases carbon dioxideand picks up oxygen.

B. Path of blood flow through circulatory and respiratorysystems.1. Oxygen-rich blood from lungs enters left heart;

heart pumps the blood into the aorta, the body’slargest artery.

2. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, includingthe carotid arteries that supply the brain. Arteriesbranch to smaller arteries throughout the bodyuntil reaching the capillaries.

3. Blood gives up oxygen and picks up carbon dioxidein capillaries and flows into the venous system(veins).

4. Veins branch into larger and larger veins until asingle vein returns oxygen-poor blood to the rightheart.

5. The heart pumps oxygen poor blood to lungs viathe pulmonary arteries.

6. Pulmonary arteries branch into pulmonary capillariesthat surround lung alveoli. The blood releases car-bon dioxide into alveoli to be exhaled and picks upoxygen.

7. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left heart viapulmonary veins to begin another cycle.

C. What is dead air space, and how do you avoidproblems caused by it?1. The portion of tidal volume (volume breathed in and

out on each breath) that plays no part in gas ex-change - volume in bronchi, trachea, mouth/sinuses.

2. Dead air space is rebreathed - increases carbondioxide.

3. Equipment increases dead air space (snorkel/regula-tor) and therefore further increases carbon dioxiderebreathed.

4. In shallow breathing, dead air space is proportion-ately high in tidal volume and carbon dioxidelevels rise, stimulating a higher breathing rate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?

What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by it?


■ Tidal volume – does not play

a part in gas exchange

■ Tidal volume – does not play

a part in gas exchange

■ Shallow breathing – CO2 level

increases, breathing rate increases

■ Shallow breathing – CO2 level

increases, breathing rate increases

■ Avoid problem by deep,

normal breathing

■ Avoid problem by deep,

normal breathing

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Air Flow Air Flow

88

TracheaTracheaNasal Passages

Nasal Passages

EpiglottisEpiglottis


BronchiBronchi

BronchiolesBronchioles

AlveoliAlveoli

AlveolusAlveolus

PulmonaryCapillariesPulmonaryCapillaries

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Blood FlowBlood Flow

99

Oxygen rich bloodOxygen rich blood

HeartHeart

AortaAorta

ArteriesArteries

Capillaries

(deliver O2)

Capillaries

(deliver O2)


Capillaries

(pick up CO2)

Capillaries

(pick up CO2)

VeinsVeins

Oxygen poor bloodOxygen poor blood

HeartHeart

LungsLungs


a. If breathing remains shallow, breathing rate willcontinue to increase.

b. Rapid breathing requires more effort to overcomeair resistance and this raises carbon dioxide levelsfurther.

c. May lead to hypercapnia (discussed shortly).5. In deep, normal breathing, dead air space is propor-

tionately lower in tidal volume and carbon dioxidelevels fall.a. Breathing rate remains normal.b. Avoid dead air space problems by breathing slowly

with deep, normal breaths.D. How does the body respond when breath-hold

diving, and how can you extend breath-holdtime?1. During apnea (breath holding) the circulatory system

uses oxygen stored in the lungs, muscles and blood tosupply tissues.a. In cool water, bradycardia (slowing of the heart)

reduces circulation speed, though doesn’t appear toreduce oxygen consumption in humans (it does inmarine mammals).

2. Accumulating carbon dioxide creates urges to breatheand eventually it is too great to ignore, forcing thediver to surface and breathe.

3. You can increase breath hold time by firsthyperventilating (breathing deeply and rapidly) threeor four times. Doing so reduces circulatory carbondioxide so it takes longer to accumulate enough tostimulate breathing. Excessive hyperventilation maylead to shallow water blackout, as discussed shortly.

II. Diving Problems with Circulatory andRespiratory SystemsA. What is carotid-sinus reflex, and how do you

avoid it?1. Carotid sinus receptors monitor pressure of arterial

blood reaching brain through carotid arteries.2. Low blood pressure triggers a higher heart rate, and

high blood pressure triggers a lower heart rate.3. Receptors interpret pressure from an excessively tight

hood or wet suit constricting neck as high blood pres-sure.

4. The heart rate slows, reducing blood flow to the brain,but pressure remains, causing yet slower heart rate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What happens during a breath hold dive?What happens during a breath hold dive?


■ During apnea, the body uses

oxygen stored in the lungs,

muscles and blood

■ During apnea, the body uses oxygen stored in the lungs,

muscles and blood

■ Accumulating CO2 creates the

urge to breathe

■ Accumulating CO2 creates the

urge to breathe

■ Hyperventilation can increase

breath hold time

■ Hyperventilation can increase

breath hold time

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Diving ProblemsDiving Problems


What is carotid sinus reflex?

What is carotid sinus reflex?

Do not wear an excessively tight hood, wet suit or

dry suit neck seal

Do not wear an excessively tight hood, wet suit or

dry suit neck seal


5. The diver feels uncomfortable and light-headed, butmay lose consciousness if constriction continuesunrelieved.

6. Avoid by not wearing excessively tight hoods, wetsuits or dry suit neck seals.

B. What is hypercapnia, and how do you avoid it?1. Hypercapnia is excessive carbon dioxide.2. It’s caused by dead air space, skip breathing (hold-

ing the breath periodically), shallow rapid breath-ing, overexertion or a combination of these. In veryrare cases, air supply may be high in carbon diox-ide.

3. Causes headache and increased breathing. In severecases, confusion and loss of consciousness.

4. If involving overexertion, increased work of breath-ing can increase carbon dioxide, leading to evengreater breathing demand - cycle stops when diverstops all activity and rests.

5. Avoid by breathing deeply and normally, not skipbreathing, and by avoiding overexertion.

C. What are hypocapnia and shallow water black-out, and how do you avoid them?1. Hypocapnia is insufficient carbon dioxide.2. Too little carbon dioxide may interrupt normal

breathing cycle because carbon dioxide stimulatesbreathing.

3. May be caused by hyperventilation due to stress orfright while scuba diving - causes light-headedness.

4. Primarily a concern with breath-hold diving andexcessive hyperventilation (more than three or fourbreaths)- causes shallow water blackout.a. Diver excessively depletes carbon dioxide by

hyperventilating excessively.b. At depth, diver’s body consumes oxygen faster

than carbon dioxide accumulates to stimulatebreathing.

c. Depleted oxygen causes no problem at depthbecause high partial pressure allows hemoglobinto bond with remaining supply.

d. Diver ascends, the partial pressure drops andhemoglobin can no longer bond with oxygen;diver blacks out without warning due to hypoxia -insufficient oxygen.

DM 6 - DM 6 - Circulation and RespirationCirculation and Respiration

Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide■ What is hypercapnia?■ What is hypercapnia?

1313

◆ Excessive CO2

◆ Caused by skip breathing, rapid

shallow breathing, overexertion, etc.◆ May cause to headache, confusion,

loss of consciousness

◆ Excessive CO2

◆ Caused by skip breathing, rapid shallow breathing, overexertion, etc.

◆ May cause to headache, confusion, loss of consciousness

■ What is hypocapnia?■ What is hypocapnia?◆ Insufficient CO

2

◆ Caused by hyperventilation◆ May cause shallow water blackout

◆ Insufficient CO2

◆ Caused by hyperventilation◆ May cause shallow water blackout


D. What are the physiological effects of carbonmonoxide while diving, and how do you avoidthem?1. It’s caused by contaminated air from using wrong

lubricants or improper compressor system mainte-nance (fortunately now very rare) Smoking is an-other source of carbon monoxide.a. Carbon monoxide bonds with hemoglobin more

readily than oxygen, but doesn’t release as easily.b. Breathing air contaminated with carbon monox-

ide at depth, hemoglobin carries less and lessoxygen as carbon monoxide bonds with it.

c. However, at depth blood still carries sufficientoxygen dissolved in plasma by high partial pres-sures to meet tissue demands.

d. When diver surfaces, plasma no longer can carryenough dissolved oxygen - diver blacks out fromhypoxia.

2. Symptoms and signs (when they do occur) includeheadache, confusion, narrow vision, bright red lips/nails (not easily observed underwater).a. Symptoms of mild cases subside after several

hours of fresh air.b. Severe cases - give the diver pure oxygen and

contact emergency medical care.3. Avoid by getting air only from reputable air fill

stations.E. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and

how do you avoid them?1. It’s nearly impossible to suffer oxygen toxicity using

air within recreational diving limits (40 m/130 ft orless, no stop diving).

2. Using enriched air nitrox (EANx), you can haveoxygen toxicity.

3. Two types of oxygen toxicitya. Central nervous system (CNS) toxicity

1. Caused by exposure to oxygen partial pres-sures greater than approximately 1.4 ata(using EANx32 below 33 metres/110 feet, orEANx36 below 29 metres/95 feet, or pure oxy-gen below 4 metres/13 feet) to 1.6 ata.

2. Symptoms and signs include visual distur-bances, ear ringing, nausea, twitching muscles,irritability and dizziness.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving?

What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving?


■ CO bonds with hemoglobin more

readily than oxygen

■ CO bonds with hemoglobin more

readily than oxygen

■ May cause hypoxia = black out■ May cause hypoxia = black out

■ Use only air from reputable

fill stations

■ Use only air from reputable fill stations

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the two types of oxygen toxicity?What are the two types of oxygen toxicity?


■ Central nervous system (CNS)

◆ Exposure to PPO greater

than 1.4 ata

■ Central nervous system (CNS)

◆ Exposure to PPO greater than 1.4 ata

■ Pulmonary toxicity

◆ Continuous exposure to

elevated PPO

■ Pulmonary toxicity

◆ Continuous exposure to elevated PPO


3. Most serious symptom/sign is a convulsion -usually without warning. Convulsions are notharmful themselves, but may cause diver tolose mouthpiece and drown.

4. Avoid by not exceeding a partial pressure of1.4 ata. [Remind candidates that enriched airdiving requires special training, much of whichcovers CNS concerns in more detail.]

b. Pulmonary toxicity1. Caused by continuous exposure to elevated

oxygen partial pressure.2. Most likely in recreational diving only follow-

ing multiple dives using enriched air.3. Symptoms and signs include burning in the

chest and irritated cough.4. Usually resolves itself by ceasing diving for

several days.5. Not considered immediately life threatening or

hazardous.6. Avoid by following oxygen exposure limits of

NOAA and DSAT Oxygen Exposure Table. [Tellcandidates that enriched air training coverspulmonary toxicity and using tables to avoid itin more detail.]

III. Physiological Responses to NitrogenA. What are the physiological mechanisms by

which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen(or other inert gases) while diving?1. Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the

pressure. This is the basis for decompression.2. The human body is primarily water, so when ex-

posed to pressure (as in diving), more nitrogen fromthe air we breathe goes into solution in body tissues.a. Oxygen is consumed metabolically, but nitrogen

gas is physiologically inert and is therefore aconcern.

b. Other inert gases, such as helium, will dissolveinto body tissues when breathing special mixes innonrecreational diving.

c. Nitrogen pressure is higher in alveolar air than inthe blood, so nitrogen dissolves into blood, thenfrom the blood to the tissues.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Nitrogen Absorption and Elimination

Nitrogen Absorption and Elimination

1616

What are the physiological mechanisms by which the body absorbs and

releases nitrogen?

What are the physiological mechanisms by which the body absorbs and

releases nitrogen?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Physiological ResponsesPhysiological Responses

1717NitrogenNitrogen

■ Gases dissolve into liquids

proportionately to the pressure

■ Gases dissolve into liquids proportionately to the pressure

■ While diving, nitrogen goes into

solution in body tissues

■ While diving, nitrogen goes into solution in body tissues

■ Different tissues absorb and

release nitrogen at different rates

■ Different tissues absorb and

release nitrogen at different rates

continued...continued...


d. Dissolved gas still exerts pressure. The pressure ofgas dissolved in the body is called tissue pressure.

3. Different tissues absorb (and release) nitrogen atdifferent rates. Given enough time at depth, thebody saturates by reaching equilibrium, meaning ithas absorbed all the nitrogen possible at that pres-sure.a. Calculating different tissue absorption and re-

lease is the foundation of decompression models.4. Most dives are too short to reach saturation. The

amount of nitrogen absorbed relates directly to thedepth (pressure) and time of the dive.

5. Upon ascent after a dive, nitrogen pressure in tissuesis higher than surrounding pressure. This is calledsupersaturation.

6. With higher tissue pressures, nitrogen pressure inblood exceeds pressure in alveolar air; nitrogendissolves from blood and is exhaled. This lowersblood tissue pressure, so nitrogen dissolves frombody tissues into blood.

7. If difference between surrounding pressure andtissue pressure (the pressure gradient) is within limits,the nitrogen dissolves harmlessly out of the body.a. Most nitrogen remains within solution and dis-

solves out slowly.8. What are silent bubbles, and how do they

relate to decompression?a. According to theory, some nitrogen dissolves into

microscopic gas pockets in the body and formtiny bubbles that are trapped by the pulmonarycapillaries in the lungs; these then diffuse harm-lessly into alveolar air.

b. Doppler ultrasound flow meters detect silentbubbles after some dives, especially those close totable/computer limits - these are larger bubblesthan the tiny bubbles theorized to form after mostdives, but are still harmless.

B. What causes decompression sickness (DCS)?1. If tissue pressure exceeds surrounding pressure ex-

cessively, nitrogen comes out of solution faster thanthe body can eliminate it harmlessly - bubbles formin the tissues.a. Small bubbles accumulate to form larger bubbles. DM 6 - DM 6 -

What causes decompression sickness?

What causes decompression sickness?


Symptoms depend on

amount and location of

bubble formation

Symptoms depend on

amount and location of

bubble formation

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Physiological Responses...Physiological Responses...■ Most dives are too short

to reach saturation

■ Most dives are too short to reach saturation


■ Upon ascent, higher nitrogen

pressure in tissues results in

nitrogen dissolving out of the body

■ Upon ascent, higher nitrogen pressure in tissues results in

nitrogen dissolving out of the body

■ If pressure gradient is within limits,

elimination is harmless

■ If pressure gradient is within limits, elimination is harmless

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are silent bubbles?What are silent bubbles?■ Some excess nitrogen dissolves

into microscopic gas pockets

forming tiny bubbles

■ Some excess nitrogen dissolves into microscopic gas pockets forming tiny bubbles


■ Tiny bubbles may

lead to larger, but

still harmless silent bubbles

■ Tiny bubbles may lead to larger, but still harmless silent bubbles

■ Silent bubbles are detectable by

Doppler ultrasound flow meters

■ Silent bubbles are detectable by Doppler ultrasound flow meters


b. Larger bubbles cause decompression sickness(DCS), a.k.a. “the bends.”

c. DCS types and symptoms depend on amount ofbubble formation and where the bubbles end upin the body.

What is meant by decompression illness (DCI) ver-sus decompression sickness?Decompression illness (DCI) is a blanket term for DCS andlung overexpansion injuries used in describing first aid andtreatment, which is identical for both conditions. However,it’s improper to interchange “DCI” with “DCS” when talk-ing about the specific condition caused by dissolved nitro-gen coming out of solution.

C. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?1. Fat tissue: fat releases nitrogen slowly. A diver with a

disproportionate amount of body fat may havemore nitrogen in solution after a dive.

2. Age: as we age, our circulatory systems become lessefficient, reducing speed of gas exchange.

3. Dehydration: reduces blood in circulation, slowingnitrogen elimination.

4. Injuries/illness: may alter or restrict circulationleading to localized areas where nitrogen isn’t elimi-nated quickly.

5. Alcohol before or after diving: alters circulationpatterns, dilates capillaries and promotes dehydra-tion, all of which can alter nitrogen elimination andbubble formation.

6. Carbon dioxide excess: skip breathing may raisecarbon dioxide levels altering circulation and gasexchange.

7. Cold water: diver starts warm with normal circula-tion, but circulation to extremities reduces as divercools, slowing nitrogen elimination from thoseareas.

8. Heavy exercise: during dive accelerates circulationso more nitrogen than normal dissolves into body.After a dive, exercise accelerates circulation alteringnitrogen elimination.

9. Altitude/flying: dive tables/computers are based onsurfacing at sea level, thus exposure to lower pres-sure increases the tissue pressure gradient and may

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Decompression Illness (DCI) vs.

Decompression Sickness (DCS)

Decompression Illness (DCI) vs.

Decompression Sickness (DCS)

2121

■ DCI — refers to both decompression

sickness and lung overexpansion

injuries (emergency first aid is the

same for both)

■ DCS — refers specifically to

conditions caused by nitrogen

coming out of solution in the body

■ DCI — refers to both decompression sickness and lung overexpansion injuries (emergency first aid is the same for both)

■ DCS — refers specifically to conditions caused by nitrogen coming out of solution in the body

NitrogenNitrogen

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What factors predispose a diver to DCS?What factors predispose a diver to DCS?


■ Body fat■ Body fat

■ Age■ Age

■ Dehydration■ Dehydration

■ Injuries/Illness■ Injuries/Illness

■ Alcohol■ Alcohol

■ Excess CO2

■ Excess CO2

■ Cold water■ Cold water

■ Heavy exercise■ Heavy exercise

■ Altitude/Flying■ Altitude/Flying


cause large bubbles to form - returning to sea leveldoesn’t usually alleviate the bubbles once formed.

D. What are the two types of decompression sick-ness?1. Type I - identified as “pain only” DCS.

a. Limb pain most common - may be midlimb orjoints; first or second symptom noted in 60 per-cent of cases.

b. Cutaneous DCS (“skin bends”) - red rashes/patches usually on shoulders/upper chest.

2. Type II - identified as having life threatening orimmediately injurious symptoms; involves brain,nervous system, lungs.a. numbness and/or tinglingb. paralysisc. weakness/fatigued. unconsciousness and death

E. What are the recommendations and physiologi-cal rationales for DCS first aid and treatment?1. Treat all DCS as serious, even pain only.2. Give patient oxygen (preferably 100 percent).

a. Lowers alveolar nitrogen to accelerate elimina-tion from tissues.

b. Raises blood oxygen levels to assist tissues withblood flow reduced by bubble blockage.

3. Keep a breathing patient lying level on left side,head supported (recovery position).a. Helps keep airway clear if patient vomits.b. Lying level helps ensure blood flow to brain.c. Advise patient not to sit up, even during trans-

port or if feeling better.4. Lay nonbreathing patient on back for rescue breath-

ing/CPR.5. Monitor airway, breathing, circulation, and contact

emergency medical care.6. Elevating the patient’s feet (modified Trendelenburg

position) is no longer recommended.F. DCS treatment

1. Except isolated cutaneous DCS, treatment usuallyrequires putting patient under pressure in a recom-pression chamber.

2. Recompression reduces bubbles in body to small size

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What are the two types of DCS?What are the two types of DCS?


■ Type 1 – “Pain Only”◆ Limb and joint pain

◆ Cutaneous - skin rash

■ Type 1 – “Pain Only”◆ Limb and joint pain

◆ Cutaneous - skin rash

■ Type 2 – Neurological◆ Numbness and/or tingling

◆ Paralysis◆ Weakness/fatigue

◆ Unconsciousness

■ Type 2 – Neurological◆ Numbness and/or tingling

◆ Paralysis

◆ Weakness/fatigue

◆ Unconsciousness

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is the treatment for DCS?What is the treatment for DCS?


■ Recompression in a chamber

◆ Long slow decompression with

oxygen and drug therapy

■ Recompression in a chamber

◆ Long slow decompression with

oxygen and drug therapy

■ The sooner recompression begins,

the more likely patient will recover

without permanent injury

■ The sooner recompression begins, the more likely patient will recover without permanent injury

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is the first aid for DCS?What is the first aid for DCS?


■ Treat all cases as serious■ Treat all cases as serious■ Give patient oxygen■ Give patient oxygen

O2

■ Keep patient lying level on left side with head supported

■ Keep patient lying level on left side with head supported

■ Provide primary care while waiting for emergency medical care

■ Provide primary care while waiting for emergency medical care


and forces them back into solution - often alleviatessymptoms immediately.

3. Treatment involves a long slow decompression withoxygen and drug therapy.a. Duration and need for drugs/oxygen makes

attempting recompression in water inadvisable invast majority of circumstances.

4. The sooner recompression begins, the more likelythe patient will recover without permanent injury -don’t delay obtaining medical care. Patients some-times don’t want to believe they’re suffering fromDCI and object to seeing a doctor - as appropriate,strongly urge patients to allow medical examinationby emergency medical care.

G. What causes nitrogen narcosis, at approxi-mately what depth is it likely, and what arecommon signs and symptoms of it?1. Almost any gas can cause an anesthetic (narcotic)

effect under pressure. Exact mechanism unknown,but appears related to nerve impulse blockage dueto gas dissolved in nerve cells.a. Effect of a gas depends upon gas solubility in

nerve cells.b. Narcosis varies with individual physiology and is

not entirely predictable.c. Nitrogen/oxygen have about same solubility - are

somewhat narcotic at the deeper range of recre-ational diving. Using air or enriched air, narcosisis expected to be noticeable at about 30 metres/100 feet.

d. Helium is not narcotic under even very highpressures - this is why it is used by technical andcommercial divers making very deep dives.

2. Ascent relieves narcotic symptoms - usually no aftereffects.

3. Not directly hazardous - hazard comes from im-paired judgment that may delay reactions or lead topoor decisions.

IV. Physiological Responses to Thermal ChangesA. How does the body respond to excess heat?

1. Heat is mainly a problem before or after dive wear-ing full wet suits or dry suits in hot weather.

2. Body responds to excess heat, progressively by:

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is nitrogen narcosis?

What is nitrogen narcosis?


DM 6 - DM 6 - 2727

Physiological Responses to Thermal and

Pressure Changes

Physiological Responses to Thermal and

Pressure Changes


a. Dilating skin capillaries to promote cooling.b. Perspiring to cool skin through evaporation.c. Accelerating pulse to circulate blood faster for

cooling.d. Continuing until diver cools (seeks shade, stops

exercising, etc.) or exhausts physiological abilityto cool

B. What causes heat exhaustion and heat stroke,and how do they differ physiologically?1. Exposure suits interfere with body’s ability to cool

self - perspiration is ineffective in a wet or dry suit.This is compounded if diver exercises in hot climate,such as long walk across a hot beach.

2. Heat exhaustion - condition in which body works atfull capacity to cool.a. weak, rapid breathingb. weak rapid pulsec. cool clammy skind. profuse sweatinge. dehydrationf. nausea

3. Diver with heat exhaustion should remove exposuresuit, seek shade, drink nonalcoholic fluid and restuntil cool.

4. Heatstroke - condition in which cooling has failed -an emergency medical condition.a. pulse strong and rapidb. no perspirationc. skin flushed, hot to the touchd. brain damage, system damage or death possible

5. Diver with heat stroke - remove exposure suit andput diver in cool environment; contact emergencymedical aid.

C. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?1. Water conducts heat 20 times faster than air - diver

in 4oC/40oF water will be dangerously cold in half anhour.

2. Temperatures that are warm in air can lead to ex-cessive heat loss in water.

3. Under many circumstances, an exposure suit greatlyslows heat loss, but does not stop it.

4. Body responds to heat loss progressively by:a. Vasoconstriction - reduced blood flow to extremities

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How does the body respond to excess heat?How does the body respond to excess heat?

2828

■ Skin capillaries dilate

■ Perspiration

■ Accelerated pulse

■ Skin capillaries dilate

■ Perspiration

■ Accelerated pulse

Heat Exhaustion Heat Stroke Heat Exhaustion Heat Stroke

No Relief =No Relief =

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Heat Exhaustion

Heat Exhaustion

2929

Heat Stroke Heat Stroke

weak rapid breathing

weak rapid pulse

cool clammy skin

profuse perspiration

nausea

weak rapid breathing

weak rapid pulse

cool clammy skin

profuse perspiration

nausea

strong rapid pulse

no perspiration

hot flushed skin

convulsions

strong rapid pulse

no perspiration

hot flushed skin

convulsions

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How does the body respond to insufficient heat?How does the body respond to insufficient heat?

3030

■ Reduced blood flow

to extremities

— vasoconstriction

■ Shivering

■ Reduced blood flow to extremities — vasoconstriction

■ Shivering

No Relief =No Relief = Hypothermia Hypothermia


(except head) to reduce heat loss - causes finger/toe numbness.

b. Shivering to generate heat through muscle activ-ity - signals a losing battle against the cold.

D. What causes hypothermia, and what happensphysiologically when it occurs?1. Occurs when diver ignores uncontrollable shivering,

numbness and continues to cool.2. Body temperature regulation mechanisms fail, body

core temperature drops.a. Shivering stopsb. Vasoconstriction stops - diver may feel warm as

blood rushes to skin - a dangerous conditionbecause diver doesn’t feel cold, but heat loss innow unchecked.

c. As core temperature drops, mental processes slow- diver becomes drowsy, uncoordinated, forgetful.

d. Unchecked, hypothermia leads to unconscious-ness, coma and death.

e. Advanced hypothermia is a medical emergencyrequiring emergency care.

V. Physiological Responses to Pressure Changes onBody Air SpacesA. What are the basic functions, organs and struc-

ture of the ears and sinuses?1. Ears — divided into outer, middle, and inner ear

a. Outer ear consists of external ear, ear canal -open to air/water pressure - channels sound to eardrum.

b. Middle ear separated from outer ear by ear drum- sealed against air/water; - ear drum vibratesand passes sound to ossicles, small bones thatconduct sound to inner ear.

c. Inner ear consists of vestibular canals (controlbalance) and cochlea - turns vibrations fromossicles into nerve impulses sent by auditory nerveto brain.1. Ossicles connect to cochlea at oval window,

which flexes in and out with vibrations.2. Round window on cochlea flexes out when oval

window flexes in to compensate.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

HypothermiaHypothermia

3131

numbness

blueness

loss of coordination

confusion

unconsciousness

numbness

blueness

loss of coordination

confusion

unconsciousness

37°C 98.6°F37°C 98.6°F


B. How do the ears and sinuses respond to chang-ing pressure?1. Middle ear connected by eustachian tube to throat to

maintain equilibrium with outside pressure.a. Descending, increasing pressure pushes in on ear

drum - diver feels as discomfort.b. By equalizing, diver forces air up eustachian tube

to equalize pressure in middle ear, alleviating thediscomfort.

c. Expanding air normally exits eustachian tubeeasily - seldom need to do anything during ascent.

2. Sinusesa. Sinuses are spaces in head connected to the nose

that filter and moisturize air before it reacheslungs.

b. Healthy sinuses have free air flow and normallyequalize naturally during middle ear equalization.

C. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?1. When scuba diving, normal breathing keeps lungs

equalized to surrounding pressure.2. When breath-hold diving, increasing pressure com-

presses lungs and reduces their volume - not nor-mally a problem because they’re intended to changevolume.

D. Mask1. Not a natural air space, but affects the body.2. Exhale into mask through nose to keep mask equal-

ized.3. This is why divers cannot use goggles for diving - no

way to equalize the air space.

VI. Problems in Body Air SpacesA. What are barotrauma and squeeze?

1. Barotrauma means “pressure injury,” and resultswhen a body air space isn’t equalized and pressurecontinues or increases.

2. An unequalized air space is also called a squeeze .B. What are the causes and physiologies of ear-

drum rupture, middle ear squeeze, reversesqueeze, ear plug problems, round windowrupture and sinus squeeze?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How do the ears respond to changing pressure?

How do the ears respond to changing pressure?

3232

Ossicles

Vestibular Canals

Oval Window

Auditory Nerve(To Brain)

Cochlea

Round Window

Eustachian Tube

Ear Drum

Ear Canal

DM 6 - DM 6 -

How do the sinuses and lungs respond to changing pressure?

How do the sinuses and lungs respond to changing pressure?

3333

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Body Air Space Problems

Body Air Space Problems

3434

What are barotrauma and squeeze?

What are barotrauma and squeeze?

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Barotrauma and the EarBarotrauma and the Ear

3535

■ Middle ear squeeze■ Middle ear squeeze

■ Eardrum rupture

– vertigo

■ Eardrum rupture – vertigo

■ Reverse squeeze■ Reverse squeeze

■ Ear plugs■ Ear plugs

■ Round window rupture■ Round window rupture


1. Middle ear squeeze - caused by failure to equalize orinability to equalize due to congestion (diving witha cold).a. Eardrum flexes inward from pressure.b. Hydrostatic pressure forces blood and fluid into

middle ear until equilibrium is restored.c. Ears feel “full” and hearing is reduced (fluid

dampens vibrations).d. Should be checked by an otolaryngologist (ears,

nose and throat doctor).e. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent if

unable to equalize.2. Eardrum rupture - also caused by failure to equalize,

but pressure increases faster than fluids can fillmiddle ear. Eardrum tears due to pressure.a. Diver feels momentary sharp pain, then relief.b. Usually heals without complication, but requires

medical attention to prevent infection and per-manent damage because water contaminates earwith organic matter and dirt.

c. Prevented by equalizing, and stopping descent ifunable to equalize.

3. What is vertigo, and what may cause it whilediving?a. When the ear drum ruptures, cold water on vesti-

bular canals may cause momentary vertigo - lossof sense of direction and dizziness.

4. Reverse squeeze - ears equalize on descent, butcongestion at depth prevents air from escapingduring ascent. Eardrum flexes outward.a. Feels like a squeeze, but happens during ascent.b. May help to pinch nose and inhale against it.c. Slow ascent and give air time to work itself out.d. Usually caused by diving with a cold using decon-

gestants; decongestant wears off during divecausing blockage.

e. Prevent by not diving with a cold.5. Ear plug problems - ear plugs or a tight wet suit

hood create an airspace between plug and eardrumthat cannot be equalized. During descent, eardrumflexes toward earplug - unequalized space.a. Feels like middle ear squeeze.b. Eardrum can rupture outward if descent continues.


c. In rare cases, ear plug can be forced into earcanal.

d. Prevent by not diving with ear plugs; if unable toequalize while wearing a hood, pull hood off earmomentarily and try again in case hood is seal-ing ear canal.

6. Round window rupture - caused by delayed equal-ization accompanied by forceful Valsalva equaliza-tion (exhaling against pinched nostrils).a. Pressure on eardrum presses in on ossicles, which

press in on oval window on cochlea; round win-dow flexes outward in response.

b. Valsalva raises pressure in thorax, which causesincrease in pressure in cochlea (connected byfluid as part of nervous system); this plus trans-mitted pressure bursts round window outward.

c. This is a serious injury requiring medical treat-ment to avoid or reduce permanent hearingdamage.

d. Symptoms include reduced hearing, vertigo,balance problems, ear ringing, a feeling the earsare blocked.

e. Prevented by:1. Equalizing early and often.2. Not equalizing forcefully - if having difficulty,

ascend a bit and try again.3. Using the Frenzel maneuver - using throat

muscles to push air against pinched noseinstead of using diaphragm to exhale againstpinched nose.

C. Sinuses1. Sinus squeeze usually caused by diving with a cold.2. Unequalized sinuses fill with blood and fluid during

dive - may feel like sharp pain against eyes.3. Upon ascent, expanding air pushes blood and fluid

into nasal cavity - diver surfaces with blood inmask.

4. Usually not serious and heals on its own. Medicalattention usually only required if pain is severe orextended.

D. What is the cause and physiology of lungsqueeze?1. Lung squeeze - caused by breath-hold descent to a

depth that reduces lung volume below residual vol-DM 6 - DM 6 -

Barotrauma and the LungsBarotrauma and the Lungs

3737

■ Squeeze during breath-hold dives■ Squeeze during breath-hold dives

■ Lung overexpansion injuries■ Lung overexpansion injuries

Air Embolism

Air Embolism

PneumothoraxPneumothorax

MediastinalEmphysemaMediastinalEmphysema

Subcutaneous EmphysemaSubcutaneous Emphysema

DM 6 - DM 6 -

Barotrauma and the SinusesBarotrauma and the Sinuses

3636

Do not dive

with a cold or

congestion

Do not dive

with a cold or

congestion


ume - the lowest volume after exhaling all possibleair.a. Not a problem if you descend with full lungs

unless you go very deep.b. Can occur shallow if you descend with partially

full or empty lungs.c. Lung squeeze causes fluid to accumulate in the

lungs, however, this requires some time to be-come significant.

d. Can be life threatening and require medicalattention, but not likely in recreational diving.

E. What are the causes and physiologies of thelung overexpansion injuries: air embolism,pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema andsubcutaneous emphysema?1. Lung overexpansion injuries are usually caused by

holding breath during ascent. They may also becaused by lung congestion when diving with a chestcold, or by local blockage due to loss of surfactant(due to smoking) which keeps bronchioles fromadhering shut. In all cases, expanding air overex-pands lungs causing lung rupture.

2. Air embolism - also called arterial gas embolism(AGE). Alveoli and pulmonary capillaries rupture,air enters bloodstream and flows into arteries.a. Serious and immediately lifethreatening -

bubbles can lodge anywhere, but most commonis to flow through the carotid arteries and causecerebral air embolism.

b. Signs and symptoms similar to stroke - dizziness,confusion, shock, paralysis, personality change,unconsciousness and death.

c. Symptoms can vary depending upon where thebubbles go.

3. Pneumothorax - air from rupture goes between lungand chest wall, causing lung to collapse.a. Also serious. Symptoms include chest pain and

patient may cough up blood.4. Mediastinal emphysema - air from rupture accumu-

lates in center of chest over heart.a. Serious, because air presses on heart and vessels,

interfering with circulation.b. Patient may feel faint or short of breath.


5. Subcutaneous emphysema - air from rupture accumu-lates in soft tissues at base of neck. The victim feelsfullness in neck and voice may change. The skinmay crackle to the touch.

6. More than one of these injuries can occur simulta-neously.

7. Avoid lung overexpansion injuries by breathingnormally, not diving with chest congestion and bynot smoking. If unable to quit smoking, avoidingsmoking before diving may reduce risk.

F. What are the recommendations and physiologi-cal rationales for lung overexpansion injuryfirst aid and treatment?1. First aid same as for DCS, hence the common term

“decompression illness” for both.2. Giving oxygen helps supply tissues deprived of blood

flow by bubbles.3. Treatment of air embolism requires recompression to

reduce bubble size (as in DCS).4. Pneumothorax requires removing air and reinflat-

ing collapsed lung.5. Air from mediastinal and subcutaneous

emphysemas dissipates over time; oxygen breathingmay help.

G. What are the cause and physiology of mask anddry suit squeezes?1. Mask squeeze - caused by failure to equalize mask.

a Tissues swell, forced into unequalized mask bypressure, capillaries in skin and eyes rupture.

b. Looks very dramatic and severe, but generallyclears without complications.

2. Dry suit squeeze - caused by failure to add air to drysuit on descent.a. May raise welts and cause severe pinches.b. Can constrict breathing and cause shortness of

breath.3. Avoid by equalizing mask and dry suit during de-

scents.

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is the first aid and treatment for lung overexpansion injuries?

What is the first aid and treatment for lung overexpansion injuries?

3838

■ First aid is identical to DCS –

oxygen, lie level on left side, head

supported, primary care, etc.

■ First aid is identical to DCS – oxygen, lie level on left side, head supported, primary care, etc.

■ Treatment may involve

recompression and surgery

for pneumothorax

■ Treatment may involve recompression and surgery

for pneumothorax

DM 6 - DM 6 -

What is mask squeeze and dry suit squeeze?What is mask squeeze and dry suit squeeze?

3939

■ Failure to equalize mask◆ Swelling facial tissues and

capillary ruptures in eyes

■ Failure to equalize mask◆ Swelling facial tissues and

capillary ruptures in eyes

■ Failure to add air to dry

suit on descent◆ Welts and pinches

◆ Constricted breathing

■ Failure to add air to dry suit on descent◆ Welts and pinches

◆ Constricted breathing

DM 6 - DM 6 -





Topic 7 -Dive Equipment

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about dive equipmentis to have candidates read the Equipment section of The Encyclopedia ofRecreational Diving and complete the equipment section in the Diving Knowl-edge Workbook (or The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia). Havethem consult the related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI DivemasterManual to be sure they can meet all the performance requirements.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in agroup. Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook,then answer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery andreview the material based on how they complete their workbooks. Use thepresentation outline as a guide for a complete review.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving Knowledge Work-book don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can developknowledge by giving the following presentation in detail. Have examples ofthe equipment you’re discussing as training aids during your presentations.


I. Scuba cylinders1. How do you identify and what are the meanings of

the following scuba cylinder marks: alloy designa-tion, hydrostatic test date, working pressure and over-pressurization designation?

2. What are the differences between steel and alumi-num cylinder pressures, thickness and capacity?

3. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatictest?

4. How does extreme heat affect a scuba cylinder, andwhat should you do if a scuba cylinder is exposedto extreme heat?

5. Why should a tank be visually inspected annually?

II. Valves

6. What are the different types of tank valves?

7. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinderfrom exploding, and how does it work?

III. Regulators

8. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semiclosedcircuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?

DM 7 - DM 7 - 11



Dive EquipmentDive Equipment

DM 7 - DM 7 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Scuba Cylinders■ Scuba Cylinders

■ Valves■ Valves

■ Regulators■ Regulators

■ Instruments■ Instruments

■ Enriched Air Equipment Considerations

■ Enriched Air Equipment Considerations


9. How does an open circuit regulator work?

10. What is meant by fail-safe with respect to regula-tors, and how does it work?

11. What are meant by upstream and downstreamvalves, and balanced and unbalanced regulators?

12. What is the purpose of a regulator environmentalseal?

IV. Instruments

13. What are the proper procedures for using divecomputers in a buddy team?

14. What are the different operating principles fordepth gauges, SPGs and compasses?

15. What are the options for carrying gauges?

V. Enriched Air Equipment Considerations

16. What special equipment requirements and consider-ations do you have when diving with enriched air?

OutlineI. Scuba cylinders

A. How do you identify and what are the mean-ings of the following scuba cylinder marks:alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, workingpressure and over-pressurization designation?1. Scuba cylinders have various markings stamped at

the neck. These vary somewhat internationally, buttypically include: [Have example cylinders presentto show candidates the following marks.]a. The government agency responsible for supervi-

sion/approval of compressed gas containers.(e.g., in North America - DOT/CTC)

b. The alloy designation. Steel will normally have adesignation 3AA. Aluminum will normally bedesignated by 3AL.

c. The working pressure. The specific working pres-sure is indicated by a numerical designation.Tanks that have a “+” designation after the cur-rent hydrostatic test date can be filled to 10 per-cent beyond their rated working pressure.

d. The hydrostatic test date indicates both the dateof hydrostatic pressure tests and the testing facil-ity. A plus sign after the test date is the over-

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What markings are found on scuba cylinders and what do they mean?

What markings are found on scuba cylinders and what do they mean?

33

■ Alloy designation■ Alloy designation

■ Hydrostatic test date■ Hydrostatic test date

■ Working pressure■ Working pressure

■ Over-pressurization designation■ Over-pressurization designation


pressurization designation, which means thecylinder may be filled 10 percent beyond thestamped working pressure.

e. Tanks also have a stamped serial number andmanufacturer’s designation.

B. What are the differences between steel andaluminum cylinder pressures, thickness andcapacity?1. Virtually all scuba cylinders are made from steel

alloy or aluminum alloy.2. Steel alloys are stronger than aluminum for the

same thickness, so steel scuba tanks have thinnerwalls and larger internal volumes for a given exter-nal size. This means that for a given size, they holdmore air at a given pressure than aluminum, or thesame air at a lower pressure.

3. Because aluminum is weaker than steel it requires athicker wall and lower internal volume for a givenexternal size. Typically, aluminum tanks havehigher working pressures so they hold comparableor slightly more air than steel cylinders. Aluminum’sadvantage is that it is less subject to structural weak-ening due to corrosion.

C. What are the steps and procedures of a hydro-static test? How does extreme heat affect ascuba cylinder, and what should you do if ascuba cylinder is exposed to extreme heat?1. Many countries require periodic hydrostatic pressure

testing to determine the structural integrity of cylinders.a. In the U.S., the test is required every five years.b. In the U.K., it is required every four years.

2. Although tests procedures vary from country tocountry, in general:a. The tester immerses the cylinder in water and

measures its volume.b. The tester next fills the cylinder with water and

pressurizes it to more than working pressure andmeasures the cylinder’s expansion.

c. After releasing the pressure, the tester measuresits new unpressurized volume against its originalvolume.

d. If the tank contracts to within acceptable limits(as set by the government), the tank passes. [Pro-vide local protocols if different.]

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the differences between steel and

aluminum cylinders?

What are the differences between steel and

aluminum cylinders?

44

Thickness?Capacity?Pressure?

Thickness?Capacity?Pressure?steelsteel aluminumaluminum

CylindersCylinders

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the steps of a hydrostatic (pressure) test?What are the steps of a hydrostatic (pressure) test?

55CylindersCylinders

■ Tank volume measured■ Tank volume measured■ Tank pressurized beyond normal

working pressure ■ Tank pressurized beyond normal

working pressure ■ Pressure released and tank volume

measured again■ Pressure released and tank volume

measured again■ If change is within specified limits,

tank passes test■ If change is within specified limits,

tank passes test

NOTE: Specific protocols may vary from country to country

NOTE: Specific protocols may vary from country to country


D. Certain circumstances can weaken tanks before ahydro test is required. Have tanks hydrostatically testedafter exposure to any of the following conditions:1. Tumbling (or sandblasting) to remove corrosion2. Damage due to impact3. Exposure to heat in excess of 82 C /180 F may

affect the metals integrity. Never repaint a cylinderusing a heat painting process such as that used onautomobiles.

4. Left unused for two years or more (especially if withzero pressure)

E. Why should a tank be visually inspectedannually?1. Visual inspection - an inspector examines the inte-

rior and exterior of a cylinder annually. This is doneto check for damage or wear that may cause thecylinder to fail between hydrostatic tests.

2. The inspection is not required by law in most coun-tries, but is an industry standard.

3. Removal of the valve during the test also enableslubrication, reducing problems from electrolysis dueto the dissimilar metals of the valve and tank. O-rings may be replaced as needed, and the valveexamined for overhaul if necessary.

II.ValvesA. What are the different types of tank valves?

1. The simplest tank valve is simply an on-off valve.This is referred to as a K valve, which is by far themost commonly used today.

2. A valve with a mechanical reserve is a J valve. Itcontains a spring-loaded mechanism that, if acti-vated (by placing it in the “up” position) restricts theair flow when the pressure drops to between 20-40bar (2000-4000kPa)/300-500 psi.a. This alerts the diver to low air. The diver pulls the

lever into the “down” position, which releases therestricted air flow. The J valve is a warning device;it doesn’t provide any additional air volume.

b. With the advent of the submersible pressuregauge, J valves began to disappear. In fact, whenusing a J valve, many divers often disable it bykeeping it in the “down” position.

c. Note that when filling tanks equipped with J

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Why should a tank be visually inspected?

Why should a tank be visually inspected?


To check for damage or wear that may cause

cylinder to fail

To check for damage or wear that may cause

cylinder to fail

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the different types of tank valves?What are the different types of tank valves?


■ K valve — simple on/off valve

■ K valve — simple on/off valve

■ J valve — valve with a mechanical reserve

■ J valve — valve with a mechanical reserve

■ DIN — regulator screws into valve for a better seal

■ DIN — regulator screws into valve for a better seal

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Hydrostatic tests are necessary:Hydrostatic tests are necessary:■ At regular intervals specified

by the government■ At regular intervals specified

by the government


■ If tank is tumbled to remove corrosion■ If tank is tumbled to remove corrosion

■ When a tank is damaged due to impact■ When a tank is damaged due to impact

■ After a tank is exposed to heat in excess of 82°C/180°F

■ After a tank is exposed to heat in excess of 82°C/180°F

■ If the tank is left unused for two or more years

■ If the tank is left unused for two or more years


valves that they cannot be filled if the valve is inan “up” position.

3. Long popular in Europe, DIN (Deutsche Industrie-Norm) connectors are becoming more common.With the DIN system, the regulator screws into thecylinder valve, providing two primary advantagesover the yoke screw design:a. A better seal between the tank and regulator

valves due to the fact that the o-ring is actuallytrapped between the two valves. (The tank valveis “female” and the regulator connector is “male.”)

b. Because the tank valve and regulator are securedby threads, the connection is much stronger thanthe yoke screw assembly. This makes DIN valvesparticularly popular among cave and wreckdivers, who may accidentally strike the valve/regulator on overhead obstructions.

c. This system, because of the superior o-ring posi-tioning and strength, enables the use of muchhigher air pressures.

B. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylin-der from exploding, and how does it work?1. A burst disk is required by law in many countries

and installed into every valve to reduce the possibil-ity that an overpressurized cylinder will explode.

2. It is a thin copper disk that ruptures and allows airto vent from the cylinder when the internal pressurereaches approximately 125 percent to 166 percent ofthe working pressure.

3. Because they weaken over time, you want to havethese disks replaced regularly by a qualified equip-ment technician. Installing the wrong burst diskcould result in the tank rupturing before the disk.

III. RegulatorsA. What is meant by open circuit scuba, semi-

closed circuit scuba and closed circuit scuba?1. There are three types of scuba - self contained un-

derwater breathing apparatus.a. Open circuit scuba - scuba typically used by recre-

ational divers. The diver inhales air from cylindervia a demand valve regulator and exhales it intothe water, thus the circuit is open because none ofthe air is recycled.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Valves are equipped with burst disks

— a thin copper disk that ruptures if the tank

pressure greatly exceeds its working pressure

Valves are equipped with burst disks

— a thin copper disk that ruptures if the tank

pressure greatly exceeds its working pressure


DM 7 - DM 7 -

What is open circuit, semiclosed circuit, and closed circuit scuba?

What is open circuit, semiclosed circuit, and closed circuit scuba?

1010


b. Semiclosed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from abreathing bag that receives a steady flow of gas(usually enriched air). The diver exhales backinto a breathing bag and the gas has carbondioxide removed chemically - excess gas from thesteady flow trickles out through a valve. Thecircuit is semi-open because part of the gas isrecycled and part of it is released.

c. Closed circuit scuba - the diver inhales from abreathing bag and diver exhales back into abreathing bag. The gas has carbon dioxide re-moved chemically and electronic sensors controlflow of oxygen and other gases as required Thecircuit is closed because all gas is recycled and nonereleased (except to vent expanding gas on ascent).

2. Though open circuit doesn’t recycle breathing gases,it is the main stay of recreational diving for severalreasons.a. It much simpler in design, which makes it reli-

able and less costly. Closed and semiclosed aremore prone to malfunctions.

b. It is much easier to learn to use.c. It requires only a cylinder of air. Closed and

semiclosed units require chemicals and access topure gases or enriched air.

d. It is much simpler to maintain and service.B. How does an open circuit regulator work?

1. The first stage reduces the high pressure delivered bythe tank to an intermediate pressure (usually about10-13 bar (1000-3000 kPa)/140-190 psi above theambient water pressure).a. When the diver inhales, the air pressure in the

first stage drops below the desired ambient pres-sure. This allows water pressure to flex a dia-phragm or move a piston, opening a valve thatreleases air from the tank.

b. Air flows as long as the diver inhales, keeping thefirst stage from reaching intermediate pressure.

c. When the diver stops inhaling, the pressure risesin the first stage so that upon reaching intermedi-ate pressure, the valve to the tank closes and airno longer flows.

2. The second stage reduces the intermediate air pres-sure to ambient pressure for breathing.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

How does an open circuit regulator work?How does an open circuit regulator work?

1111

■ First Stage■ First Stage

pistonpiston

diaphragmdiaphragm

RegulatorsRegulators

◆ Reduces high pressure to intermediate pressure

◆ Reduces high pressure to intermediate pressure

◆ Inhalation causes pressure change – valve opens

◆ Inhalation causes pressure change – valve opens

◆ Valve closes when intermediate pressure is restored

◆ Valve closes when intermediate pressure is restored


a. When the diver inhales, water pressure pushes ina diaphragm in the second stage and opens thesecond stage downstream valve releasing air flowfrom the first stage.

b. As long as the diver inhales, air continues to flow.c. When the diver stops inhaling, the diaphragm

returns to its relaxed position and the valvecloses.

d. Exhaled air exits the second stage through one-way exhalation valves.

e. On some second stage models, the diaphragmopens a small pilot valve, which creates a pres-sure imbalance that opens the main valve.1. Advantage - less breathing effort2. Disadvantage - more complex design difficult

to service and adjust.C. What are meant by upstream and downstream

valves?1. Modern open circuit regulator valves have down-

stream design, meaning they open with the air flow(the pressure is trying to open the valve) rather thanupstream, in which the valves open against the airflow (the pressure is trying to close the valve).

2. A malfunctioning downstream valve will permit con-tinuous air flow (freeflow) rather than cut off air flow.

3. What is meant by fail-safe with respect toregulators, and how does it work?a. Freeflowing during a malfunction gives regulators

a fail-safe design - it would fail in a safe mannerin that it continues to provide air. Obviously thetank will exhaust quickly so the diver must as-cend immediately.

D. What is the purpose of a regulator environmen-tal seal?1. Normal air flow causes regulator temperature to

drop (expanding gases have a lower temperature).2. In extremely cold water (such as cold water deep

diving, ice diving, etc.) the temperature drop cancause water to freeze regulator first stage valves intothe open, freeflowing position.

3. To avoid freeflow in extremely cold water, someregulator first stages have environmental sealing. Thisseals silicone grease or oil, which don’t freeze,around the first stage. The silicone or oil transmits

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Open circuit regulator...Open circuit regulator...

■ Second Stage■ Second Stage

1212

mouthpiecemouthpiece

diaphragmdiaphragmair from tankair from tank

RegulatorsRegulators

◆ Inhalation flexes diaphragm andopens valve

◆ Inhalation flexes diaphragm andopens valve

Downstream Valve

Downstream Valve

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Define these terms with respect to scuba regulators:Define these terms with respect to scuba regulators:■ Upstream - Downstream■ Upstream - Downstream

1313RegulatorsRegulators

■ Fail-safe■ Fail-safe

■ Environmental seal■ Environmental seal

■ Balanced - Unbalanced■ Balanced - Unbalanced


the pressure from the water to the diaphragm orpiston so the regulator operates normally.

E. What are balanced and unbalanced regulators?1. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure resists

or assists the opening of valves in the first stage iscalled an unbalanced regulator.a. Less costly designb. Breathing characteristics change with cylinder

pressurec. No longer commonly found

2. A regulator designed so that tank air pressure nei-ther assists or resists the opening of valves is called abalanced regulator.a. Breathing characteristics unchanged with varying

cylinder pressure.b. Virtually all modern regulators are balanced

regulators.

IV. InstrumentsA. What are the proper procedures for using dive

computers in a buddy team?1. Dive computers calculate remaining no decompres-

sion time by comparing the depth/time input to thelimits of a programmed decompression model.

2. Practical considerations for using dive computers:a. Because buddy pairs are unlikely to dive exactly

the same profile, each diver should have anindividual computer.

b. The buddy team should ascend based on theshortest times shown by any diver in the team.

c. If a computer fails, and the divers have recordedtheir dive time, depths and surface intervals, itmay be possible to continue diving using tables.Otherwise the diver must remain out of the waterfor at least 12 hours, or as specified by the com-puter manufacturer.

d. The same guidelines that apply to dive table use,such as making deep dives before shallow dives,starting deep and working shallow, etc. apply todive computers.

B. What are the different operating principles fordepth gauges, SPGs and compasses?1. Depth gauges - there are several types, some in

common use and some not as common

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the procedures for using dive computers?What are the procedures for using dive computers?

1414

■ Each buddy should have a computer

■ Each buddy should have a computer

InstrumentsInstruments

■ Buddies should follow the most conservative dive time

■ Buddies should follow the most conservative dive time

■ All dive table guidelines (deeper dive/depth first) and manufacturer recommendations apply

■ All dive table guidelines (deeper dive/depth first) and manufacturer recommendations apply


a. Capillary depth gauges are a simple piece of cleartubing, sealed at one end and open at the other,with depth increments indicated according towhere the water column rests based on Boyle’sLaw. They are inexpensive and reliable, thoughhard to read accurately much deeper than 10metres/30 feet.

b. Open bourdon tube gauges contain a spiral shapedtube. Water enters the tube end and increasingpressure causes tube to straighten somewhat. Thestraightening moves the depth gauge needle.Because the tube is open, clogging can be a prob-lem with these devices.

c. Oil-filled gauges also use bourdon tube design, butusing a sealed tube in an oil-filled gauge housing.Pressure transmitted through the oil causes thetube to coil more tightly. This moves the depthgauge needle. The depth gauge is not open to thewater and therefore not clog prone.

d. Diaphragm gauges function by connecting a flex-ible diaphragm to a series of levers and gears thatmove the display needle.

e. Digital gauges are electronic gauges that readdepth via a transducer, which varies the electric-ity it transmits depending on the pressure exertedon it. These provide a digital display. These offerthe highest degree of accuracy, and are used indive computers to determine depth.

C. Submersible pressure gauges (SPG)1. The SPG works based on the same principle as the

bourdon tube gauge - high pressure air from thecylinder enters a C shaped or spiral tube and causesit to straighten somewhat, causing the SPG needle toread the pressure.

2. Electronic SPGs use a pressure transducer similar tothose in dive computers/electronic depth gauges.

3. SPGs may be integrated with dive computers. Themost recent innovation is a transducer on the regu-lator that transmits the air pressure to a wrist-worncomputer, eliminating the SPG hose.

D. Compasses1. North needle of compass always points to magnetic

north because the needle is a magnet, aligned bythe field of earth’s geomagnetism.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the different types of depth gauges?What are the different types of depth gauges?■ Capillary — open tube

best used at shallow depths■ Capillary — open tube

best used at shallow depths

1515InstrumentsInstruments

■ Open bourdon tube — tube straightens, moving the depth needle

■ Open bourdon tube — tube straightens, moving the depth needle

■ Oil-filled — sealed bourdon tube■ Oil-filled — sealed bourdon tube

■ Diaphragm — diaphragm flexes, levers and gears move needle

■ Diaphragm — diaphragm flexes, levers and gears move needle

■ Digital — transducer senses depth■ Digital — transducer senses depth

DM 7 - DM 7 -

How do submersible pressure gauges work?How do submersible pressure gauges work?■ Mechanical (similar to bourdon tube)

— high pressure entering the tube moves the pressure gauge needle

■ Mechanical (similar to bourdon tube) — high pressure entering the tube moves the pressure gauge needle


■ Electronic — pressure transducer ■ Electronic — pressure transducer

■ Hoseless — pressure transducer transmits reading to wrist computer

■ Hoseless — pressure transducer transmits reading to wrist computer

How do compasses work?How do compasses work?


2. With most dive compasses, the diver reads directiondirectly against the needle, but new electronic com-passes read the heading digitally.

3. Divers use liquid filled compasses so the gaugewithstands pressure, and to dampen needle move-ment for easier reading.

E. What are the options for carrying gauges?1. Wrist mount - Diver straps gauges to the wrist.

a. Useful for compact instruments.b. Most accurate placement for compass use other

than hand holding it.c. More streamlined than console on chest, espe-

cially in overhead environments.d. May be more prone to entanglement in some

instances (e.g., kelp diving.)2. Console - Combines several instruments into a

package on the SPG or may integrate several instru-ments into one, such as a pressure integrated divecomputer.a. Speeds up dive preparation - no strapping on

gauges.b. Keeps arms clear for easy donning/doffing.c. Console requires securing so it doesn’t drag and

damage itself or environment.3. Retractable mount - Gauge mount clips to BCD with

spring wound retraction cord. The diver pulls out toread then retracts out of the way.a. Popular for hoseless computers with divers who

don’t like wrist mount.b. Makes it convenient to hand-hold compass for

greatest accuracy.

V. Enriched Air Equipment ConsiderationsA. What special equipment requirements and

considerations do you have when diving withenriched air?1. Because enriched air has more oxygen than air has

oxygen, there is a greater potential for fire or explo-sion related to improperly cleaned equipment.

2. Diving with enriched air presents oxygen toxicityhazards not common to diving with air within recre-ational diving limits Divers must know they’re usingenriched air, and what blend of enriched air they’reusing.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

What are the options for carrying gauges?What are the options for carrying gauges?

■ Wrist mount

■ Console

◆ Retractable mount

■ Wrist mount

■ Console

◆ Retractable mount



B. These concerns have led to the following industry guide-lines involving equipment used with enriched air.1. Most manufacturers require their equipment to be

cleaned to oxygen service specifications if it will beexposed to more than 23 percent oxygen.

2. Some in the dive industry say that up to 40 percentoxygen requires no special cleaning or materials.a. This so-called “40 percent rule” is under debate

and has yet to be settled. [Note to instructor:Inform candidates of the industry’s most currentposition on this issue, if different.]

b. Follow manufacturer guidelines with respect tousing equipment with enriched air.

3. Any piece of equipment that will be exposed to morethan 40 percent oxygen requires special cleaning,lubrication and materials to meet oxygen servicespecifications. If such equipment is used with airfrom a standard source, it may need to be recleaned.

4. Enriched air cylinders require special marking:a. A 15cm/6in (approx.) band at the tank shoulder.

The top and bottom of band should be a yellow2.5cm/1in band with the center 10cm/4in greenwith the words “Enriched Air,” “Enriched AirNitrox,” “Nitrox” or similar. Yellow cylindersneed only the green/label portion.

b. A visual inspection sticker stating the cylinderhas been cleaned to oxygen service specifica-tions, or not if enriched air will not be blended inthe cylinder (partial pressure blending in thecylinder requires putting pure oxygen in thecylinder, even if final blend will have less than 40percent oxygen).

c. A contents sticker or tag identifying the currentblend, the fill date, the blend’s maximum depth,and the analyzer/diver name.

d. Local laws may alter or add to these requirements.C. Enriched air cylinders in the dive environment

1. Enriched air divers personally analyze the contentsof their cylinders before using them.

2. On some dive boats, the normal practice is to grabany full cylinder available for the next dive - thisisn’t appropriate with enriched air, which practicecalls for divers to use the tanks they personallyanalyzed.

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Enriched Air (EANx) Equipment ConsiderationsEnriched Air (EANx) Equipment Considerations■ Equipment needs to be cleaned to

oxygen service specifications

◆ Required by most manufacturers when using more than 23% O

2

◆ Definitely required with more than 40% O2

■ Equipment needs to be cleaned to oxygen service specifications

◆ Required by most manufacturers when using more than 23% O

2

◆ Definitely required with more than 40% O2

1818continued...continued...

DM 7 - DM 7 -

EANx Equipment...EANx Equipment...■ Cylinders require special marking■ Cylinders require special marking

1919

◆ Identifying band ◆ Identifying band

◆ Visual inspection decal– oxygen cleaned

◆ Visual inspection decal– oxygen cleaned

◆ Content analysis decal◆ Content analysis decal

■ Divers must personally analyze their cylinder content

■ Divers must personally analyze their cylinder content

DM 7 - DM 7 -

Dive EquipmentDive Equipment



Topic 8 - DecompressionTheory and the RDP

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about decompressiontheory and the Recreational Dive Planner is to have candidates read:

1. The Physiology section of The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, (orThe Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving Multimedia).

2. The “Decompression Theory and the RDP” chapter of the PADIDivemaster Manual.

3. The Recreational Dive Planner section in the Diving KnowledgeWorkbook.

Additional sources:

• The Recreational Diver’s Guide to Decompression Theory, Dive Tables andDive Computers will help candidates understand decompression models andthe differences between how dive computers apply decompression models.

• The “Decompression Management” section of The Best of the Under-sea Journal features articles about decompression theory and the historyand development of the RDP.

After independent study, meet with candidates individually or in a group.Begin by reviewing their work in the Diving Knowledge Workbook, thenanswer candidate questions. Ask questions to assess mastery and review thematerial based on how they complete their workbooks. Use the presentationoutline as a guide for a complete review.

By the end of the course, candidates should have mastered calculatingdive profiles using both the RDP table and The Wheel. Have them consultthe related objectives in the Appendix of the PADI Divemaster Manual to besure they can meet all the performance requirements.

This presentation outline includes only a RDP skills review to assessmastery. Candidates who need to refresh their skills may receiveremediation under your direction. They can also independently use theOpen Water Diver CD-ROM or RDP Instructions for Use booklets.

If The Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving and the Diving KnowledgeWorkbook don’t exist in a language candidates understand, you can developknowledge by giving the following presentation in detail.


Presentation

Overview and Learning ObjectivesI. The Haldanean Decompression Model

1. Who is credited with developing the basic decom-pression model we use today in most computersand dive tables?

2. Describe the structure and operation of aHaldanean model.

3. What are meant by compartment, halftime and M-value?

4. Why do you need to know your approximate alti-tude when diving?

5. What is the relationship between the Haldaneanmodel and the human body, and how far can yourely on a model?

II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving

6. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one time the“standard” for recreational diving?

III. The Recreational Dive Planner

7. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitivediving surface interval credit, and why does theRecreational Dive Planner use a different basis?

8. For whom was the RDP developed, and how doesits testing contrast with the testing of the USNtable?

9. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive diving surfaceinterval credit have compared to the USN tables?

10. Why are there two forms of the RDP?

11. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP be usedon the USN tables or any other tables?

IV. Dive Computers

12. How do modern dive computers apply decompres-sion models to provide more no decompression divetime?

13. How do computers compare with each other andthe RDP with respect to surface interval credit andM-values?

V. Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Using theRDP and Computers

14. What are the general rules and recommendations

DM 8 - DM 8 - 11



Decompression Theory and the RDP


DM 8 - DM 8 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Haldanean Decompression Model

■ The Haldanean Decompression Model

■ US Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving■ US Navy Tables and Repetitive Diving

■ The Recreational Dive Planner■ The Recreational Dive Planner

■ Dive Computers■ Dive Computers

■ Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations

■ Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations

■ RDP Table and Wheel Review■ RDP Table and Wheel Review


for diving with the Recreational Dive Planner,including for flying after diving, emergency de-compression and omitted decompression?

15. What are the recommendations for diving withdive computers?

VI. RDP Table and Wheel Use Review

16. Demonstrate how to find a no decompression limitfor a first and repetitive dive using both the RDPtable and The Wheel.

17. Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel dive usingThe Wheel.

18. Using both the RDP table and The Wheel, demon-strate how to calculate dive profiles for three ormore repetitive dives.

OutlineI. The Haldanean Decompression Model

A. Who is credited with developing the basicdecompression model we use today in mostcomputers and dive tables?1. Virtually all dive tables and dive computers calcu-

late no decompression limits and decompressionstops (when needed) based on a Haldanean decom-pression model.

2. Haldanean models are named after John ScottHaldane, credited with developing the first suchmathematical decompression model and based onit, the first dive tables.a. British Royal Navy assigned Haldane to address

and solve decompression sickness in Navy divers.b. Haldane knew of Paul Bert’s work, which showed

that dissolved nitrogen causes DCS, but no onehad developed a system for predicting DCS.

c. Haldane experimented and produced his modeland tables in 1906, his work was published in1908 in the Journal of Hygiene. Modern Haldaneanmodels differ little conceptually from the originalmodel.

B. Describe the structure and operation of aHaldanean model.1. Haldane based his model on experiments and the

following concepts:

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Haldanean Decompression Model

Haldanean Decompression Model

33

■ Model consists of multiple theoretical tissues

■ Model consists of multiple theoretical tissues

■ What is a tissue compartment?■ What is a tissue compartment?

◆ What is halftime?◆ What is halftime?

◆ What in M-value?◆ What in M-value?


a. Upon descent to a given depth, nitrogen pressurein breathing air is higher than in the body, sonitrogen dissolves into body tissues.

b. Given enough time, the body will saturate andabsorb no more nitrogen at that depth.

c. Upon ascent, nitrogen in the body (tissue pres-sure) is higher than surrounding pressure, caus-ing tissues to release nitrogen.

d. The difference between the dissolved nitrogenpressure and the surrounding pressure (whetherascending or descending) is called the pressuregradient.

e. On ascent, tissues can tolerate some gradient ofhigh tissue pressure without DCS.

f. If gradient exceeds acceptable limits, bubblesform causing DCS.

g. DCS can be avoided by keeping the gradientwithin acceptable limits.

C. What is meant by compartment, halftime andM-value?1. Haldane discovered that different parts of the body

absorb and release dissolved nitrogen at differentrates. To account for the differences, Haldane con-structed a model consisting of multiple theoreticaltissues:a. The tissues did not directly correspond to any

particular body tissue.b. Because they’re not actually corresponding to

body tissues, it is more proper to call them com-partments, or tissue compartments.

c. Haldane’s original model had five compartments.Modern versions may have 14 or more compart-ments.

2. Each compartment has a halftime for the rate atwhich it absorbs and releases nitrogen.a. Halftime is the time, in minutes, for a particular

compartment to go halfway from its beginningtissue pressure to saturation at a new depth, inexponential progression.

b. After six halftimes the compartment is consideredsaturated (actually 98.4 percent saturated - closeenough for practical purposes). For simplicitytissue pressure is often expressed in msw/fswgauge.


c. Halftimes are assigned in minutes - Haldane’sranged from 5 to 75 minutes. Modern modelsrange from 3 to more than 600 minutes - shorthalftime compartments are sometimes called fasttissues or fast compartments and those with longerhalftimes are called slow tissue/compartments.

Example - A 5 minute halftime compartment will havehow much tissue pressure 5 minutes after taken from thesurface to 18 metres/60 feet in seawater?

Answer: 9 msw/30 fsw of pressure(in one halftime, compartment goes half distance from begin-ning to new pressure).

Example - A 20 minute halftime compartment will havehow much tissue pressure after 40 minutes at 24 msw/80fsw?

Answer: 18 msw/60 fsw of pressure40 minutes = 2 halftimes for 20 minute halftime.After first halftime, pressure goes halfway = 12 msw/40 fsw.After second halftime, pressure goes halfway from 12 msw/40fsw to 24 msw/80 fsw = 18 msw/60 fsw.

Example - How long would it take a 60 minute compart-ment to saturate to a given depth?

Answer: 360 minutes (60 x 6 halftimes)

3. Besides differing in halftimes, each compartmenthas a different M-value.a. M-value is the maximum tissue pressure allowed

in the compartment when surfacing to preventexceeding acceptable gradient. [Note: there’sactually different M-values for each compartmentat each depth, but in no stop diving we only usethe one that applies to the surface.

b. The faster the compartment (shorter halftime),the higher the M-value (the more nitrogen it isallowed to have when surfacing); the slower thecompartment, the lower the M-value.

c. The M-value is determined by test dives showingwhat does and does not result in DCS or Doppler-detectable bubbles.


4. Why do you need to know your approximatealtitude when diving?a. The M-value is calculated for surfacing at sea

level; at an altitude higher than approximately300 metres/1000 feet, the gradient may be toohigh unless you use altitude diving procedures.You need to know your approximate altitudewhen diving so you can adjust for the gradientusing high altitude diving protocols.

5. The model works by determining how much eachcompartment absorbs for a given depth and time;when any compartment reaches its M-value, thedive ends (or it becomes a decompression dive).a. On deeper dives, fast compartments usually reach

M-value first - this is why deeper dives have shortno decompression limits.

b. On shallower dives, the depth may be less thanthe M-value of some faster compartments. There-fore a slower compartment controls the dive andmodel allows more no decompression time.

c. Compartment that reaches its M-value first iscalled the controlling compartment.

D. What is the relationship between theHaldanean model and the human body, andhow far can you rely on a model?1. Haldanean models are mathematical extrapola-

tions.2. There is no direct relationship between model and

the body. The relationship is implied based on actualdive data (tests and field experience).

3. Like all models, Haldanean models have limits ofreliability.

4. You can only rely on a model as far as it has beenshown to work in tests and by field experience.

5. Models are imperfect - this is why divers learn fromthe beginning that there is always some risk of DCS,even within computer/table limits - the actual inci-dence is less than 1 percent, but there is always somerisk.

II. U.S. Navy Tables and Repetitive DivingA. Haldane’s tables were well accepted, but the U.S. Navy

revised the model and tables periodically to meetchanging needs and to keep up with new information.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

US Navy TablesUS Navy Tables

44

■ Developed primarily for military decompression diving

■ Developed primarily for military decompression diving

■ The “standard” for recreational diving until mid1980s

■ The “standard” for recreational diving until mid1980s

■ Surface interval credit based on worst case – slowest compartment halftime of 120 minutes

■ Surface interval credit based on worst case – slowest compartment halftime of 120 minutes


B. The 1950s revision (current U.S. Navy tables) had twoimportant differences from original Haldane modeland tables:1. Six compartments were used with a longest halftime

of 120 minutes based on Navy data that there wereeven slower body areas to consider.

2. Credit for surface interval for repetitive diving added- previously, all dives in 24 hours were added to-gether and treated as a single dive.

C. Why was the U.S. Navy (USN) table at one timethe “standard” for recreational diving?1. The U.S. Navy tables were developed primarily for

military decompression diving, but they becamevirtually the standard in recreational diving untilthe mid-1980s for several reasons:a. Before computers, developing a table was a te-

dious process that had to be computed by hand.Few outside the Navy had the resources or abilityto produce tables.

b. Many early sport divers began as military divers,bringing the USN tables with them.

c. The USN tables were widely available and publicdomain, allowing publishers to reproduce andrearrange them.

d. Though they weren’t ideal for recreational divers,they could be relied on when following acceptedconservative diving practices.

D. Repetitive Diving1. The rise of Navy scuba diving created a need for

repetitive diving that allowed longer repetitive divesbased on credit for time at the surface.

2. On the Haldanean model, in pure math all com-partments would lose nitrogen at their normalhalftime (e.g., a 5 minute compartment would befree of nitrogen after 30 minutes or 6 halftimes atsurface; a 10 minute compartment would be freeafter 60 minutes or 6 halftimes at surface, etc.)

3. However, you can’t make a usable table this waybecause any compartment could control a repetitivedive, depending on the first dive, the surface inter-val and the second dive.

4. To solve this, U.S. Navy designed its surface intervalcredit based on the worst case - a dive may be pre-ceded by a decompression dive, so the slowest com-partment (120 minutes halftime) controls.


5. In effect, all compartments turn into 120 minutecompartments at the surface and all repetitive divecredit is based on this worst-case approach. This iswhy it takes 12 hours (720 minutes - 6 halftimes) tobe “clean” with the USN tables.

6. USN tested its tables and repetitive dive proceduresusing Navy divers and released them for fleet use.a. Subjects were male, reasonably fit, primarily in

20s and 30s.b. Test criteria were bends/no bends.

III. The Recreational Dive PlannerA. What is the basis for the USN table’s repetitive

diving surface interval credit, and why does theRecreational Dive Planner use a different basis?1. In the mid-1980s, Dr. Raymond E. Rogers, a PADI

Divemaster, recognized that the USN tables, whilehaving a good track record, might not be ideal forrecreational divinga. The 120 minute surface interval credit, while

appropriate for repetitive decompression diving,seemed excessively conservative for recreationaldivers, who make only no decompression dives.

b. The USN tables were made for Navy divers, butthis test group didn’t fully reflect the demograph-ics of recreational divers, who include femalesand ages above and below the Navy’s.

c. Doppler ultrasound flow meters had come intobeing and they showed that silent bubbles oftenformed at USN table limits, suggesting lower M-values (which would reduce single dive no de-compression limits) might be more appropriatefor nonmilitary diving.

B. For whom was the RDP developed, and howdoes its testing contrast with the testing of theUSN table?1. Working with DSAT (Diving Science & Technology -

a corporate affiliate of PADI) Rogers developed theRDP. It was tested in 1987 and 1988 at the Instituteof Applied Physiology and Medicine (IAPM) with Dr.Michael R. Powell the principal investigator.

2. Testing during 1987 and 1988:a. Established the 60 minute surface interval credit

concept.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Working with DSAT (Diving Science and Technology),

Dr. Rogers developed the RDP

Working with DSAT (Diving Science and Technology),

Dr. Rogers developed the RDP

66

Testing occurred at the Institute of Applied Technology (IAPM) with Dr. Michael Powell as the

principle investigator

Testing occurred at the Institute of Applied Technology (IAPM) with Dr. Michael Powell as the

principle investigator

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Recreational Dive Planner (RDP)

Recreational Dive Planner (RDP)

55

■ Proposed in the early 1980s by Dr. Raymond Rogers

■ Proposed in the early 1980s by Dr. Raymond Rogers◆ Believed 120 minute surface interval

credit was too long◆ Believed 120 minute surface interval

credit was too long

◆ USN table were tested on military personnel, not recreational divers

◆ USN table were tested on military personnel, not recreational divers

◆ Doppler Flow meter showed silent bubbles at USN table limits

◆ Doppler Flow meter showed silent bubbles at USN table limits


b. Was first extensive testing of multilevel diving.c. Included broader demographic test subjects -

more like recreational diver population.d. Was based on limiting Doppler detectable

bubbles, not just bends/no bends.e. Multiday testing successfully tested RDP making 4

dives daily for 6 days (though diving more conser-vatively is recommended)

C. What effect does the RDP’s repetitive divingsurface interval credit have compared to theUSN tables?1. Dr. Rogers found that the 120 minutes halftime for

surface interval was too conservative for no stopdiving, a 60 minute halftime was more appropriate.a. This means that it offers about twice as much

credit for surface interval time than the USNtables.

2. The RDP model has 14 compartments ranging from5 to 480 minute halftimes.

3. Surface interval credit is based on 60 minutes wash-out. The WX, YZ rules make sure slower compart-ments remain within accepted limits.

D. Dr. Rogers lowered the M-values to match recent Dop-pler data. The RDP offers more repetitive dive time, butits maximum allowed nitrogen loading is lower.1. Limits sometimes called “Spencer” limits after physi-

ologist who first proposed them.E. Why are there two forms of the RDP?

1. Table version introduced for those more comfortablewith a table format.

2. The Wheel offers multilevel diving, more precisionand is easier to use.

F. Why can’t pressure groups from the RDP beused on the USN tables or any other tables?1. The RDP has more pressure groups than Navy

tables. Pressure Group letters designate theoreticalnitrogen levels based on the model and since USNand other tables use different models, letters are notinterchangeable between RDP, USN tables or anyother tables.

2. You can interchange letters between different ver-sions of the RDP.

.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RDP CharacteristicsRDP Characteristics

77

■ Model uses 14 compartments■ Model uses 14 compartments

■ Maximum allowed nitrogen loading (M-values) lower than USN tables◆ Shorter initial no decompression limits

■ Maximum allowed nitrogen loading (M-values) lower than USN tables◆ Shorter initial no decompression limits

■ Surface interval credit based on 60 minute washout◆ Longer allowed repetitive dive times

■ Surface interval credit based on 60 minute washout◆ Longer allowed repetitive dive times

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Two VersionsTwo Versions

88

Multilevel divingMultilevel diving

Pressure group designations are NOT interchangeable with other dive tablesPressure group designations are NOT interchangeable with other dive tables


IV. Dive ComputersA. How do modern dive computers apply decom-

pression models to provide more no decompres-sion dive time?1. Dive computers offer the maximum bottom time

essentially by writing a custom dive table for theexact dive - eliminates unnecessary rounding andtherefore more dive time.

B. How do computers compare with each otherand the RDP with respect to surface intervalcredit and M-values?1. Spencer limits, EE washout

a. Approximately same M-values as RDPb. All compartments release theoretical nitrogen at

the surface at their underwater halftime rate (EEstands for “exponential - exponential” ), as com-pared to the RDP, which releases theoretical nitro-gen at the 60 minute rate for all compartments of60 minutes or faster.

c. This washout means these computers can permitdives beyond what has been tested to work - e.g.,3 dives to 40 metres/130 feet in a row for 10 min-utes each with only 30 minutes between them.

d. This washout is not a problem if divers avoidmultiple deep dives with short surface intervals(generally not recommended whether using acomputer or not).

2. Spencer limits, 60 minute washouta. Based on data for RDPb. At surface, all compartments 60 minutes and

faster wash out at 60 minute rate; all slowercompartments wash out at their underwaterhalftime rate (like the RDP).

c. Dives very similar to what RDP model allows.3. Buhlmann limits, EE washout

a. Further reduced M-values (based on work of Dr.Buhlmann).

b. All compartments wash out at their underwaterhalftime rate.

c. With reduced M-values, repetitive dives similar towhat RDP data supports, though repetitive deepdives with short surface intervals may still permitdives beyond what has been tested to work.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Dive ComputersDive Computers

99

■ Computers essentially write custom dive tables for exact dives

◆ Eliminates rounding

◆ Longer dive times

■ Computers essentially write custom dive tables for exact dives

◆ Eliminates rounding

◆ Longer dive times

DM 8 - DM 8 -

How do dive computers compare to the RDP?How do dive computers compare to the RDP?

1010

■ Three groups

◆ Spencer limits, EE washout

■ Three groups

◆ Spencer limits, EE washout

◆ Spencer limits, 60 minute washout◆ Spencer limits, 60 minute washout

◆ Buhlmann limits, EE washout◆ Buhlmann limits, EE washout


C. Spencer, 60 minute washout and Buhlmann, EE wash-out seem to be the most popular types of computers.

V. Special Rules, Recommendations and SituationsUsing the RDP and Computers

Note and Reminder: Because people differ in their susceptibilityto DCS, no decompression table or computer can guarantee thatDCS will never occur, even though a dive is within the limits ofthe table. Never “push” any computer or table to or beyond itslimits.

A. What are the general rules and recommenda-tions for diving with the Recreational DivePlanner, including for flying after diving, emer-gency decompression and omitted decompres-sion?1. When planning a dive in cold water or under condi-

tions that may be strenuous, plan the dive assumingthe depth is 4 metres/10 feet deeper than it actual.

2. Plan repetitive dives so each successive dive is to thesame or a shallower depth. Don’t follow a dive witha deeper dive. Plan your deepest dive first.

3. Limit maximum depths in consideration of trainingand experience. (Scuba Divers: 12 metres/40 feet;Open Water Divers: 18 metres/60 feet; divers withgreater training and experience: 30 metres/100 feet;no dive in excess of 40 metres/130 feet.)

4. Multiple Repetitive Dives - use when planning threeor more dives in a day.a. If the ending pressure group after any dive is W

or X, the minimum surface interval between allsubsequent dives is 1 hour.

b. If the ending pressure group after any dive is Y orZ, the minimum surface interval between allsubsequent dives is 3 hours.

5. Limit repetitive dives to 30 metres/100 feet or shal-lower.

6. The 42-metre/140-foot designation on the Recre-ational Dive Planner is for emergency purposesonly; do not dive deeper than 40 m/130 ft.

7. If you discover you have accidentally descendedbelow 40 metres/130 feet, immediately ascend (at arate not to exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute) to 5

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Special Rules, Recommendations

and Situations

Special Rules, Recommendations

and Situations

1111

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RulesRules■ Cold/strenuous dives – plan as if

4m/10ft deeper than actual■ Cold/strenuous dives – plan as if

4m/10ft deeper than actual

1212

■ Each successive dive is to the same or shallower depth

■ Each successive dive is to the same or shallower depth

■ Limit depth to training and experience■ Limit depth to training and experience■ Multiple repetitive dives

◆ W or X – 1 hour surface interval on all subsequent dives

◆ Y or Z – 3 hour surface interval on all subsequent dives

■ Multiple repetitive dives◆ W or X – 1 hour surface interval

on all subsequent dives◆ Y or Z – 3 hour surface interval

on all subsequent divescontinued...continued...

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Rules...Rules...

■ Repetitive dive limit – 30m/100ft■ Repetitive dive limit – 30m/100ft

1313

■ Maximum limit – 40m/130ft■ Maximum limit – 40m/130ft

◆ Accidentally deeper? ◆ Accidentally deeper?

✚ Make an emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes at 5m/15ft

✚ Make an emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes at 5m/15ft

✚ Do not dive again for at least 6 hours

✚ Do not dive again for at least 6 hours


metres/15 feet, and make an emergency decompres-sion stop for 8 minutes. If the no decompressionlimit for 40 metres/130 feet is NOT exceeded bymore than 5 minutes. Do not dive again for 6 hours.

B. Safety stops1. You are encouraged to make a safety stop for 3

minutes at 5 metres/15 feet after every dive. (Thetime spent at a safety stop need not be added to thebottom time of the dive.)

2. Always make a safety stop:a. After any dive to 30 metres/100 feet (or greater).b. Any time you will surface within 3 pressure

groups of your NDL.c. When a dive is made to any limit of the RDP.

3. PADI S.A.F.E. (Slowly Ascend From Every dive) Cam-paigna. This project resulted from PADI’s leadership role

in encouraging slower ascent rates among sportdivers. [Refer to sidebar article “Be a S.A.F.E.Diver” in section Four of the PADI Open WaterDiver Manual.]

C. Emergency decompression1. An emergency decompression stop for 8 minutes at

5 metres/15 feet must be made if a no decompressionlimit is accidentally exceeded by 5 minutes or less.• Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the

water at least 6 hours prior to making anotherdive.

2. If a no decompression limit is exceeded by morethan 5 minutes, a 5 metre/15 foot decompressionstop of no less than 15 minutes is required (airsupply permitting).• Upon surfacing, the diver must remain out of the

water at least 24 hours prior to making anotherdive.

3. Decompression is considered an emergency proce-dure. The RDP should never be used for decompres-sion diving purposes or when breathing a gas otherthan air or enriched air with special procedures.

4. Inwater recompression - treating DCI by putting thediver back underwater shouldn’t be attempted.Recompression requires long durations, oxygen, andoften drug therapy. Normally the required resources

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Safety StopsSafety Stops■ Recommended after every dive■ Recommended after every dive

1414

■ Required after:◆ Any dive to or deeper

than 30m/100ft

■ Required after:◆ Any dive to or deeper

than 30m/100ft

◆ Any dive made within 3 pressure groups of NDL

◆ Any dive made within 3 pressure groups of NDL

◆ Any dive reaches any limit on the RDP

◆ Any dive reaches any limit on the RDP

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Emergency DecompressionEmergency Decompression■ 8 minutes at 5m/15ft

when limit is exceeded by 5 minutes or less

■ 8 minutes at 5m/15ft when limit is exceeded by 5 minutes or less

1515

■ 15 minutes at 5m/15ft (or as long as air supply permits) when limit is exceeded by more than 5 minutes

■ 15 minutes at 5m/15ft (or as long as air supply permits) when limit is exceeded by more than 5 minutes


aren’t available at a dive site, and incomplete recom-pression will usually make the diver even worse.

D. Omitted decompression1. If an emergency decompression stop is mistakenly omit-

ted, do not reenter the water for at least 24 hours.2. Rest, be alert for any signs or symptoms of DCS.3. Breathe pure oxygen.4. Seek medical assistance if signs or symptoms occur.

E. Altitude considerations1. Because depth at altitude must be converted into a theo-

retical equivalent depth at sea level, special proceduresmust be implemented when using the RDP at altitudesover 300 metres/1000 feet.

2. Special training is advised when diving at high altitudes.F. Flying and ascending to altitude after diving recommenda-

tions. (These recommendations apply to altitudes between600-2400 metres/2000-8000 feet.)1. For a single dive within the no decompression limit, a

minimum preflight surface interval of 12 hours is sug-gested

2. For repetitive dives and/or multiday dives, a minimumpreflight surface interval of 18 hours is suggested.

3. For dives requiring decompression stops, a minimumpreflight surface interval greater than 18 hours is sug-gested.

G. What are the recommendations for diving withdive computers?1. Divers should not attempt to share a diver computer. Use

the same computer throughout the diving day - it mustkeep up with all dives and surface intervals.

2. Keep these points in mind:a. Computers and tables have same theoretical basis -

nothing makes one better or safer.b. Therefore, same guidelines apply (e.g., don’t make

deep dives after shallow dives, etc.)3. Follow all manufacturer recommendations.4. End the dive based on the most conservative computer in

the buddy team.5. If a computer fails:

a. Ascend immediately according to the manufacturer’sinstruction. If there is no recommendation, immedi-ately ascend slowly and make a safety stop at5 metres/15 feet. If there’s any question as

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Omitted DecompressionOmitted Decompression■ Do not reenter the water■ Do not reenter the water

1616

■ Do not dive for at least 24 hours■ Do not dive for at least 24 hours

■ Monitor for signs or symptoms of DCS

■ Monitor for signs or symptoms of DCS

■ Breathe oxygen and seek medical assistance if signs/symptoms occur

■ Breathe oxygen and seek medical assistance if signs/symptoms occur

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Altitude ConsiderationsAltitude Considerations

1717

Special procedures must be implemented when

using the RDP at altitudes greater than 300m/1000ft

Special procedures must be implemented when

using the RDP at altitudes greater than 300m/1000ft

DM 8 - DM 8 -

Flying After DivingFlying After Diving

1818

■ Wait a minimum surface interval of 12 hours prior to ascent to altitude in a commercial jet airliner (altitude up to 2400m/8000ft)

■ Wait a minimum surface interval of 12 hours prior to ascent to altitude in a commercial jet airliner (altitude up to 2400m/8000ft)

■ Divers who plan to make daily, multiple dives for several days or make dives that require decompression stops should take a special precaution — an extended surface interval beyond 12 hours before flight

■ Divers who plan to make daily, multiple dives for several days or make dives that require decompression stops should take a special precaution — an extended surface interval beyond 12 hours before flight

DM 8 - DM 8 -

What should you do if your computer fails?What should you do if your computer fails?

1919

■ Slowly ascend to 5m/15ft and make a safety stop — extended if necessary

■ Slowly ascend to 5m/15ft and make a safety stop — extended if necessary

■ If your dive profile is within no stop limits, you may be able to resume diving using the RDP

■ If your dive profile is within no stop limits, you may be able to resume diving using the RDP

■ If not, stay out of the water according to manufacturer recommendations — usually 12 to 24 hours

■ If not, stay out of the water according to manufacturer recommendations — usually 12 to 24 hours


to whether you may have accidentally exceededthe no decompression limits, make the stop aslong as possible with the air you have.

b. If you have been tracking your profiles withtables and are within no stop limits, you may beable to resume diving using tables.

c. Otherwise, remain out of the water according tomanufacturer recommendations before resumingdiving with tables or another computer. This isusually 12 to 24 hours.

VI. RDP Table and Wheel Use Review

Note to instructor: Candidates should be familiar with the RDP,but you may want to review its use to assure leadership-levelmastery. Candidates should be able to perform the followinglisted procedures. Work through examples to assess learning, toreview and remediate as necessary.

A. Find NDL.B. Find Pressure Group after a dive.C. Find new Pressure Group after surface interval.D. Find adjusted NDL and RNT (Table).E. Find TBT (Table) and new Pressure Group after a re-

petitive dive.F. Find all of the above for dive profile with three or more

repetitive dives.G. Find next level depth for a multilevel dive. (The

Wheel)H. Find NDLs for each level on multilevel dive. (The

Wheel)I. Apply the WX-YZ rules.J. Find the minimum surface interval required for a

repetitive dive of given bottom time and depth.

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RDP Wheel Review

RDP Wheel Review

2020

DM 8 - DM 8 -

RDP Table Review

RDP Table Review

2121

DM 8 - DM 8 -




• Demonstrate how to find a no decompres-sion limit for a first and repetitive dive usingboth the RDP table and The Wheel.

• Demonstrate how to plan a multilevel diveusing The Wheel.

• Using both RDP table and The Wheel, dem-onstrate how to calculate dive profiles forthree or more repetitive dives.


Topic 9 – DivemasterConducted Programs

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThe recommended method for developing knowledge about programs PADIDivemasters can conduct independently is to have candidates read sectionsof the PADI Instructor Manual that apply to those programs. Then conductthis presentation, referencing those sections as you highlight standardsand other information needed when conducting the program. Also coverchanges announced in the Training Bulletin that may apply and havecandidates write these changes into their PADI Instructor Manual.

Remind candidates that they will be practicing one of these programsduring Required Training Exercise 3 - Divemaster Conducted Program, sothey need to know how to find this material (not necessarily memorize).

The presentation outline suggests points that you can apply to all PADIDivemaster conducted programs. Repeat the outline for each program. Atthis writing, Discover Snorkeling, Skin Diver, Discover Local Diving, ScubaReview, Discover Scuba Diving and PADI Scuba Diver are the programsyou’ll cover under this topic.


I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual.

1. Demonstrate how to find standards and relatedinformation in the PADI Instructor Manual.

II. Standards and Ratios

2. In the PADI Instructor Manual, differentiate be-tween requirements (standards) that you mustadhere to when conducting a PADI program, andsupporting material/recommendations.

3. Find the performance requirements and explainwhy it’s important to state these for participants.

4. Find the maximum ratio of participants to PADIDivemaster.

5. List materials required and recommended whenconducting the program.

III. Administrative Requirements

6. Complete administrative requirements (LiabilityRelease and Express Assumption of Risk, PIC, etc.)

7. State the annual renewal requirements for PADIDivemasters.

DM 9 - DM 9 - 11



Divemaster Conducted Programs


DM 9 - DM 9 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Finding Programs in the PADI Instructor Manual

■ Finding Programs in the PADI Instructor Manual

■ Standards and Ratios■ Standards and Ratios

■ Administrative Requirements■ Administrative Requirements

■ Marketing■ Marketing


8. State the professional liability insurance require-ments for PADI Divemasters conducting the pro-gram.

IV. Marketing

9. State who the program is intended for (audience)and explain the program’s approach andphilosophy.

10. List and explain suggested marketing andpromotional tips for the program.

Outline[Go through outline for each program.]

I. Finding the program in the PADI Instructor Manual.A. Demonstrate how to find standards and related

information in the PADI Instructor Manual.B. Identify relevant sections in General Standards and

Procedures.

II. Standards and RatiosA. Differentiate between requirements (standards)

that you must adhere to when conducting aPADI program, and supporting material/rec-ommendations.1. Boldface text2. Nonbold recommendations

B. Find the performance requirements and ex-plain why it’s important to state these forparticipants.1. Participants must meet these before continuing in

the program.2. Stating objectives for participants helps them learn

by showing them clearly what they’re trying to do.a. Not necessary to read objectives verbatim

(though may be acceptable).b. [Give examples by reading objectives as found in

the Instructor Manual, then stating them as youwould for program participants.]

C. Find the maximum ratio of participants toPADI Divemaster.

D. List materials required and recommendedwhen conducting the program.

DM 9 - DM 9 -

What programs can PADI Divemasters conduct?What programs can PADI Divemasters conduct?

33

■ Skin Diver course■ Skin Diver course■ Discover Snorkeling■ Discover Snorkeling■ Discover Local Diving■ Discover Local Diving■ Scuba Review■ Scuba Review■ Discover Scuba Diving

— subsequent dives■ Discover Scuba Diving

— subsequent dives■ PADI Scuba Diver

— supervise recreational dives■ PADI Scuba Diver

— supervise recreational dives


III. Administrative Requirements[Have samples of all forms that candidates can prac-tice filling out and reviewing for completeness.]A. Complete administrative requirements

(Liability Release and Express Assumption ofRisk, PIC, etc.)

B. Form completion practice [Cover filling out PICEnvelopes for the PADI Skin Diver course in detail.]C. State the annual renewal requirements for

PADI Divemasters.1. PADI Members renew their memberships annually

with their PADI Office. They sign an annual renewaland license agreement and pay annual membershipdues.

D. State the professional liability insurancerequirements for PADI Divemasters conductingthe program.1. When programs are conducted independently by a

PADI Divemaster, Professional Underwater LiabilityInsurance is required in many territories. [Explainlocal requirements, emphasizing that insurance isalways recommended even if not required, and thatinsurance requirements may change if candidatesrelocate.]

IV. MarketingA. State who the program is intended for

(audience) and explain the program’s approachand philosophy.1. This information is usually found in the introduc-

tion to Instructor Guide.2. [Review material in PADI Instructor Manual for each

program. Be sure candidates understand the in-tended participants and the conduct philosophybehind each program. For example, candidatesneed to recognize that Discover Snorkeling differsfrom the PADI Skin Diver course, etc.]

B. List and explain suggested marketing andpromotional tips for the program.1. Developing marketing/promotion methods [Review

material in the PADI Instructor Manual for eachprogram.]a. Consult The Undersea Journal, The Business of

Diving, and other business-oriented material from

DM 9 - DM 9 -

You must renew your PADI Membership and

carry professional liability insurance

(where applicable) to conduct these programs

You must renew your PADI Membership and

carry professional liability insurance

(where applicable) to conduct these programs

44

DM 9 - DM 9 - 55



Instructor Manual

Instructor Manual

Let’s review the appropriate sections in your PADI Instructor Manual

Let’s review the appropriate sections in your PADI Instructor Manual


PADI for general marketing information, and forinformation specific to each program.

b. Coordinate with your dive operation. Dive opera-tions often has specific marketing objectives andstrategies that you can draw from in promotingthe programs you can conduct.

c. Think about for whom each program is intendedand pursue groups of such individuals.

2. Examples:a. Skin Diver course - for serious free divers, people

wanting more vigorous exercise. Also useful forchildren too young for scuba certification whenparents take Open Water Diver course. Promotein health clubs, summer camps, teen organiza-tions.

b. Discover Snorkeling - suitable for travel and tourgroups, popular with all age groups, good as arelaxing way to enjoy the water and as a swim-ming activity for exercise Promote in health clubsand with outdoors-oriented organizations.

c. Scuba Review - bring inactive diving friends ornew divers into diving. Promote in resort destina-tions where inactive divers discover opportunitiesto dive. Also at travel agencies, tour groups, etc.

DM 9 - DM 9 -

PADI Skin Diver CoursePADI Skin Diver Course

66

■ Course Goals■ Course Goals

■ Standards■ Standards

■ Course Overview■ Course Overview

■ Open Water Dive (optional)

■ Open Water Dive (optional)

■ Filling out the PIC envelope■ Filling out the PIC envelope

■ How can you market this program?■ How can you market this program?

DM 9 - DM 9 -

Discover SnorkelingDiscover Snorkeling

77

®®

■ Why snorkel?◆ Snorkeling vs. Skin Diving

■ Why snorkel?◆ Snorkeling vs. Skin Diving

■ Marketing and Promotion■ Marketing and Promotion

■ Equipment Considerations■ Equipment Considerations

■ PADI Snorkeling Materials◆ Discover Snorkeling/Skin Diving Statement

■ PADI Snorkeling Materials◆ Discover Snorkeling/Skin Diving Statement

■ Leading Tours■ Leading Tours

■ Optional Outline■ Optional Outline

DM 9 - DM 9 -

Discover Local Diving (DLD)Discover Local Diving (DLD)

88

■ Why DLD?■ Why DLD?

■ Standards■ Standards◆ Liability Release◆ Liability Release

■ Overview■ Overview



DM 9 - DM 9 -

Scuba ReviewScuba Review

99

■ Why?■ Why?

■ Divemaster’s role■ Divemaster’s role

■ Standards■ Standards

■ Knowledge Review■ Knowledge Review

■ Confined Water Skill Review■ Confined Water Skill Review



DM 9 - DM 9 -

Discover Scuba DivingDiscover Scuba Diving

1010

■ Standards

◆ What can certified assistants do?

■ Standards

◆ What can certified assistants do?

PADI Scuba DiverPADI Scuba Diver■ Diver qualifications■ Diver qualifications■ Depth recommendation■ Depth recommendation■ How can you market your

services to these divers?■ How can you market your

services to these divers?

DM 9 - DM 9 -





Topic 10 - Risk ManagementRecommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThis section introduces candidates to principles of risk management as itrelates to the immediate duties they’ll have as PADI Divemasters. It isrecommended that you have candidates read The Law and the Diving Profes-sional, if available in a language they understand. The risk managementand quality assurance articles in The Best of the Undersea Journal are alsogood references. Refer candidates to the Quality Management and riskmanagement discussions in the General Standards and Procedures Guide ofthe PADI Instructor Manual.

The presentation outline covers the basic risk management principlesfound most commonly in legal systems. As appropriate, cover detailsspecific to risk management that apply to the local area, or the area wherecandidates will be functioning as PADI Divemasters.


I. Definition of Risk Management

1. What is meant by risk management?

II. Legal Risk Management

2. What are meant by duty of care and negligence inmost legal systems?

3. Why is it recommended that you carry professionalliability insurance, even when you plan to functionexclusively as an assistant working under a PADIInstructor?

4. What is the most important step you can take tomanage legal risk?

5. Why does adhering to standards help you reducelegal risk?

6. What role does good judgment play in reducinglegal risk?

7. What is the role of proper paperwork and adminis-tration in reducing legal risk?

8. In the event of a dive accident, besides giving prior-ity to taking all steps you can to handle the emer-gency, what should you do from a legal risk man-agement point of view?

DM 10 - DM 10 - 11



Risk ManagementRisk Management

DM 10 - DM 10 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ Definition of Risk Management■ Definition of Risk Management

■ Legal Risk Management■ Legal Risk Management

■ Quality Management — Recognition and Assurance

■ Quality Management — Recognition and Assurance

■ Personal Health and Safety■ Personal Health and Safety


III. Quality Management - Recognition and Assurance

9. How does the Quality Management process helpyou reduce legal risk?

10. What are the steps in the Quality Managementprocess?

IV. Personal Health and Safety

11. What are five suggestions to help you manage risksto your health and safety as a divemaster?

OutlineI. What is meant by risk management?

A. Risk management is the process of reducing risks youface while acting within your capacity as a PADI Dive-master. The goal of risk management is to increase thesafety for divers and you by avoiding accidents for allinvolved, and by reducing legal risk for you as a diveleader.

B. Risk management can be divided into two broad areasthat you need to address:1. Legal risk - dealing with sources of liability2. Your personal health and safety

II. Legal Risk ManagementA. Functioning as a leadership-level diver who supervises

others entails some legal risk.B. What are meant by duty of care and negligence

in most legal systems?1. Under most legal systems, you have a duty of care -

to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would actunder the same or similar circumstances - to thoseyou supervise.a. Since diving is a risk-taking activity, a divemaster

doesn’t and can’t ever guarantee diver safety.There is always some residual risk of serious harmor death, despite the divemaster’s best efforts, anddivers must accept this risk if they intend to dive.

2. The act of failing to meet a duty of care is negligenceunder most legal systems.

3. In the event of an accident, if a lawsuit is filed, thesuit usually alleges that as a divemaster you had aduty of care and were negligent.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is meant by risk management?What is meant by risk management?

33

Increasing safety and avoiding accidents

to reduce risk

Increasing safety and avoiding accidents

to reduce risk

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is duty of care?What is duty of care?

44

■ The expectation to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances

■ The expectation to act as a reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar circumstances

What is negligence?What is negligence?■ Failure to meet a duty of care■ Failure to meet a duty of care


4. Under most legal systems, if you are found in courtto have been negligent, and your negligence is thedirect cause of an accident that causes injury, prop-erty destruction or death, then you are liable andwill owe damages (compensation).

B. Why is it recommended that you carry profes-sional liability insurance, even when you planto function exclusively as an assistant workingunder a PADI Instructor?1. Under most legal systems, you can be sued even if

you did nothing wrong - defending yourself can becostly and liability insurance provides coverage foryour defense.

2. If you are found liable, insurance provides coveragefor damages.

3. If you are assisting an instructor, though the instruc-tor has most of the responsibility, coverage is recom-mended because:a. You can still be named in the suit.b. You can be found responsible for your own ac-

tions or what part you may have played in anaccident, even with an instructor present.

c. Instructor’s insurance does not cover assistants.d. You can be added to a suit already in progress.

4. Within the U.S. and territories and many otherregions, professional liability insurance is requiredwhen engaging in PADI Divemaster conductedprograms independently. [Explain local require-ments.]

5. Note that professional liability insurance does notnormally provide liability coverage for your person-ally owned scuba equipment you might provide adiver or student diver (such as when somethingmalfunctions or is forgotten).a. Instead, provide equipment from a dive center/

resort’s normal rental/class scuba equipment,which will be covered under the operation’s storeinsurance.

b. If necessary, you can obtain special coverage aspart of your professional liability insurance toprovide liability coverage for personal equipmentyou might provide a certified diver or studentdiver.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Why is professional liability insurance important?Why is professional liability insurance important?

55

■ You can be sued, even if you did nothing wrong

■ You can be sued, even if you did nothing wrong

■ Insurance may cover defense costs and damages, if necessary

■ Insurance may cover defense costs and damages, if necessary

■ Instructor’s insurance does not cover assistants

■ Instructor’s insurance does not cover assistants

NOTE: Professional liability insurance does not normally cover personally owned equipment

NOTE: Professional liability insurance does not normally cover personally owned equipment


C. What is the most important step you can taketo manage legal risk?1. The primary way to manage legal risk is to prevent

accidents in the first place by adhering to conserva-tive diving, supervisory and assisting practices.a. This is professional judgment and basic human

compassion and caring - not just a legal tool.b. You’re not likely to face a suit for an accident

that doesn’t happen.2. Why does adhering to standards help you

reduce legal risk?a. Standards stipulate your duty of care - by sticking

to standards, you go a long way to proving youmet your duty.

b. PADI defends the appropriateness of standards soyou don’t have to.

3. What role does good judgment play in reduc-ing legal risk?.a. Good judgment and being conservative reduces

your legal risk.b. Even when following standards, you need to use

good judgment in their application - example:reducing ratios when conditions aren’t ideal.

c. Ties in to primary risk management - reducespossibility of an accident in the first place.

4. What is the role of proper paperwork andadministration in reducing legal risk?[Ask candidates how paperwork might relate to riskmanagement. Have them discuss this briefly beforepresenting the following points as elaborations onconclusions they reach, or to cover ideas they missed.]a. Paperwork is very important - suits have been

dismissed based on proper paperwork alone!b. Paperwork and administration help you docu-

ment that you followed standards.c. The Liability Release and Express Assumption of

Risk form shifts legal responsibility to programparticipants - they assume risk where allowed bylaw [explain local laws].1. Informs participants of risks.2. Forms a contract between you and participants

that they accept risks, including the risk thatyou may do something that could be heldnegligent by a court.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

What is the most important step you can

take to manage legal risk?

What is the most important step you can

take to manage legal risk?

66

Adhere to conservative diving, supervisory and

assisting practices

Adhere to conservative diving, supervisory and

assisting practices

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Reducing Legal RiskReducing Legal Risk

77

■ Follow standards■ Follow standards

■ Use good judgment■ Use good judgment■ Have documentation

— proper paperwork■ Have documentation

— proper paperwork◆ Liability release◆ Liability release

◆ Medical form◆ Medical form

◆ Other student or participant documents

◆ Other student or participant documents


3. This is one of the most important documents;have it completed and keep it on file.

d. Medical form1. Helps prevent accidents by screening those

medically ineligible to dive.

a. Those who answer “yes” to any conditionmust receive physician approval beforeparticipating.

b. In some countries, all participants must seea physician prior to enrolling in scubaactivities.

2. Accidents resulting from a medical conditionlisted on form helps shift responsibility toparticipant (for incorrectly filling out form) orphysician who signed form.

e. Review paperwork closely to be sure all blanks arefilled, that it is signed, dated and legible.

f. Keep all paperwork at least seven years, or longerif local statute of limitations is longer.

D. In the event of a dive accident, besides givingpriority to taking all steps you can to handlethe emergency, what should you do from a legalrisk management point of view?1. Your first priority is handling the emergency, con-

tacting authorities and emergency medical care,showing compassion and doing everything possiblefor the well being of victim.

2. Do inform the victim’s family about the accidentand show compassion and care.

3. Do cooperate with authorities and give them thefacts of the incident.

4. Do not assign, admit or speculate on causes orblame.a. Distracts from managing the accident and help-

ing the victim.b. Facts are seldom complete, so speculations are

usually inaccurate.c. Statements made about causes may appear in the

press and in court (if a suit is filed) even if subse-quent investigation proves these inaccurate.

5. Do collect the victim’s equipment to turn over toauthorities.a. Have someone (a diver) not connected with the

DM 10 - DM 10 -

In the event of an accident, what should you do?In the event of an accident, what should you do?

88

■ Handle emergency and tend to victim■ Handle emergency and tend to victim■ Provide the victim’s family and

authorities with facts■ Provide the victim’s family and

authorities with facts■ Do not assign, admit to or speculate

on causes or blame■ Do not assign, admit to or speculate

on causes or blame■ Collect the victim’s equipment

for authorities■ Collect the victim’s equipment

for authorities■ File an incident report with PADI■ File an incident report with PADI


accident confirm in writing whether it appears tobe working normally and how much air is in thecylinder.

b. Record person’s contact information - equipmentmay sit unrinsed for months and not work prop-erly when checked later.

6. File an incident report with your PADI Office.

III. Quality Management - Recognition and AssuranceA. How does the Quality Management process help

you reduce legal risk?1. All PADI Offices conduct random surveys of PADI

student divers and program participants, and followup on reports from the field to ensure that PADIprograms are conducted to PADI Standards. Thisprocess also confirms that PADI professionals under-stand those standards. This proactive process helpsyou reduce legal risk.

2. It creates documentation that you follow standardsto support your paperwork and statements.

3. It gives standards that defend your credibility byshowing that PADI enforces them.

4. If you are found to be accidentally not followingstandards:a. Provides opportunity to correct problem before a

related accident occurs.b. Documents the correction so that, in the event of

an accident later, no one can successfully allegeyou violated standards based on witness reportsof earlier standards violations.

B. What are the steps in the Quality Managementprocess?1. Procedures are primarily corrective. Most standards

problems result from misunderstandings.2. [Review the Quality Assurance procedure steps in

the General Standards and Procedures section of thePADI Instructor Manual.]

IV. Personal Health and SafetyA. Functioning as a divemaster can raise several potential

health and safety concerns.1. Supervising duties may require long periods of being

active and alert, despite being tired.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

How does PADI’s quality management process work?How does PADI’s quality management process work?

99

■ Students and program participants are randomly surveyed

■ Students and program participants are randomly surveyed

■ Reports received from customers and PADI Members

■ Reports received from customers and PADI Members

■ Proactive process ensures that PADI programs are conducted per PADI Standards

■ Proactive process ensures that PADI programs are conducted per PADI Standards

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Members who provide excellent instruction and customer

service are recognized

Members who provide excellent instruction and customer

service are recognized

1010

When necessary, corrective action is taken to ensure PADI

Members understand and follow PADI Standards

When necessary, corrective action is taken to ensure PADI

Members understand and follow PADI Standards


2. You may need to make multiple dives in a relativelyshort period.

3. Your duties may call for physical labor, stamina andcontinuous exertion.

B. Maintaining your health and safety is a matter offollowing common health guidelines and conservativediving practices.

C. What are five suggestions to help you managerisks to your health and safety as a divemaster?1. Stay physically fit by exercising regularly, getting

adequate rest and eating properly.2. When making multiple repetitive dives, plan your

dives so that you make the deepest dive of the dayfirst and work progressively shallower, staying wellwithin the no decompression limits. Make a safetystop at the end of all dives. Take a day off fromdiving every few days.

3. Stay hydrated. Tropical heat depletes body fluids, asdo caffeine and alcohol consumption.

4. When ill or injured, moderate your activities accord-ingly. Pressing on may delay healing and maycompromise your abilities.

5. Pay attention to your mental health - dive for fun,not just for work, so you avoid burnout, and engagein other pastimes.

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Personal Health and SafetyPersonal Health and Safety

1111

■ Stay physically fit■ Stay physically fit■ Make the deepest dive of the

day first and stay well within no decompression limits

■ Make the deepest dive of the day first and stay well within no decompression limits

■ Remain hydrated■ Remain hydrated■ When ill or injured, moderate

your activities■ When ill or injured, moderate

your activities■ Pay attention to your mental health

— HAVE FUN■ Pay attention to your mental health

— HAVE FUN

DM 10 - DM 10 -

Risk ManagementRisk Management



Topic 11 -The Business of Diving

Recommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThis section introduces candidates to their function in the business aspectsof a dive operation. It is recommended that you have candidates read TheBusiness of Diving book, and business related articles in The Best of theUndersea Journal and the IDC Candidate Workbook, if available in a lan-guage they can read. It’s also recommended that you encourage candidatesto begin developing business skills by viewing PADI business-relatedprograms such as Positive Approach Selling and Advanced Strategies forRecruiting and Retaining Enthusiastic Divers.

Focus your elaboration on specific examples of how this informationpertains to the dive business in your local area.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objective

I. The Dive Consumer

1. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where doesthe dive consumer find them?

2. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have inhelping dive consumers with the three Es?

II. Equipment Counseling

3. What is the role of leadership-level divers withrespect to equipment counseling?

4. What are four attributes of a positive sales process?

OutlineI. The Dive Consumer

[Ask candidates what they need to be a diver. Writetheir answers on the board in three columns accord-ing to equipment, education or entertainment (expe-riences), but don’t label columns. After getting sev-eral items in each column, ask candidates to nameeach column. Transition into discussion of three Es.]A. What are the “three Es” of diving, and where

does the dive consumer find them?1. The “three Es” are characteristics needed by all dive

DM 11 - DM 11 -

What do you need to be a diver?

What do you need to be a diver?

33

DM 11 - DM 11 - 11



The Business of DivingThe Business of Diving

DM 11 - DM 11 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ The Dive Consumer■ The Dive Consumer

■ Equipment Counseling■ Equipment Counseling


consumers, without which there would be no diveindustry.a. Education - To dive safely initially, and to

progress to more challenging types of dive activi-ties, divers need dive training.

b. Equipment - Without it diving is impossible. Diveconsumers need access to equipment to buy orrent.

c. Entertainment (experience) - Education andequipment have no value if divers can’t do some-thing with them. Entertainment is the reasonpeople become divers.1. Travel, local diving, clubs, and other events all

qualify as entertainment - reasons to dive andto be involved with diving.

2. The need for entertainment is the reason to getnew student divers diving in confined water asquickly as possible. Beginning divers often per-ceive the conventional long-classroom-sessionsas an obstacle or delay, and this stops somepeople from learning to dive.

2. A fourth E sometimes mentioned is environment.Divers need a healthy dive environment, and we allneed a healthy environment to live. As the divecommunity grows, we take on increasing responsi-bility to act together as advocates for aquatic envi-ronments.

B. The dive center and dive resort, where the three Escome together under one roof, is the focus of the diveindustry.

C. What functions may a PADI Divemaster have inhelping dive consumers with the three Es?1. As a leadership-level diver, it is your role to help

divers meet their education, equipment and enter-tainment needs.a. May be direct involvement, such as leading a trip

or assisting with student divers in training.b. May be indirect assistance, such as providing

recommendations or advice to divers who askabout travel, equipment, etc.

2. Certified divers will seek your supervision for guideddiving partly because you help assure that all threeEs are met.

DM 11 - DM 11 -

The Three EsThe Three Es

44

EquipmentEquipment

Experiences(Entertainment)Experiences(Entertainment)

EducationEducation

Fourth E = EnvironmentFourth E = Environment

Es come together in PADI Dive Centers

and Resorts

Es come together in PADI Dive Centers

and Resorts

DM 11 - DM 11 -

How can you help customers fulfill

their needs?

How can you help customers fulfill

their needs?

55

■ Direct involvement ■ Direct involvement

■ Indirect assistance ■ Indirect assistance


a. You handle the entertainment by knowing wherethe best dive sites are and by making the experi-ence fun.

b. You help divers assess whether they have theeducation needed to make a particular dive.

c. You help divers assess whether they’re properlyequipped for a dive, and may have spare equip-ment from the dive operation rental stock ifthere’s an equipment related problem.

II. Equipment Counseling[Ask candidates what they think about salespeople.Next ask candidates to think of a salesperson whothey felt was genuinely helpful and tell you whatmade the person effective. Take the resulting descrip-tion and make the point that divemaster duties arelikely to involve equipment sales or counseling, sothey need to recognize the effective aspects of thesales process.]A. What is the role of leadership-level divers with

respect to equipment counseling?1. Divers, especially student divers, come to leadership-

level divers for advice about equipment.2. It is entirely appropriate for you to give advice on

equipment purchases.a. Diving is a technical activity and learning about

equipment is part of the education each divergoes through.

b. Divers appreciate the recommendations of thosethey respect - think about when you were at theirlevel in diving.

3. The dive operation you work with relies on equip-ment sales as part of how they stay in business.a. If you don’t help, divers may go elsewhere.b. Or they may get advice from a less qualified

source.c. Or they may not continue with diving - everyone

loses.B. What are four attributes of a positive sales

process?1. Your goal is to give the best recommendations so the

diver will be happy with the equipment to promotea long term relationship.

DM 11 - DM 11 -

Positive Sales ApproachPositive Sales Approach

77

■ Give recommendations that are good for building long term customer relationships

■ Give recommendations that are good for building long term customer relationships

■ Listen carefully to customer needs■ Listen carefully to customer needs

■ Do not make assumptions■ Do not make assumptions

■ Provide the advice you would like to receive

■ Provide the advice you would like to receive

DM 11 - DM 11 -

What about sales and salespeople?What about sales and salespeople?

66

Become an equipment counselor

Become an equipment counselor


a. You don’t need to “push” anything when yourgoal is a long term relationship.

b. Long term relationships bring in the most busi-ness in the end - best for the dive operation, bestfor the customer.

2. You listen to the divers who come to you for adviceand help them based on what they tell you.a. They will usually tell you what they want and

need, but you may have to ask about their inter-ests, planned uses, etc.

b. Try not to assume - it’s surprising how often whatthey tell you differs from what you thought they’dsay.

3. You don’t make assumptions about price:a. Recommend the equipment that best addresses

their needs and wants without worrying about price.b. People often want more than they need. Give

them the facts and let them decide - buyinghigher performance equipment may cost more,but it is often cheaper in the long run, even if theindividual doesn’t need that performance levelimmediately.

4. You give all the advice you’d like to get.a. Don’t forget the little things that make the big

difference (e.g., a bottle of defog with a maskpurchase, etc.).

b. Suggest ways (courses, trips, etc.) divers can enjoytheir new investment.

DM 11 - DM 11 -

The Business of DivingThe Business of Diving



Topic 12 - Your Diving CareerRecommended Materials and Methodsfor Covering this TopicThis topic is intended to aim candidates toward a satisfying and successfulcareer in the dive industry, whether they’re pursuing leadership training asa vocation or as an avocation. During this topic, your main emphasis willbe on progressing to the Assistant Instructor and Instructor levels, and onadditional skills and training that can give individuals a competitiveadvantage in the industry.

PresentationOverview and Learning Objective

I. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career

1. What are six reasons why you should considercontinuing your training through the PADI OpenWater Scuba Instructor level?

2. How does it benefit you to complete the PADI Assis-tant Instructor course prior to enrolling in thePADI OWSI Program?

3. How does diver-level specialty training help yourcareer as a PADI Divemaster?

II. Other Training That Can Aid Your Career

4. What are six skills, outside of diver training, thatcan make you more valuable in the dive industry?

III. The Role of Emerging Technologies

5. How will emerging technologies affect your career,and what should you do in response?

OutlineI. PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career

A. What are six reasons why you should considercontinuing your training through the PADIOpen Water Scuba Instructor level?1. Because they’re fully qualified to teach classes,

instructors have more versatility as employees.2. The majority of dive boat professionals supervising

certified divers are instructors, which gives themmore versatility as employees because they can traindivers.

DM 12 - DM 12 - 11



Your Diving CareerYour Diving Career

DM 12 - DM 12 -

OverviewOverview

22

■ PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career

■ PADI Training to Further Your Dive Career

■ Other Training That Can Aid Your Career

■ Other Training That Can Aid Your Career

■ The Role of Emerging Technologies

■ The Role of Emerging Technologies

DM 12 - DM 12 -

Why continue your education?Why continue your education?

33

■ Gaining ne w skills and qualifying to conduct additional courses makes you more versatile

■ Versatility is what employers look for

■ Gaining ne w skills and qualifying to conduct additional courses makes you more versatile

■ Versatility is what employers look for


3. Most individuals who move into other areas of thedive industry (e.g., manufacturer representatives)begin as instructors - this experience lets them un-derstand their customer’s needs.

4. Even if you’re primarily interested in leadership asan avocation, not a full time vocation, certificationas an instructor creates more opportunities.

5. Increasingly, institutions of higher learning recog-nize the quality of PADI Instructor training. Thisrecognition may apply to opportunities and careersbeyond diving.

6. There are more opportunities for PADI Instructorsthan for any other professional in the industry. Thedemand for PADI Instructors exceeds the demand forinstructors of all other organizations combined.

B. How does it benefit you to complete the PADIAssistant Instructor course prior to enrolling inthe PADI OWSI Program?

1. Much of the AI course comes from the IDC, so the AIcourse reduces your instructor training programload.

2. The AI course applies directly to what you learn inthe OWSI Program, gives you more time and prac-tice that will help you be successful in the InstructorExamination (IE) and as a certified instructor.

3. You need 100 logged dives to become a PADI In-structor. If you’re short that number, the AI coursegives you more opportunities to dive and gain expe-rience.

4. The AI course gives you teaching and income oppor-tunities by qualifying you to conduct additionalPADI courses and programs, including somenondiving PADI Specialities.

5. As an AI, you can enroll in PADI Specialty Instructorcourses. When you successfully complete the IE andhave ten dives in the specialty, you’ll be qualified toteach the specialties in which you took these courses.

C. How does diver-level specialty training helpyour career as a PADI Divemaster?

1. Providing more dive opportunities.

2. Helping you gain specialty experience that applieswhen you qualify to teach the specialty at the Assis-tant Instructor and/or instructor levels.


DM 12 - DM 12 -

Why take specialty diver courses?Why take specialty diver courses?

55

■ Learn new skills and gain additional diving opportunities

■ Learn new skills and gain additional diving opportunities

■ Gain experience to apply when assisting with specialty training

■ Gain experience to apply when assisting with specialty training

3. Giving you experience you can apply when assistingspecialty diver training.

II. Other Training That Can Aid Your CareerA. Like any industry, the dive industry needs a variety of

skills. Becoming a PADI Divemaster, Assistant Instruc-tor and Instructor provides the base for a successfulcareer, but additional skills and training can help yourchances of finding rewarding full time or part timepositions.

B. What are six skills, outside of diver training,that can make you more valuable in the diveindustry?1. Boat handling/captain’s license - useful at resorts

and boat-intensive operations.2. Retail sales training - useful in virtually any dive

operation.3. Sales management training - valuable for growth

within a retail dive operation.4. Manufacturer equipment repair technician - certifi-

cation to repair specific equipment expands a diveoperation’s services.

5. Compressor and/or diesel engine mechanics - virtu-ally all dive operations have compressors, manyhave diesel engines (in boat); these skills are espe-cially valuable at remote destinations.

6. Writing/word processing/layout/photography -producing store newsletters/brochures.

III. The Role of Emerging TechnologiesA. How will emerging technologies affect your

career, and what should you do in response?1. Technology changes rapidly in diving just as in

other industries, and the pace continues to accelerate.2. Much of what you know today will be obsolete in

only a few years.a. Medical advancements are likely to rescue and

first aid recommendations.b. Closed and semiclosed circuit scuba may become

more common in recreational diving.c. Electronics may revolutionize navigation.d. Physiology may learn more about DCI, leading to

new approaches to dive computer modeling, andDCI treatment.

DM 12 - DM 12 -

What other training will aid your diving career?What other training will aid your diving career?

66

■ Boat handling/captain’s license■ Boat handling/captain’s license

■ Retail sales training■ Retail sales training

■ Sales management training■ Sales management training

■ Equipment repair technician■ Equipment repair technician

■ Compressor/diesel mechanic■ Compressor/diesel mechanic

■ Writing and photography■ Writing and photography

DM 12 - DM 12 -

What should you know about emerging technologies?What should you know about emerging technologies?

77

■ Change is inevitable and usually rapid — KEEP PACE

■ Change is inevitable and usually rapid — KEEP PACE

■ Stay current■ Stay current◆ Read dive periodicals and watching

diving-related programs◆ Read dive periodicals and watching

diving-related programs◆ Attend dive trade shows◆ Attend dive trade shows◆ Continually learn about computers◆ Continually learn about computers◆ Put new technologies to use◆ Put new technologies to use◆ Be open to change◆ Be open to change


e. Instruction continues to become more convenientand more efficient by using new technologiessuch as multimedia computer-based training,online training via the internet, etc. These willexpand.

B. A professional-level diver must remain current and upto speed with technology.1. Failure to do so obsoletes you - you may have diffi-

culty competing with new professionals entering thedive industry.

2. In some areas, failure to follow the most currentstandards-of-care may have potential liability.

C. Ways to stay up to date.1. Read a wide variety of dive periodicals and watch

dive videos and television programming.2. Attend dive trade shows.3. Keep up with changes in computer technology - they

affect virtually all industries, including diving.4. Put new technologies into use. The best way to be

familiar with them is through hands-on application.5. Never accept nor reject something just because it’s

new. Be open to change (you can’t stop it anyway),but use your experience to evaluate the merits ofemerging technologies. Some will bring significantimprovements to diving; others will be short-livedfads with little practicality.

DM 12 - DM 12 -

Your Diving Career

Your Diving Career



FourWaterskillsand StaminaModule



Conduct and StandardsYou conduct all portions of the Waterskills and Stamina exercises in confinedwater, except the Diver Rescue Assessment and Development, which may beconducted in confined water or open water.

Stamina Assessment andDevelopmentThere are four exercises that evaluatestamina and waterskills, each ratedby points. There is no passing scorefor any single exercise, but acombined score of 12 or more isrequired prior to certification. Inaddition, candidates must com-

The Waterskills and Stamina Module has three roles. First, it confirms that

candidates retain previously learned skills, allowing time for practice and

redevelopment as necessary. Second, it confirms that candidates have the

watermanship appropriate for someone working in a leadership capacity,

developing these in candidates if necessary. Third, this module develops

skills so they are more suited to teaching, which is important both for a

PADI Divemaster assisting with student divers in training, and for progress-

ing to the PADI Assistant Instructor and Open Water Scuba Instructor levels.

plete all exercises prior to certifi-cation.

Candidates who fall short of acombined score of 12 may be giventime to practice and develop theirabilities while continuing in otherareas of the course.

4-2 Four: Waterskills and Stamina

Stamina Exercise 1: 400 Metre/Yard SwimThe candidate must swim 400 metres/yards without stopping using noswimming aids and using any stroke or combination of strokes desired.If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and must be repeated.

400 yards 400 metresTime Points Timeunder 6 min 5 under 6 min, 30 sec6 to 8 min 4 6 min, 30 sec to 8 min, 40 sec8 to 10 min 3 8 min, 40 sec to 11 min10 to 12 min 2 11 to 13 minmore than 12 min 1 more than 13 minstopped incomplete stopped

Stamina Exercise 2: 15 Minute TreadUsing no aids and wearing only a swimsuit, the candidate will stayafloat by treading water, drown proofing, bobbing or floating for 15minutes, with hands (not arms) out of the water during the last 2 min-utes. A candidate with a physical challenge that makes it difficult/impossible to hold hands out of the water is exempted from that portionof the exercise with no effect on the score.

Criteria PointsPerformed satisfactorily 5Stayed afloat, but hands not out of water entire 2 minutes 3Used side/bottom for momentary support no more than twice 1Used side/bottom for support more than twice incomplete

Stamina Exercise 3: 800 Metre/Yard Snorkel SwimUsing a mask, fins, snorkel and swimsuit only (no BCD or flotation aids)and swimming with the face in the water, the candidate must swimnonstop for 800 metres/yards. The candidate may not use arms to swim,unless the candidate has a physical challenge that limits leg use andarm-swimming is the individual’s normal swimming method whilediving. If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and must be repeated.

800 yards 800 metresTime Points Timeunder 13 min 5 under 14 min13 to 15 min 4 14 to 16 min, 30 sec15 to 17 min 3 16 min, 30 sec to 18 min, 30 sec17 to 19 min 2 18 min, 30 sec to 21 minmore than 19 min 1 more than 21 minstopped incomplete stopped


Stamina Exercise 4: 100 Metres/Yard Inert Diver TowWearing full scuba equipment, the candidate must push or tow an inertdiver in full scuba at the surface 100 metres/yards nonstop withoutassistance. Note that this is a swimming power evaluation (speed-against-drag)not a rescue evaluation. If a candidate stops, the exercise is incomplete and mustbe repeated.

100 yards 100 metresTime Points Timeunder 2 min 5 under 2 min, 10 sec2 to 3 min 4 2 min, 10 sec to 3 min, 15 sec3 to 4 min 3 3 min, 15 sec to 4 min, 20 sec4 to 5 min 2 4 min, 20 sec to 5 min, 30 secmore than 5 min 1 more than 5 min, 30 secstopped incomplete stopped

Diver RescueAssessment andDevelopmentThe Diver Rescue Assessment andDevelopment has three goals. First, itevaluates effectiveness to assure thatcandidates can perform a rescue ifnecessary in an emergency. Second, itimproves the quality of rescue skills tobe more role model for assisting withthe PADI Rescue Diver course. Third, itforms the foundation of demonstra-tion quality rescues required duringthe IDC/IE.

This exercise is the simulatedrescue of an unresponsive,nonbreathing diver. It applies a pass-fail evaluation criteria. You mayconduct this exercise in a pool, con-fined water or open water in thefollowing manner:

1. The “victim” is in full scubaequipment and submerged around25 metres/yards from the “rescuer”(candidate you’re evaluating). Therescuer starts from the pool deck,shore or boat as appropriate.

2. At your signal, the rescuer entersthe water, locates and surfaces thevictim, properly checks for and

initiates breathing, tows the victimwhile removing own and victim’sweights, mask and scuba unit, andremoves the victim from the water.(Equipment handlers allowed.)

3. To pass as an effective rescue,you must be able to answer“yes” to all the following:

• Upon surfacing, did therescuer establish victim’sbuoyancy?

• Did the rescuer look, listenand feel for breathing?

• Did rescuer open the airwayand give two slow rescuebreaths?

• Did the rescuer call for help?

• Did the rescuer use an effec-tive inwater rescue breath-ing technique?

• Did the rescuer protect thevictim’s airway with no orvery few interruptions?

• Did the rescuer maintainregular ventilations with noor very few interruptions?


Skill Evaluation Scores ScoreCharacteristics

1 Candidate unable toperform exercise.

2 Exercise performed withsignificant difficulty orerror.

3 Exercise performed cor-rectly, though too quicklyto adequately exhibit orillustrate details of the skill

4 Exercise performed cor-rectly, and slowly enoughto adequately exhibit orillustrate details of skill.

5 Exercise performed cor-rectly, slowly and withexaggerated movement –appeared easy.

Note: These scores are the same as thoseused for Skill Evaluation through all levels ofPADI leadership training.

• Did the rescuer resume anyventilation interruptionswith two slow rescuebreaths?

• Did the rescuer perform therescue without any assis-tance (except the exit whereindividual physical charac-teristics and/or the environ-ment may require assis-tance)?

Note that there is no time limit for the rescue.

Confined WaterskillAssessment andDevelopmentThe Confined Waterskill Assessmentand Development has two purposes –to verify that the candidate canperform the 20 basic dive skills fromthe PADI Skill Evaluation, and to trainthe candidate to perform these skillsto demonstration quality.

Part One: DevelopingDemonstration Quality SkillsThe first part of this session teachescandidates how to perform a demon-stration quality skill.

Procedure: begin by describing forcandidates the characteristics of ademonstration quality skill. Tell themthat they will earn to perform maskremoval and replacement in a demon-stration quality manner. Emphasizethat their goal is not learning how todo the skill, which they should al-ready know, but how to execute it in away that allows student divers tolearn the steps and critical attributes.

In shallow water kneel down withthe group and perform a demonstra-tion quality mask removal andreplacement. Allow candidates topractice independently while you

watch. You can bring individual can-didates to the surface for suggestionsduring this short practice interval.

After watching their practice, haveeach candidate perform the skill foryou. Their execution should be to the4 level or better. If some candidatesneed more polish, emphasize thoseareas that need work and havecandidates practice again. Be sure acandidate can demonstrate the skill tothe 4 level or better before moving onto Part Two of this session.

By the end of Part One,the candidate should beable to execute the skillof removing, replacingand clearing a mask in amanner that earns ascore of 4 or higher.


Part Two: Performing the20 Basic Scuba Skills Fromthe PADI Skill EvaluationAfter demonstrating a 4 or 5 for maskremoval and replacement, candidatesare ready to apply demonstrationprinciples to the 20 basic scuba skillslisted below.

A skill demonstrated at the 3 levelis adequate for someone to learn from,so it isn’t necessary to require a levelof 4 or 5 on all skills. However, thegoal of this exercise is to teach candi-dates how they can make their skillseven more effective as teaching toolsby striving for the 4 and 5 levels.

Note: While a few 3s are acceptable,candidates must earn 4s and 5s on severalskills to be successful. All 3s earns only 54points.

20 Basic Scuba Skills for Skill Evaluation 1. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation,

donning and disassembly

2. Predive safety check (BWRAF)

3. Deep water entry

4. Buoyancy check at surface

5. Snorkel-regulator/regulator snorkel exchange

6. Five point descent

7. Regulator recovery and clearing

8. Mask removal, replacement and clearing

9. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use stationary

10. Freeflow regulator breathing

11. Fin pivot (neutral buoyancy)

12. Five point ascent

13. Remove and replace weight system on the surface

14. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent (CESA)

15. Hovering motionless

16. Underwater swim without a mask

17. Remove and replace weight system underwater

18. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater

19. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface

20. Buddy breathing stationary and swimming (donor and receiver)

Procedure: Have candidates performthe 20 skills listed on the Skill Evalua-tion Slate or Divemaster Skill Develop-ment Score Sheet. Grade them accord-ing to the scoring criteria. As neces-sary, perform the skills for candidatesin a demonstration quality manneruntil they earn at least 68 total points,with no individual score below 3.

The mask removal and re-placement skill must be repeatedduring this portion of the exercise.

By the end of Part Two,the candidate mustdemonstrate the 20 basicdive skills, with all skillsearning a 3 or higher,and the total score forall 20 skills at least 68points.


FivePracticalApplicationModule



Conduct and StandardsFor certification, divemaster candi-dates must successfully completethe Required Training Exercises 1-3and either the entire Internship orall the Practical Training Exercises.

It’s recommended that candidatesparticipate in Required Training Exer-cises before moving on to the Intern-ship or Practical Training Exercises.The problem solving abilities andconfidence gained will add to thecandidates’ experiences during practi-cal application.

If time allows, it’s also recom-mended that candidates participate inboth Internship activities and PracticalTraining Exercises, however, they onlyneed to complete one option. Thisprovides experience in working withactual divers and allows targeted

learning while simulating scenariosunder instructor supervision.

A teaching status PADI OpenWater Scuba Instructor or highermust conduct the training for allcomponents of the Practical Appli-cation Module.

Minimum Diver Numbersfor Training ExercisesPractical Training Exercises 1-4 makeuse of simulated supervisory condi-tions. This requires individuals to roleplay divers being supervised. For thepurposes of training, the minimumnumber of role players requiredin each of these exer-cises is 4. These roleplayers may be othercandidates, instructionalstaff members, or certifieddivers.

The Practical Application Module allows divemaster candidates to put into

practice the knowledge and skills they will use as functioning PADI Divemasters.

This module contains two segments. The first part includes Required Training

Exercises that all candidates must complete. These exercises develop the

candidate’s organizational and problem solving skills. The second part has two

options — an Internship or Practical Training Exercises. Through actual or

simulated activities, candidates develop and apply divemaster skills under

instructor supervision. The Internship options allows candidates to work with

real students or divers. During Practical Training Exercises, candidates gain

experience while simulating assisting and supervisory roles.

5-2 Five: Practical Application

Required Training Exercises

Required Training Exercise 1Mapping ProjectIn this exercise candidates survey a dive site and draw a map from it.Besides the obvious function of giving candidates experience in creatingmaps for use by divers and as a briefing aid, the exercise has anotherimportant educational role. Candidates learn to combine several skills –dive planning, underwater navigation,search patterns, and data recording – toachieve the goal. In effect, mapping is aproblem-solving exercise that relies oneffective dive organization and manage-ment.

ProceduresYou may assign different dive sites tocandidate buddy teams as projects tocomplete independently, or you mayhave the entire class collaborate in asingle map in a scheduled session youlead. In making the assignment(s):

1. Try to select a site that the candi-dates aren’t overly familiar with.

2. Emphasize the importance of diveplanning as the primary ingredient in successful mapping.

3. Remind candidates to be as accurate as possible in their measurementsand what they record. Point out that inaccuracies tend be cumulative.Attention to detail makes for a better map.

4. Have candidates save their slate notes and other resources for yourreview. Debrief by creating a nonjudgmental atmosphere in whichcandidates tell you about their performance rather than vice versa.Look at their slates and other rough work as they debrief. Ask themhow the exercise went. Candidates usually will tell you what they werethinking, what they did and what they would change.

5. An adequate map is one that is complete and would be useful fornavigation by someone who has never been at the site before. Someteams will be better skilled at artwork and drawing than others, butkeep in mind that you are not judging artistic quality.

6. Some candidates may not have ever performed a U-pattern search. Ifso, you may want to hold a short session for these candidates to prac-tice one under your supervision prior to undertaking the mappingproject.

Candidates must:1. Survey with a buddy, a dive site or

portion of a dive site assigned by theinstructor, including underwaterand surface features, with sufficientdetail and accuracy for creating amap of the site.

2. Create a map of the dive site, show-ing (as applicable to the site) under-water relief, important points ofinterest, recommended entry/exitareas, local facilities, and potentialhazards.


Required Training Exercise 2Equipment ExchangeThe primary goal of the equipment exchange is problem solving, but withan added level of unanticipated problems and performance under stress.Because the exercise creates an environment with unforeseeable difficulties,candidates have to apply their experience and knowledge creatively, tomeet the demands of the moment. This is an important aspect of leadingdivers and solving problems on the spot.

This exercise is a problem solving evaluation and development toolonly.It has no other application. It creates a controlled problems situation in whichto develop and evaluate leadership-level problem solving under stress skills.Therefore, this exercise isn’t appropriate for training at lower diver levels.

Procedures1. Conduct this exercise in a pool or other confined water site.

2. Divide the candidates into buddy teams with each buddy wearing fullscuba equipment. Equipment should include an exposure suit com-

monly used in the local area (dive skins,wet suits, dry suits, etc.). Don’t tellcandidates who their team mates will bein advance. Staff members may act asbuddies if necessary and should cooper-ate fully and not intentionally adddifficulty. The candidate should do allthe planning and lead the exercise.

3. Prior to assessment, give each buddyteam a maximum of 5 minutes todiscuss and plan the exercise. Remem-ber, part of the evaluation is problem-solving ability of unforeseen problems

under stress. Allowing excessive preparation reduces the stress and theeffectiveness of the exercise.

4. Have each team swim from the shallow area of the pool/confined waterto water too deep in which to stand.

5. In deeper water, have them begin buddy breathing, then exchange allequipment except exposure suit and weight belts.

6. When the exchange is complete, have them return to the shallow areawhile continuing to buddy breathing.

Notes:1. Variation from normal diving practice is acceptable during the exchange because

this exercise creates highly unusual circumstances. You should evaluate thecandidate’s ability to control stress while solving problems – normal skill compe-

tence may suffer under these conditions.

2. It may be necessary and acceptable to give each member of a buddy team different

scores if one member dominates the exercise, or if it is obvious that difficulties liewith one member substantially more than the other.

Candidates must:Demonstrate the ability to solveunanticipated problems underwaterby exchanging all scuba equipment(except exposure suits and weights)with a buddy while buddy breathing.Candidates must earn a 3 or higheras described in the evaluation crite-ria.


Equipment Exchange Evaluation CriteriaCandidates must perform to a level of 3 or higherprior to certification.

Score Criteria5 Task performed in a well-thought-out, efficient and

purposeful manner with no sign of problems. Verylow anxiety level. Looks routine and fun.

4 Task performed competently with a relatively lowanxiety level. Problems encountered were easily andefficiently handled.

3 Complete exchange occurred without surfacing.However, numerous problems were encountered thatdelayed the speed and efficiency of the performance.The grade is also appropriate for a buddy who wasoverly dependent on the other, and who, in essence,had everything done for him.

2 Significant problems demonstrated, and exchangecompleted only after one or both team memberssurfaced once.

1 Inability to complete the exchange, or exchangecompleted but required one or both members tosurface more than once.

Required Training Exercise 3Divemaster Conducted Program[Prerequisite: Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs]

This exercise familiarizes candidates with programs they may conductwithout instructor supervision. This scenario builds upon what candidateslearned in Topic 9 – Divemaster Conducted Programs by having themconduct part or all of a simulated or actual Discover Snorkeling, ScubaReview, or Discover Local Diving program, or PADI Skin Diver course.

If simulating this exercise, the minimum number of roleplayers required is 4.

Procedures1. Organize an actual or simulated PADI Discover Snorkeling, Scuba

Review, Discover Local Diving, or PADI Skin Diver course. If you havecandidates participate in an actual program, remember that PADIDivemaster candidates may not be used to meet ratio requirements.

2. Have candidates review the program standards in the PADI InstructorManual.

3. Assign each candidate a briefing, supervision/skills, and debriefing.The program chosen will influence what you assign. For example withDiscover Local Diving, the candidate might conduct the entire dive


briefing, a short part of the dive, and the entire debriefing. With thePADI Skin Diver course, the candidate may brief one or more skills,demonstrate the skills and conduct student practice, then debrief theskills.

4. Demonstrate a role model briefing, conduct and debriefing for theprogram prior to having candidates performtheirs. Your demonstration may be part of anactual program, or a simulated one.

5. Explain to candidates that they will beassessed for all phases of their assignmentbased on:

• the completeness, effectivenessand compliance with standards,• the application of what they’velearned during Knowledge Develop-ment and through diving experience,• their application of good judgment.

6. Have candidates brief, conduct anddebrief their assignments in open or confinedwater as required by the program selected.It’s recommended that different candidates

have different assignments, and when feasible, that assignmentsinvolve different PADI Divemaster conducted programs.

Remember that in actual programs, a PADI Instructor must fill inany gaps or make any corrections necessary to assure that partici-pants receive complete and accurate briefings/debriefings. Besidesdirectly supervising program conduct, a PADI Instructor mustassess participant skills to assure mastery consistent with programrequirements.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceEvaluate the exercise as adequate or inadequate based on complete-ness, accuracy, appropriateness and the application of good judg-ment. To qualify as adequate, you should be able to answer “yes’ tothe following questions (some may not apply to all programs orassignments):

Briefing

• Did the candidate assess dive conditions?

• Did the candidate give planned dive limits (time/depth/distance/airsupply) within those conditions?

• Did the candidate clearly state what participant and divemaster roleswill be?

• For instructional programs (e.g., PADI Skin Diver course, Scuba Review),did the candidate give clear objectives of what participants will be ableto do?

• Did the candidate provide dive site description and area orientation(hazards, points of interest, special requirements, facilities)?

• Did the candidate assess participants (properly equipped, etc.) asappropriate for the program?

Candidates must:Conduct a simulated or actualPADI Discover Snorkeling,Scuba Review, or Discover LocalDiving program, or PADI SkinDiver course, while under thedirect supervision of a PADIInstructor, in a manner thatshows a complete briefing,effective and safe inwatersupervision, and an effectivedebriefing.


• Did the candidate brief participants on entry/exit techniques andlocations?

• Did the candidate include other briefing components as required byprogram standards?

• Did the candidate confirm that divers have buddies?

• Did the candidate confirm or make a predive safety check (as appropri-ate for the program)?

• Did the candidate review communications, emergency procedures andrecall procedures?

Program Conduct

• Did the candidate supervise from appropriate vantage point?

• Did the candidate give effective skill demonstrations (if appropriate forprogram)?

• Did the candidate handle problems effectively?

• Did the candidate keep activities organized and in control?

Debriefing

• Did the candidate identify problems and solutions to them?

• Did the candidate sign dive logs?

General

• Was the program generally positive and fun?

• Did the candidate follow PADI Standards throughout?

• Did the candidate make appropriate adjustments to ratios, limits, etc.within standards to accommodate conditions, individual characteristicsor other factors?

Remediate candidates, as necessary, and have them repeat theexercise until they can to conduct the program adequately inall respects.


Practical Application

Internship (Option 1)The Internship portion of the Practical Application Module meets bothinstructional and experience goals for the PADI Divemaster course byhaving candidates supervise and assist divers during training situations.

The philosophy of the internship is for candidates to learn by applyingprinciples and skills to actual supervision and teaching situations. Your roleas an instructor/mentor is to guide this experiential learning so that candi-dates gradually gain confidence and broaden responsibilities in a widearray of activities. Therefore, candidate duties may range from assistingwith equipment handling and logistics to assisting a student diver with aproblem (under instructor supervision).

For all internship activities a PADI Instructor must fill in anygaps or make any corrections necessary to ensure that divers re-ceive complete and accurate training. Besides directly supervisingprogram conduct, a PADI Instructor must assess diver skills toassure mastery consistent with program requirements.

As stated earlier, you have the choice of having candidates complete theentire Internship or all the Practical Training Exercises. Giving candidatesthe opportunity to complete all of one and parts of the other is recom-mended when feasible for added candidate confidence and experience.

Internship RequirementsDivemaster candidates must participate in at least:

1. One PADI Open Water Diver course confined water session.

2. Four additional confined water training sessions from anyPADI course or program. This may include sessions from theOpen Water Diver course, Discover Scuba Diving program, PeakPerformance Buoyancy course and other specialty courses andPADI programs.

3. One PADI Open Water Diver course open water trainingdive.

4. One PADI Adventures in Diving, Rescue Diver or PADISpecialty Diver course open water training session.

5. Three additional open water training dives from any PADIcourse or program.

6. One supervisory situation with certified divers not in aformal course.

Required Training Exercise sessions with actual student divers/certified divers to meet other PADI Divemaster course requirementsmay not be counted toward the internship requirement.


Internship ObjectivesDuring the internship, candidates must:

1. Organize the predive setup of equipment by Open WaterDiver students for confined water and open water training.

2. Coordinate student diver flow during confined water andopen water training dives.

3. Supervise Open Water Diver student divers not receiving theimmediate attention of the instructor during confined andopen water training.

4. Account for buddy teams entering and leaving the water bychecking them in and out of the water.

5. Assist an Open Water Diver student overcome a learningdifficulty in confined water, or a continuing educationstudent diver in open water.

6. Respond to, or prevent, diver problems as they occur in eachsection of the internship.

7. Demonstrate four or more skills for student divers in con-fined water.

8. Assist in the preparation of an open water training site.

9. Conduct an environmental assessment at anopen water training site and report to theinstructor appropriate recommendations aboutthe suitability of the site for training entry-leveland continuing education student divers.

10. Lead student divers on an underwater tour(ratio 2:1) for pleasure. (A PADI Instructor mustdirectly supervise this tour, though the candi-date conducts the tour as if the instructor wereindirectly supervising.)

11. Conduct environmental and diver assessments for supervis-ing divers not in training and include recommendationsbased on the assessment in a predive briefing, and takeother appropriate steps based on the assessments.

12. Conduct an appropriate predive briefing for a dive site.

13. Escort continuing education student divers on an indirectly-supervised training dives and report observed performancesto the instructor and assist with problems, if any.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceMastery of Internship objectives is based on scoring a 3 or higheron each of the performance requirements. It is suggested that you usePractical Training Exercises as a way to remediate and train candidates whoscore lower than 3 prior to resuming the internship.

Note: PADI Divemastercandidates may not be usedto meet ratio requirements,and they may not indirectlysupervise uncertified divers.


Score Performance

5 Candidate independently accomplished the objectivewithout noticeable errors, and showed creativitywhile anticipating instructor and diver needs in theprocess.

4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no notice-able errors and without significant help from instruc-tor or staff.

3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately,with a few insignificant errors. Instructor correctionand intervention limited to brief reminders or sugges-tions.

2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding oftasks required to meet objective, but made significanterrors or omissions. Instructor correction and inter-vention was required for a competent result.

1 Candidates made many or substantial errors andomissions in attempting task, or tasks not completed.


Practical Training Exercises(Option 2)The Practical Training Exercises offer an alternative to an Intern-

ship when logistics and actual supervisory situations make an Internshipunfeasible. Practical Training Exercises afford comparable training andexperience because you can simulate the situations candidates wouldencounter. Although the exercises don’t provide the same hands-on experi-ence as an Internship, you can present candidates with a wide variety ofspecific challenges they may expect in their roles as PADI Divemasters.

In setting up the scenario for each Practical Training Exercise, you mayhave other candidates, certified divers or instructional staff members playthe roles of participating divers. In briefing participants, ask them to try toplay their parts as realistically as possible. The more realistic the roleplaying, the more candidates learn and benefit from the exercises.

Each exercise includes responding to diver problems. Candidates shouldnot know the problems ,who will have them or when, in advance. Theintent is to assign routine problems faced by PADI Divemasters, such asbuddy separation, low air, broken fin strap, etc.

All dives conducted as part of these exercises should include normaldiving procedures – evaluating conditions, predive safety checks, etc. Youmay assign candidates to perform these steps for practice and review.

Assessing Candidate PerformanceMastery of all Practical Training Exercise objectives is based onscoring of a 3 or higher on each of the performance requirements.Remediate and counsel candidates who score lower than 3 andrepeat exercises as necessary.

Score Performance

5 Candidate independently accomplished the objectivewithout noticeable errors, and showed creativitywhile anticipating instructor and diver needs in theprocess.

4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no notice-able errors and without significant help from instruc-tor or staff.

3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately,with a few insignificant errors. Instructor correctionand intervention limited to brief reminders or sugges-tions.

2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding oftasks required to meet objective, but made significanterrors or omissions. Instructor correction and inter-vention was required for a competent result.

1 Candidates made many or substantial errors and omis-sions in attempting task, or tasks not completed.


Practical Training Exercise 1Certified Divers in Open WaterThis exercise simulates the role a divemaster plays in supervising generaldiving activities and includes leading a dive tour.

Procedures1. Use a typical dive site appropriate for noninstructional diving. Assign

participants who are role playing “divers” various experience and train-ing levels, and problems. If several divemastercandidates are participating, you will rotateroles and repeat the exercise for each candi-date.

2. Have the candidate assess the dive site anddivers, and choose a vantage point and inwatersupervision techniques.

3. Have the candidate assume the lead andbrief the group, confirm buddy teams, directpredive safety checks and take other appropri-ate steps.

4. In the water, the candidate should escortsdivers, handling assigned problems as theyoccur.

5. After the dive, have the candidate finish the scenario with a short debrief-ing. Then you debrief the group about the exercise, and privately debriefthe candidate about the candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 2Open Water Diver Students in Confined WaterThis exercise simulates the role a divemaster plays in assisting the training ofentry-level divers in confined water.

Procedures1. Conduct an Open Water Diver course - Confined Water Dive as you

normally would with actual students. If several divemaster candidatesare participating, you will rotate roles and repeat the exercise for eachcandidate.

2. Assign participants, who are role playing “student divers,” variousproblems to have during each phase of the session. Explain exactly howquickly or slowly to “learn” the skill or correct a mistake when workingone-on-one with the divemaster candidate.

3. Begin with class set up. Tell the candidate where you want the class to bestaged and have the candidate supervise student divers.

4. In confined water, brief students on a skill, explaining that the candidatewill demonstrate the skill.

Candidates must:1. Conduct environmental and diver

assessments, and take otherappropriate supervisory stepsbased on the assessments.

2. Conduct an appropriate predivebriefing for a dive site.

3. Account for buddy teams enter-ing and leaving the water.

4. Respond to, or prevent diverproblems appropriately.


5. Underwater, have the candidatedemonstrate, then conduct skillpractice with students. Have thedivemaster candidate supervise theclass, control student diver flow, andhandle problems that occur withstudent divers you’re not workingwith.

6. Have the candidate work indepen-dently with one student diver whohas difficulty mastering a skill.

7. After the student diver masters theskill, signal everyone to surface anddebrief the group as if they wereOpen Water Diver students. Thenprivately debrief the candidate aboutthe candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 3Open Water Diver Students in Open WaterThis exercise simulates the role thedivemaster plays in assisting the train-ing of entry-level divers in open water.

Procedures1. Conduct an Open Water Diver

course – Open Water Dive as younormally would with actual stu-dents. If several divemaster candi-dates are participating, you willrotate roles and repeat the exercisefor each candidate.

2. Assign participants, who are roleplaying “student divers,” variousproblems to have during each phaseof the session.

3. Have the candidate evaluate theconditions and make a recommen-dation regarding the suitability ofconditions for entry-level training.

4. Have the candidate supervise stu-dent divers while they set up for thedive. Also have the candidate assistwith site preparation as necessary(anchoring float, etc.)

Candidates must:1. Organize the predive setup of equip-

ment by Open Water Diver studentsfor confined water training dives.

2. Coordinate student diver flow dur-ing confined water training dives .

3. Supervise Open Water Diver stu-dents not receiving the immediateattention of the instructor duringconfined water training dives .

4. Assist an Open Water Diver studentin overcoming a learning difficultyin confined water.

5. Respond to, or prevent, studentdiver problems as they occur.

6. Demonstrate a skill for studentdivers in confined water.

Candidates must:1. Conduct an environmental assess-

ment at an open water training siteand report to the instructor appro-priate recommendations about thesuitability of the site for trainingentry-level student divers.

2. Organize the predive setup of equip-ment by Open Water Diver studentdivers for open water training.

3. Assist in the preparation of an openwater training site.

4. Coordinate student diver flow duringopen water training.

5. Supervise Open Water Diver studentdivers not receiving the immediateattention of the instructor duringopen water training.

6. Respond to, or prevent, student diverproblems as they occur.

7. Lead student divers on an underwa-ter tour (ratio 2:1) for pleasure.


5. Begin open water training dive and have the candidate perform normalduties — escorting student divers at the surface, attending them as youconduct skills, assisting in and out of water, etc. Allow the candidate tohandle assigned problems as they occur.

6. Have the candidate take two student divers on underwater tour whileyou follow to observe and assess performance. Explain to candidatesthat they should conduct the tour as though you were not directlypresent.

7. After the dive, debrief the group. Then privately debrief candidate aboutthe candidate’s performance.

Practical Training Exercise 4Continuing Education Student Diversin Open WaterThis exercise simulates the role the divemaster plays in assisting the trainingof divers at levels above the Open Water Diver level.

Procedures1. Choose a dive from a PADI continuing education course to conduct. If

it’s a Specialty Diver course dive, select a specialty with which thedivemaster candidate has experience. If several divemaster candidatesare participating, rotate roles and repeat the exercise for each candidate.

2. Assign participants, who are role playing “student divers,” variousunderwater tasks and problems associated with those tasks (e.g., anunderwater photography student might leave the lens cap on whiletrying to shoot a photo.)

3. Have the candidate prepare for divewith the students, enter the water andescort the divers as they begin the trainingdive. Follow to observe and assess candi-date performance, but explain that thecandidate should conduct the dive asthough you were not directly present.

4. As assigned problems occur, allow thecandidate to assist the divers correct andcomplete their tasks.

5. After dive, ask the candidate aboutstudent diver performance. Then debriefgroup, and privately debrief candidateabout the candidate’s performance.

Candidates must:1. Coordinate student diver flow

during open water training.

2. Escort continuing education studentdivers under the indirect supervi-sion of the instructorduring open water training andreport performance and learningdifficulties to instructor.

3. Assist a continuing education stu-dent diver in overcoming a learningdifficulty.

4. Respond to, or prevent, studentdiver problems as they occur.

Divemaster Course Instructor Guide A-1

Appendix



Table of Contents

PADI Membership and License Agreement A-2

Divemaster Application A-3

Divemaster Candidate Information and Evaluation Form A-4

Divemaster Skill Development Score Sheet A-6

Discover Scuba Diving Internship Completion Form A-7

Practical Application Record Sheet A-8

Divemaster Exam – Answer Key A A-9

Divemaster Exam – Answer Key B A-12

Divemaster Exam – Answer Sheet A-15

Divemaster Manual – Knowledge Review Answer Keys A-18

A-2 Appendix

PLEASE READ CAREFULLY – Sign statement on application

Renewal and continued membership is partially based upon your reading andsigning this Agreement. PADI will consider renewal of your membership subject tothe following terms and conditions:

1. I will abide by all PADI Standards and Procedures as published in the PADIInstructor Manual and Training Bulletin and other updates, within the capacityof my current classification, when conducting PADI programs, and will notdeviate from them when representing myself as a PADI Member.

2. I have made myself knowledgeable about the latest PADI Standards andProcedures by reading the Training Bulletin and related publications. I havebecome familiar with PADI educational materials and am knowledgeable ofany revisions to such materials and the introduction of new materials.

3. I am aware of the fact that scuba diving can seriously affect a person’s healthand life. I agree to omit from certification any student who does not meet allthe prerequisites and performance requirements specified for the respectivelevel of certification.

4. I understand and agree that any false reports of standards violations deemedby the Quality Management Committee to have been made for competitive,political or financial reasons shall be grounds for Quality Assurance action.

5. I am aware of the Quality Assurance Report Form that may be filed withPADI. I am further aware of the recourse available to me through the PADIQuality Assurance process to refute any complaints that may be reported. Iunderstand and agree that all rulings by the Quality Management Committeewith regard to such complaints shall be deemed binding.

6. I understand and agree that PADI may notify other certifying organizationsshould a PADI Member be required by the Quality Management Committeeto undergo instructor-level retraining. I further understand that the names ofsuspended and expelled members will be published in The Undersea Journaland on PADI’s web site.

7. I understand and agree that all members (individuals, dive centers andresorts) involved in the training of a particular student, as determined by thestudent’s certification records at PADI, are responsible for adherence to PADIStandards during the conduct of that training. The Quality AssuranceDepartment will communicate with all involved members upon receipt ofreports or any other information indicating possible violation of PADIStandards and Procedures.

8. I understand and agree that financial irresponsibility in dealings with PADI isgrounds for membership suspension.

9. I will not discredit PADI nor cause any action that will create a liability to PADI.PADI will have the sole right to determine whether any actions are detrimentalto PADI.

10. I will file a PADI Incident Report Form with PADI for any diving-related incidentof which I am aware that may have harmed or potentially harmed myself oranother individual.

11. I agree to provide PADI with true and correct student/participant contact infor-mation, including the student’s proper mailing address, when I submit any cer-tification authorization or participant registration (PIC envelope, application, orregistration card/roster) to PADI. I understand such information shall be theproperty of both PADI and the submitting member.

12. I acknowledge that diving and diving instruction are physically strenuous activ-ities and that it is my personal responsibility to maintain the necessary level offitness in order to involve myself in diving instructional and supervisory activi-ties. I also acknowledge that should my physical condition change, renderingme incapable of meeting the physical requirements of diving instruction andsupervision, I will cease my instructional and supervisory activities until I amagain capable and, if necessary, cleared by a diving medical examination per-formed by a licensed physician.

13. I understand and agree that the terms and conditions of this Agreement wereeffective and binding 1 January 1999 and for subsequent years of my mem-bership with PADI. Should PADI modify this Agreement, I will be notified inwriting of the changes prior to the next renewal.

14. I acknowledge that this Agreement does not intend to create an agency rela-tionship between me and PADI. Except as otherwise provided in thisMembership Agreement, PADI has no control over or involvement with myday-to-day operations and activities and bears no responsibility for the same.

15. I understand and agree that membership in PADI is granted at the sole discre-tion of PADI, based on its unilateral determination of several criteria including,but not limited to, whether acceptance and continuation of membership is inthe best interest of PADI. Satisfaction of minimum requirements does notguarantee membership. Membership in PADI, at any level, may be revoked atany time.

Rev. 8/00

PADI Worldwide Corp. (a California corporation, hereinafter “PADI”) has the rightand authority to use and sublicense various marks owned by International PADI,Inc. (a California corporation). These marks include, but are not limited to,Professional Association of Diving Instructors, PADI, certain logotypes -including adiver placed on a world, a mark for The Undersea Journal, as well as other marks,including Specialty and Certification marks. PADI relies upon the foregoing marksto indicate the source of origin of its services, certifications and products, so thatthe public will be protected; and its instructors, Dive Centers, Resort DiveOperators, Dive Boat Operators, students and others associated with PADI willreceive the highest-quality services and products pertaining to its business.

To provide its members with the ability to advertise, promote and indicate thesource of origin of the PADI services, certifications and products they provide,PADI Members are hereby granted a license to use the forgoing marks on promo-tional materials only, specifically printed, film or video formats, and software, fixedmedia, such as floppy disks, hard drives or CD-ROM, or any interactive digital orbroadcast media or methods, including, but not limited to, internet or World WideWeb Sites.

The license shall not extend to the provision of other printed materials, such asmanuals, books, instructions, clothing or products or any other materials whetheror not they are manufactured, sold, distributed or licensed to others by PADI.

This license extended by PADI shall only be with respect to (1.) Printed advertisingand promotional materials, (newspaper and periodical advertisements, telephone-directory advertising, handbills and signs); (2.) Film and video format promotionalmaterials such as television commercials, slide shows or promotional videos; and(3.) Software, fixed media, such as floppy disks, hard drives or CD-ROM, or anyinteractive digital or broadcast media or methods, including, but not limited to,

internet or World Wide Web Sites; none of which shall include use on any itemor product intended for resale. The word “PADI” (padi) may not be used in inter-net domain names.

The foregoing license for advertising and promotional use shall in all respectsfollow the exact format, character, general appearance, type style, backgroundand proportions of the marks originating from PADI. In no case shall the marksbe combined with other marks, symbols, language or be in a format andappearance other than that actually used by PADI. The full trademark must beused; truncated or partial use of a mark is not authorized.

This license shall be personal to the individual member and shall be nontrans-ferable, nondivisible and not capable of being sublicensed in any mannerthrough any party.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, PADI shall have the sole right to disapprove ofany promotional materials prepared and shall be the sole judge of the criteria ofwhether it meets the standard of this license agreement. To this end, any sug-gestions or requests by authorized members of the PADI staff as to the usageof the marks shall be complied with as soon as possible to avoid mistakes,deceptions, dilution or other problems that would be detrimental to the foregoingmarks.

Regardless of the foregoing license, PADI shall have the right to institute andbring any suit or any other action necessary to protect its marks as to any per-son, firm or corporation now or prospectively using the marks or any similarmarks, derivations, analogs, trade names, fanciful scripts or designs.

This license shall extend for the term of membership, which shall be terminatedforthwith upon termination of the member’s relationship with PADI.

Rev. 8/00

PADI Membership Agreement

License Agreement

Product No. 10125 (2/02) Version 1.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2002pdf

A-4 Appendix

pdf

A-6 Appendix


PRACTICAL APPLICATION RECORD SHEETUse this sheet for evaluating Internship or Practical Training Exercises.

File one for each session. Please do not send these to your PADI Office.

Candidate ___________________________________________________________________________Date______________________________

Instructor ____________________________________________________________________________________ PADI No. _________________

Internship Practical Training Exercise

Open water Confined water

Student Level (real or simulated) _______________________________ Number of participants __________

ScoringScore each objective below based on this scale:

Score Performance5 Candidate independently accomplished the objective without noticeable errors, and showed creativity and anticipation of instruc-

tor and diver needs in the process.4 Candidate accomplished the objective with no noticeable errors and without significant help from instructor or staff.3 Candidate accomplished the objective adequately with a few insignificant errors. Instructor correction and intervention limited to

brief reminders or suggestions.2 Candidate showed rudimentary understanding of tasks required to meet objective, but made signficant errors or omissions. In-

structor correction and intervention was required for a competent result.1 Candidate made many or substantial errors and omissions in attempting task, or task not completed.

The following lists all objectives from the Practical Application Module. Some do not apply to all internship phases or exercises. List the score, or NAfor those that don’t apply, by each objective. Successful performance requires a score of 3 for each objective.

Consult the “PADI Divemaster Course Instructor Guide” in the PADI Instructor Manual for details on each objective.Score

1. Organizes predive equipment setup. ___________

2. Coordinates student diver flow. ___________

3. Supervises student divers not receiving immediate instructor attention. ___________

4. Accounts for buddy teams entering/leaving the water. ___________

5. Assists student diver overcome learning difficulty. ___________

6. Responds to or prevents diver problems. ___________

7. Demonstrates skill for student divers. ___________

8. Assists in training site preparation. ___________

9. Conducts an environmental assessment. ___________

10. Leads student divers on an underwater tour or escorts continuing education students. ___________

11. Makes recommendations based on diver/environment assessement in a predive briefing,

and takes other appropriate steps based on the assessments. ___________

12. Conducts an appropriate predive briefing. ___________

Total ___________

Comments on performance: (Please use other side)

Instructor Signature _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Candidate Signature ____________________________________________________________________________________________________PRODUCT NO. 10149 (1/99) Version 1.0 © International PADI, Inc. 1999pdf

A-8 Appendix

PADI DIVEMASTERDiscover Scuba Diving Internship Completion Form

PADI Divemasters in Active Status (and with insurance, where required) may conduct PADI DiscoverScuba Diving programs in a pool or confined open water environment after successfully completing aDiscover Scuba Diving Internship. The internship consists of conducting four separate PADI DiscoverScuba Diving programs in a pool or confined open water environment under the direct supervision of a PADI Instructor. After completing the internship, submit this form, signed by the instructor, to your PADI Office for processing and authorization.

PLEASE PRINT OR TYPE (Authorization will be returned to the Divemaster.)

Name_______________________________________________________________________ PADI No._______________________

Mailing Address ______________________________________________________________________________________________

City________________________________________________________________ State/Province ___________________________

Country ____________________________________________________________ Zip/Postal Code __________________________

Home Phone (______)_____________________________ Business Phone (______)_____________________________

FAX (______)____________________________________ Birth Date____________________________ Sex: M F

Email ________________________________________________________________ Preferred Language _____________________

INTERNSHIP VERIFICATION – PADI DISCOVER SCUBA DIVING PROGRAMS

Date_______________ Supervising Instructor _________________________________ PADI Number ______________




I verify that this PADI Divemaster has completed four required Discover Scuba Diving programs under the direct supervision of a PADI Instructor

Verifying Instructor _______________________________________ PADI No.________________ Date ______________Verifying Instructor Signature

PAYMENT METHOD (See current price list for processing fee and if CHECKLISTapplicable, replacement card fees.)

� Check � Switch / Solo issue no ______________ (UK only) � Application filled out completely

� Master Card � Visa � American Express � Discover Card � Signature – Verifying Instructor

Card Number ___________ __________ __________ _________ � Fee Enclosed – Total Amount _______

Expiration date ___________________________________________ � Photo – head and shoulders

Cardholder Name__________________________________________(Include only if requesting a

(please print)

Cardholder Address________________________________________

replacement certification card.)

(If different from applicant)

Authorized Signature _______________________________________

REPLACEMENT CERTIFICATION CARD (Check card type below.)If you want to receive a new card (which includes a Discover Scuba Diving designation), please attach a 1 3 /4” x 2 1 /4” photo and include additional processing fee.

□ Project AWARE Card a portion of processing fee will be donated to the Project AWARE Foundation for environmental programs.

□ Standard “Member Since” PADI card

MAIL TO YOUR PADI OFFICE. For mailing information, see your price list or visit padi.com.

PRODUCT NO. 10151 (01/03) Version 1.0 © International PADI, Inc. 2003

F O R O F F I C E U S E O N L YRec’d ________________________ Ent __________________________ Ship’d ______________________

(Use for ReplacementCertification Card Only)

Attach a13/4” X 21/4”

Head-and-Shoulders Photo

PRINT NAME ONBACK OF PHOTO

Coin machinephoto OK — do not

send old cards.

NO DARK GLASSES


DIVEMASTER CONDUCTEDPROGRAMS

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STUDENT STATEMENT: I have hadexplained to me and I understand thequestions I have missed.

___________________________________Student Signature Date

SUPERVISING CERTIFIEDDIVERS

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15. success

16. PADI Instructor Manual

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Directions: Upon making your answer choice, COMPLETELY fill in the space ■ below the proper letter.If a mistake is made, erase your selection or place a dark X through your first answer.

Name ____________________________________________________________ Date _______________________________(Please Print)

PRODUCT NO. 70311 (Rev. 12/98) © International PADI, Inc. 1998Previous editions may not be used.

www.padi.com

ANSWER KEY – PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMS – A

(version 2.2 ©2000)

A-10 Appendix

PHYSICS

A B C D

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4. four (4)

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6. 23 kg/53 lbs

7. 146 litres/5 cf

8. 3.5 ata

9. vol = .74 litres, density =

2.7 times surface

10. 4.6 l

11. 6 bar/93 psi

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15. PO2 = .97 ata, PN2 =1.73

16. 100%

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FINAL EXAM – A


SKILLS AND ENVIRONMENT

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DECOMPRESSION THEORYAND THE RECREATIONALDIVE PLANNER

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13. Metric: 9 min/130 minImperial: 10 min/124 min

14. Metric: 22 min.Imperial: 25 min

15. 1 hour

16. Metric: 23 min.Imperial: 22 min

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FINAL EXAM – A

A-12 Appendix


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10. T ■ F ■

11. T ■ F ■

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13. critical attributes (or skill attributes)

14. practice

15. critical/skill attributes (subskills)

16. PADI Instructor Manual

17. T ■ F ■

18. ■ ■ ■ ■

19. T ■ F ■

20. ■ ■ ■ ■






www.padi.com

ANSWER KEY – PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMS – B

, providing


PHYSICS

A B C D

1. ■ ■ ■ ■

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4. four (4)

5. ■ ■ ■ ■

6. 104 litres/4 cubic feet

7. 251 kg/527 lbs

8. 3.6 ata

9. vol = 2 litres

density = 3.4 times surface

10. 2.2 letres

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A-14 Appendix


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www.padi.com

ANSWER SHEET — PADI DIVEMASTER FINAL EXAMS

A-16 Appendix

PHYSICS

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A-18 Appendix

Divemaster Manual Knowledge ReviewChapter 1

Answer Keys

1. What three broad characteristics may divers expect in a PADI Divemaster?

1. Professionalism2. Role model behavior3. Ability to assist/supervise during training and dive activities

2. List five criteria that define “professionalism” as it applies to the PADI Divemaster.

1. Expert skills and knowledge of dive theory, dive management andleading dives

2. Good judgment that reflects training and experience3. Dress and act like a professional4. Good interpersonal skills5. Exemplary rescue skills

3. Explain what is meant by a role model.

Someone other divers base their behavior on because they respectthe person and what the person stands for.

4. Describe a PADI Divemaster who is a good role model.

(Description should include:)• High skill level - demonstration quality• Commitment to responsible dive practices• Equipment well maintained and up-to-date• Physically fit or good fitness for diving• Agrees with the PADI training philosophy

5. Describe the characteristics and attributes of a poor role model divemaster.

(Description should include:)• Hypocrisy and lack of conviction.• Disregard for personal fitness.• Uncaring or unempathetic of divers and their skill levels.• Contradicts or disagrees with an instructor in front of students.• Fails to perform as a "team player"


6. Explain how role model behavior can affect other divers both positively andnegatively.

Good role model behavior reinforces responsible diving habits andpractices. Poor role model behavior may cause divers to questionwhether responsible dive habits and practices are really necessary.

7. Explain how role model behavior can affect your ability to function as adivemaster.

Good role model behavior makes it easier to encourage other diversto dive responsibly and accept your suggestions. Poor role modelbehavior may cause divers to question you, making them less likely toconsider your suggestions.

8. Explain how good role model behavior benefits student divers when you assistwith training.

Good role model behavior earns students' respect, making it easierfor you to guide and direct them for the instructor during training.

9. List five benefits and five responsibilities of being a PADI Divemaster.

Benefits:1. Receive professional publications such as The Undersea Journal2. Can purchase materials from your PADI Office at special divemaster

rate3. Access to professional liability insurance and legal defense team4. Ability to earn income as an assistant5. Gain important experience toward becoming an instructor6. Regular update mailings7. Access to educational consultants for training questions

Responsibilities:1. Follow PADI Standards2. Keep up with changes in standards3. Renew membership annually4. Keep address current5. Represent PADI favorably

A-20 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. Six characteristics of responsible diver behavior are:

1. Staying within personal limits2. Diving properly equipped3. Caring for equipment4. Managing air conservatively5. Using computer/tables conservatively6. Staying aware of the environment

2. List four ways to encourage responsible diver behavior.

1. Follow responsible diving practices yourself2. Remind divers of responsible behaviors by applying them on the dive3. Make responsible behavior easy4. Reward responsible behaviors

3. Describe the aspects of diving that do and do not fall within the divemaster’sresponsibility, and the aspects of dive planning and diving for which each divermust retain responsibility.

Each diver maintains responsibility for planning their own dives andfollowing their plan. Divers must be responsible for their own actions.A PADI Divemaster normally offers a general orientation and broaddive plan that individual divers use to plan their own dives. Thedivemaster encourages responsible diving, provides logisticalsupport, prepares for reasonably foreseeable emergencies, but doesnot plan the dives of individual divers.

4. Describe how to assess general dive conditions, and how you can expectconditions to affect diving.

Based on weather, tides, current and visibility, you determineappropriate dive techniques or if conditions are acceptable for diving.This also depends on the skill level and experience of the divers.


5. The four aspects of supervision in managing dives are:

1. Preparation2. Communication3. Recognition4. Vantage point

6. List and describe the advantages and disadvantages of in-water versus out ofwater supervision, and the advantages and disadvantages of supervision vantagepoints in-water versus out of water.

Supervision In-water:• Advantages: Puts you close to the divers. Allows you to watch for

problems such as exceeding maximum depth or navigation errors.• Disadvantages: Can only watch one group. Some divers don’t like to

dive in a group.Supervision Out of water:• Advantages: Easier to supervise multiple teams. Close to emergency

equipment. More flexibility for buddy teams.• Disadvantages: Unable to point out interesting features. Not

immediately on hand to help solve problems.

Vantage point - In-water:• Advantages: Easier to see a problem before it happens.• Disadvantages: Can only be in front or behind leading or escorting,

Makes it hard to know when there is a problem.Vantage point - Out of water:• Advantages: Allows you to choose location with visibility of the entire

dive site.• Disadvantages: Sometimes the site with the best visibility is not the

easiest to respond from.7. List eight types of equipment that can assist in supervising certified divers.

1. Dive roster2. Binoculars3. Dive site maps4. Emergency oxygen5. First aid kit

6. Rescue float7. Marine Radio/cellular phone8. Tool Kit9. Dive flag/float10. Spare gear

A-22 Appendix

8. The primary purpose of diver accounting procedures is:

To make sure every diver returns to the boat or shore after the dive.

9. Describe the characteristics of predive stress, and explain how you help diversdeal with it.

Predive stress comes from both physical stressors like heatexhaustion, fatigue and dehydration, or psychological stressors likephysical stress, peer pressure, dive concerns and personal problemsunrelated to the dive.There are three approaches to stress relief: 1) remove the stressor,2) change the perception of the stressor to nonthreatening, or 3)change the perception of the diver's ability to cope with the stress.

10. List the ten points/steps usually included in a dive briefing.

1. Dive site name2. Site descriptions3. Your role4. Entry and exit techniques5. Dive procedures6. Emergency procedures7. Signal review8. Roster/buddy check9. Environmental interaction suggestions10. Predive safety check

11. Describe the general steps to solving a novel problem (one you've neverencountered before).

• Identify the problem precisely• Inventory your resources.• Create several possible solutions• Choose the best solution.• Assess and revise.


12. Explain when dive situations call for you to apply your judgment, and how youdevelop good judgment as a divemaster.

You apply judgment when evaluating acceptable dive conditions,choosing dive techniques to recommend and picking supervisionvantage points.Judgment comes from experience and working with more experiencedprofessionals.

13. The two likely roles of a PADI Divemaster in the event of an accident are as:

Scene manager or as assistant to someone more qualified.

14. Explain how to gain more knowledge and experience with specialized divingactivities.

Complete the appropriate specialty courses.

A-24 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. Compare and contrast the primary role of a PADI Divemaster to that of a PADIInstructor in an instructional setting.

The PADI Divemaster deals with the logistics, supervising studentdivers and other duties as well as the social and adventurousaspects of diving.The instructor concentrates on teaching and attending to individualstudent diver needs.

2. List seven functions a divemaster may fulfill as an instructional assistant.

1. Predive equipment distribution2. Supervising students not working with instructor3. Logistics4. Conducting tour for experience portion of dives5. Providing student diver performance information to instructor6. Checking divers in and out of the water7. Helping divers on an individual basis

3. What is the primary characteristic that makes a PADI Divemaster an idealinstructional assistant?

Anticipating and providing what the instructor and student diversneed.

4. Describe the relationship between the instructor and you, a PADI Divemastercandidate.

Mentor/protege relationship – instructor is a coach, guide, confidantand advisor.

5. Four reasons for having your own copy of the PADI Instructor Manual are:

1. Lists all the standards and procedures2. Makes it easier to anticipate and meet instructor needs3. Includes standards for programs divemasters can offer

independently4. Benefits you to start becoming familiar with it.5. Training Bulletins keep you current on changes.


6. Describe your role as a PADI Divemaster in relation to student divers in training.

The PADI Divemaster is a role model and an intermediary betweenstudent divers and the instructor supervising both training andnontraining related activities.

7. With respect to PADI programs, what is a certified assistant and what can acertified assistant do?

A certified assistant is a renewed PADI Instructor, AssistantInstructor and Divemaster who can perform specific functions as ateaching assistant.

Certified assistants can:• Independently guide student divers on Open Water Dives 2, 3, 4 and

the optional Skin Dive.• Accompany Open Water Diver/Scuba Diver students under the

indirect supervision of an instructor.• Conduct subsequent Discover Scuba Diving dives after participants

complete the first dive with an instructor.• Accompany students during training dives in continuing education

courses.• Generally supervise divers in training and nontraining activities.

8. Explain how positioning affects your ability to assist with student diver control,and two common examples of position for the skill practice in the Open Waterdiver course.

Good positioning allows you to see the entire group and theinstructor and respond quickly to a problem.• Opposite instructor, hovering behind students who are in asemicircle with the instructor in front of them.• Students form a line with the divemaster at one end of the lineand the instructor at the other.

A-26 Appendix

9. List five examples of logistical functions you can perform to assist with trainingdives at the surface and five underwater.

On the surface:1. Coordinate student divers2. Enforce safety or facility rules3. Handle equipment4. Assist with student diver preparation5. Escort student divers6. Handle paperworkUnderwater1. Lead/follow2. Escort3. Air checks4. Standby supervisor5. Navigation

10. Describe how you would model mask removal, replacement and clearing in ademonstration quality manner.

Slow pace, critical attributes emphasized, sequence emphasized,with each step clearly seen, mastered and automatic.

11. List and describe the three steps to take to help a student diver master dive skills.

1. Have a student attempt the skill to look for missing or improperlyperformed critical attributes.

2. Redemonstrate the skill.3. Assure early success.

12. Where do you find skill performance requirements student divers must master forPADI courses.

In the PADI Instructor Manual.



Answer Keys

1. Explain why the PADI Divemaster course emphasizes dive theory training.

It develops problem solving abilities, gives the candidate theoreticalknowledge to apply during practical sessions and prepares thecandidate for instructor level training.

2. Explain why you would want a dive reference library.

It gives you a place to look up information and a way to keep up with newand changing information.

3. List what you already have in your current dive reference library (to amaximum of 12 items). List four works or types of works you would like to addand explain why.

(Answers vary but may include:)MagazinesPADI ManualsEncyclopedia of Recreational DivingDiving Knowledge WorkbookDive travel guides and maps

4. Explain how specialty diver training benefits you with respect to learning divetheory.

Specialty courses go into more theoretical detail than other learningsources and give you a change to apply the knowledge.

5. List the theory subjects you study as part of the PADI Divemaster course andexplain how you demonstrate mastery of them.

Dive physics, dive physiology, equipment and decompression theoryYou demonstrate mastery by completing an exam in each study areaand earning a score of 75 percent or better.

6. Explain how you will keep you dive theory knowledge current after you completethis course. Be as specific as possible.

Subscribe to and read dive magazines, reread and review theEncyclopedia of Recreational Diving and other diving relatedmaterials. Continue your diving education, attend seminars anddiving -related meetings.

A-28 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. Describe what a compartment is, and what are meant by halftime and M-value.

Compartments are theoretical tissue models that account fordiffering tissue absorption rates.Halftime is the rate a compartment absorbs nitrogen. It's the timeit takes for the compartment to go from beginning pressure tohalfway to saturation.M-value is the maximum tissue pressure allowed in thecompartment.

2. Explain why you need to know your approximate altitude when diving.

There is reduced atmospheric pressure at altitude. This could makethe tissue pressure gradient too high, increasing the risk of DCS.

3. Describe the relationship between the Haldanean model and the human body,and explain to what extent you can rely on the model.

There is no direct relationship between the model and the body.Testing supports the model but there is always some risk of DCS.

4. In metres/feet of pressure, how much nitrogen would the 5, 10, 20 and 60 minutehalftime compartments each have after 60 minutes at 18 metres/60 feet?

5-minute = 18 metres / 60 feet10-minute = 18 metres / 60 feet20-minute = 16 metres/ 52.5 feet60- minute = 9 metres / 30 feet

5. Compare the basis of the US Navy tables repetitive diving procedures with theRDP’s. Explain a) what compartment controls each, b) why each is appropriatefor that table and c) the practical difference on repetitive diving between them.

a) The US Navy surface interval credit table is controlled by a 120minute compartment. The RDP surface interval credit table iscontrolled by a 60 minute compartment.

b) The US Navy table was designed for decompression diving —requiring longer/slower compartments to control repetitive dives. TheRDP is for no decompression diving — allowing the use of fastercompartments to control repetitive dives.


c) The US Navy table accounts for the worst case scenario – arepetitive dive after a decompression dive – which is why repetitivedive times need to be more conservative. The RDP can allow shortersurface intervals and longer repetitive dives because all dives areplanned as no decompression dives.

6. Explain why you can’t use pressure groups from the RDP on the US Navy Tablesor any other tables.

The tables are based on different models which means that pressuregroup designations do not indicate equivalent amounts of absorbednitrogen.

7. Explain how modern dive computers apply decompression models to providemore no decompression time than a table.

Dive computers write custom tables to precise depths which eliminatesunnecessary rounding.

8. State the three broad computer groupings and list their M-value and surfaceinterval credit characteristics compared the RDP and each other.

Spencer Limits, EE washout — M-values similar to RDP. Shorter surfaceintervals can permit repetitive dives beyond what has been shown towork reliably.

Spencer Limits, 60 minute washout — M-values same as RDP. Surfaceintervals are similar to RDP.

Buhlmann Limits, EE Washout — lower M-values than RDP. Repetitivedives similar to RDP though some deep dives with short surfaceintervals may still permit repetitive dives beyond what has beenshown to work reliably.

9. Explain why the general recommendations for diving with tables apply equallyto dive computers, and list three recommendations specific to computer diving.

Most general recommendations apply equally because they comefrom what has been found to work in actual diving situations.Computer specific recommendations:• Each diver has a computer.• Follow manufacturer recommendations.• End the dive on the most conservative computer.

A-30 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. Explain where to find standards and related information on PADI Divemaster-conducted programs, and how you identify standards you must adhere to fromother supporting material.

PADI Instructor Manual: General Standards and Procedures section,Skin Diver Course Instructor Guide, and Experience Programs Guide.Standards appear in bold face type.

2. Identify where you find the maximum ratios of a PADI Divemaster toparticipants for PADI Divemaster-conducted programs.

General Standards and Procedures section, and the instructor guideand the Key Standards Box for each program.

3. Explain where to find performance requirements for programs and why itsusually a good idea to state the requirements for participants.

Performance requirements are in bold face type in each InstructorGuide.Stating requirements allows students to know what you expect themto accomplish.

4. Identify where you find a listing of material required and recommended for PADIDivemaster-conducted programs.

Instructor Guide for each program.5. List the six general administrative requirements that apply to all PADI programs:

1. Participants must complete a Medical Statement at the beginning ofeach course

2. Questions of fitness are the responsibility of a physician3. Participants must complete a PADI Safe Diving Practices Statement

of Understanding4. Participants must complete a Liability Release and Assumption of

Risk Agreement5. Retain records for a minimum of seven years.6. File an incident report for any dive incident.


6. Explain the annual renewal requirement for a PADI Divemaster.

Sign an annual membership agreement and return with annual duesto your PADI Office.

7. Explain the professional liability insurance requirements for a PADI Divemaster.

Insurance is not required (in most areas) but highly recommendedwhen acting as a certified assistant. Insurance is required (in mostareas) when conducting divemaster-conducted programs.

8. Identify the intended audience and basic philosophy for each of the followingPADI programs:

Skin Diver Course — Training program for those interested in diving butnot necessarily in scuba. May appeal to those interested in physicalconditioning.

Discover Local Diving — Formal diving orientation for certified divers to anew location or new diving environment.

Discover Snorkeling — Casual experience for swimming and lookingunderwater. May appeal to people who want to experience theunderwater world but aren't interested in scuba. Emphasis is onhaving fun.

Scuba Review — A way for certified divers who have been inactive torefresh skills.

9. List one marketing idea for each of the following programs. (You're encouragedto list original ideas not discussed in the text.)

Skin Diver Course — Market to schools, health clubs, children of scubadivers, youth groups, etc.

Discover Local Diving — Market to divers visiting an unfamiliar dive site,to inactive divers in conjunction with Scuba Review, etc.

Discover Snorkeling — Market to health clubs, casual gatherings at divesites, travel agencies, people involved with other water sports, etc

Scuba Review — Market in resort areas, to divers who view theirinactivity as an obstacle, etc.

A-32 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. Define risk management, duty of care and negligence.

Risk management — the process of reducing risks you face while actingas a divemaster which involves increasing safety for divers and foryou in your capacity as a divemaster.

Duty of Care — your responsibility to act as a reasonably prudentdivemaster would act under same or similar circumstances tomaintain safety.

Negligence — failure to meet the duty of care expected

2. Explain why it is recommended that you carry professional liability insurance,even when it’s not required and you plan to function exclusively as an assistantworking under a PADI Instructor.

Because you can be sued even if you did nothing wrong. Insurancehelps cover legal costs and damages. Instructors liability insurancedoes not cover assistants.

3. Describe the most important step you can take to manage legal risk.

Adhere to conservative diving practices and use good judgment.4. Explain how adhering to standards helps you reduce legal risk and the role of

good judgment in reducing legal risk.

Standards help you demonstrate that you followed the stipulatedduty of care.Good judgment shows that you made reasonable and prudentdecisions and acted conservatively.

5. Explain the role of paperwork in reducing legal risk, and describe the steps tofollow with any PADI program.

Paperwork establishes your conduct as a reasonably prudentdivemaster who followed standards.Paperwork helps you be organized, aids meeting standards, deliveringgood customer service and maintaining professionalism.


6. List the dos and don’ts to follow, with regard to legal risk management, in theevent of a dive accident.

1. Do handle the emergency.2. Do inform the victim’s family — show compassion and caring.3. Do cooperate with authorities — give only the facts.4. Do not assign, admit or speculate on causes or blame.5. Do collect the victim’s equipment to turn over to authorities.6. Do call your PADI Office to report the incident.

7. Explain how the Quality Assurance process helps you reduce legal risk.

Creates documentation that you, as a PADI member, followedstandards. The process also documents that any standards-relatedproblems are addressed and corrected.

8. Describe the basics of the Quality Assurance process.

• Indication of problem or a complaint.• PADI seeks additional information.• PADI contacts member to get member’s side.• If a member verifies problem, PADI determines corrective action.• When statements can’t be reconciled, the PADI Quality Management

Committee reviews the information and determines the appropriateaction.

9. List five suggestions to help you manage risks to your health and safety as adivemaster.

1. Stay physically fit2. Make the deepest dive first and stay well within limits3. Stay hydrated.4. When ill or injured, moderate your activities. 5. Pay attention to your mental health.

A-34 Appendix


Answer Keys

1. List the “three Es” of diving and explain why each is necessary for someone to bea diver.

Education — to dive safely, divers need instruction.Equipment — without equipment, there is no diving.Experience — divers need opportunities to dive. Without a reason to

dive, education and equipment have no purpose.

2. Where does the dive consumer find the three Es of diving.

At PADI Dive Centers and Resorts.

3. Explain the role of leadership level divers with respect to equipment counselingand why it is important.

Divers will come to the divemaster for advice about equipmentbecause diving is a technical activity and divers rely on thedivemaster’s experience. Dive operators depend on equipment salesfor business.

4. List four attributes of a positive sales process.

1. Give the best recommendation.2. Listen to the divers who come in and ask for advice.3. Don't make assumptions about price, but recommend the equipment

that best addresses the customer's need.4. Give all the advice you would like to get.



Answer Keys

1. List six reasons why you should consider continuing your training through thePADI Open Water Scuba Instructor level.

1. Instructors are more versatile employees.2. The majority of boat divemasters are instructors.3. The instructor level is the most common path into other areas of

the dive industry.4. Instructors have more opportunities to work on a part-time basis.5. Instructor training has credibility beyond diving.6. There is more demand for PADI Instructors than any other dive

professional rating.2. Explain how it benefits you to complete the PADI Assistant Instructor course

before taking the PADI Instructor Development Course.

Being an Assistant Instructor gives you more time to assimilateand apply information as well as allows more time to log dives.Assistant Instructors may be excused from certain IDC Curriculumcomponents, thus reducing the IDC load. Assistant Instructors maycomplete PADI Specialty Instructor courses prior to an IDC.

3. Explain how diver level specialty training can help your career as a PADIDivemaster.

It gives you broader and more frequent diving opportunities andhelps you gain experience for Specialty Instructor ratings.

4. List six skills, outside of diver training, that can make you more valuable in thedive industry.

1. Boat handling/captain's license2. Retail sales training3. Sales management training4. Manufacturer's equipment repair technician5. Compressor or diesel engine mechanic6. Writing, word processing, layout and photography

A-36 Appendix

5. Explain how emerging technologies can affect your career, and what you shoulddo in response.

Technological changes can make what you know obsolete. Stay tunedto the dive media, attend trade shows, keep up with changes incomputer technology and business trends in other fields that affectvirtually every industry.

padi - instructor guide - divemaster course.pdf

Documents

padi divemaster duties

course introduction

padi divemaster course

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padi instructors

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