part 2

Part 2Radiation PhysicsIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics

Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*ObjectiveTo become familiar with the basic knowledge in radiation physics, dosimetric quantities and units to perform related calculations, different types of radiation detectors and their characteristics, their operating principles, and limitations.


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*ContentAtomic structureRadioactive decayProduction of radionuclidesInteraction of ionizing radiation with matterRadiation quantities and unitsRadiation detectorsNote: Radiation units & quantities are in the process of undergoing consensus through ICRU and IAEA. There may be changes necessitating incorporation in this CD.


Part 2. Radiation PhysicsModule 2.1. Atomic structureIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*THE ATOMThe nucleus structureprotons and neutrons = nucleonsZ protons with a positive electric charge (1.6 10-19 C) neutrons with no charge (neutral)number of nucleons = mass number A The extranucleus structure Z electrons (light particles with electric charge)equal to proton charge but negativeParticle Symbol Mass Energy Charge (kg) (MeV)----------------------------------------------------------Proton p 1.672*10-27 938.2 +Neutron n 1.675*10 -27 939.2 0Electron e 0.911*10 -30 0.511 -


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Identification of an Isotope


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Electron Binding EnergyElectrons can have only discrete energy levelsTo remove an electron from its shell E electron binding energyDiscrete shells around the nucleus : K, L, M, K shell has maximum energy (i.e. stability)Binding energy decreasing when Z increasesMaximum number of electrons in each shell : 2 in K, 8 in L shell,


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Ionization-ExcitationEnergy


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*characteristicradiationAuger-electronDe-excitation


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*The NucleusEnergy LevelsThe nucleons can occupy different energy levels and the nucleus can be present in a ground state or in an excited state. An excited state can be reached by adding energy to the nucleus. At deexcitation the nucleus will emit the excess of energy by particle emission or by electromagnetic radiation. In this case the electromagnetic radiation is called a gamma ray. The energy of the gamma ray will be the difference in energies between the different energy levels in the nucleus. Occupied levels~8 MeV0 MeVENERGYParticle emissionGamma rayDeexcitationExcitation


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*Isomeric TransitionNormally the excited nucleus will undergo de-excitation within picoseconds. In some cases, however, a mean residence time for the excited level can be measured. The de-excitation of such a level is then called isomeric transition (IT). This property of a nucleus is noted in the label of a nuclide by adding the letter m in the following way: technetium-99m, Tc-99m or 99mTc


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*EnergyparticlesphotonsNuclear Excitation


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*alpha-particlebeta-particleGamma radiationNuclear De-excitation


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Internal Conversioncharacteristicradiationconversionelectron


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Gamma Ray Spectrum(characteristic of the nucleus)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*

IR: infrared, UV: ultravioletPhotons are part of the electromagnetic spectrum


Part 2. Radiation PhysicsModule 2.2. Radioactive decayIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Stable Nuclideslong rangedelectrostaticforcesshort rangednuclear forcesppnLine of stability


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Stable and Unstable NuclidesToo manyneutronsfor stabilityToo manyprotonsfor stability


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Radioactive DecayFissionThe nucleus is divided into two parts, fission fragments. and3-4 neutrons. Examples: Cf-252 (spontaneous), U-235 (induced)

a-decayThe nucleus emits an a-particle (He-4). Examples: Ra-226, Rn-222

b-decayToo many neutrons results in b- -decay. n=>p++e-+n. Example:H-3, C-14, I-131.Too many protons results in b+ -decayp+=>n+ e++n Examples: O-16, F-18 or electron capture (EC). p+ + e-=>n+n Examples: I-125, Tl-201


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*It is impossible to know at what time a certain radioactive nucleuswill decay. It is, however possible to determine the probability l of decay in a certain time. In a sample of N nuclei the number of decays per unit time is then:Radioactive Decay


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*The number of decaying nuclei per unit of time

1 Bq (becquerel)=1 per secondActivity


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*1 Bq is a small quantity

3000 Bq in the body from natural sources20 000 000-1000 000 000 Bq in nuclear medicine examinations


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Multiple & Prefixes (Activity)Multiple Prefix Abbreviation1 - Bq1 000 000 Mega (M) MBq1 000 000 000 Giga (G) GBq1 000 000 000 000 Tera (T) TBq


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Henri Becquerel 1852-1908


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Maria Curie 1867-1934


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Parent-Daughter DecayACB12


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Parent-Daughter DecaySecular equilibriumTB

Part 2. Radiation PhysicsModule 2.4. Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with MatterIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Ionizing RadiationCharged particlesalpha-particlesbeta-particlesprotons

Uncharged particlesphotons (gamma- and X rays)neutrons

Each single particle can cause ionization, directly or indirectly


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Charged Particles Interaction with MatterheavylightMacroscopic Microscopic


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Beta particlesAlpha particlesTransmissionCharged Particles


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Mean Range of b-particlesRadionuclideMax energyRange (cm) in (keV)airwater aluminium-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------H-3 18.6 4.6 0.0005 0.00022C-14 156 22.4 0.029 0.011P-321700 610 0.79 0.29


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*BremsstrahlungPhotonElectron


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Bremsstrahlung ProductionThe higher the atomic number of the X-ray target, the higher the yieldThe higher the incident electron energy, the higher the probability of X-ray productionAt any electron energy, the probability of generating X-rays decreases with increasing X-ray energy


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*X-ray ProductionHigh energy electrons hit a (metallic) target where part of their energy is converted into radiationtargetelectronsX-raysLow tomediumenergy(10-400keV)High > 1MeVenergy


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*X-Ray Tube for low and medium X-ray production


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Megavoltage X-ray LinactargetelectronsX-rays


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Issues with X-ray ProductionAngular distribution: high energy X-rays are mainly forward directed, while low energy X-rays are primarily emitted perpendicular to the incident electron beamEfficiency of production: In general, the higher the energy, the more efficient is X-ray production - this means that at low energies most of the energy of the electron (>98%) is converted into heat - target cooling is essential


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*The Resulting X-Ray SpectrumCharacteristicX-raysBremsstrahlungSpectrum afterfiltrationMaximum electron energy


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*absorptionscatteringtransmissionenergy depositionPhotons Interaction with Matter


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*photoncharacteristicradiationelectronPhotoelectric Effect


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*photonelectronscatteredphotonCompton Process


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Pair Productionphotonpositronelectron


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Annihilation+ + e-(511 keV)(511 keV)+ (1-3 mm)Radionuclide


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Photon InteractionPhoton energy (MeV)Atomic number (Z)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*d: absorber thicknessm: attenuation coefficientHVL: half value layer TVL: tenth value layerTransmission-Photons


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*HVL


Part 2. Radiation PhysicsModule 2.5. Radiation Quantities and UnitsIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*High absorbed energy per unit massMany ionizations per unit massIncreased risk of biological damageEnergy Absorption


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Absorbed DoseAbsorbed energy per mass unit

1 Gy (gray)=1 J/kg


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Harold Gray 1905-1965


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*1 Gy is a relatively large QuantityRadiotherapy doses > 1GyDose from nuclear medicine examination typically 0.05-0.001GyAnnual background radiation due to natural radiation (terrestic, cosmic, due to internal radioactivity, Radon,) about 0.002-0.004 Gy


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Fractions & Prefixes (Dose)Fraction Prefix Abbreviation

1 - Sv1/1000 milli (m) mSv1/1,000,000 micro () Sv


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*A note of caution:Energy deposition inmatter is a randomevent and thedefinition of dosebreaks down forsmall volumes (e.g. a single cell). Thediscipline of Micro-dosimetry aims toaddress this issue.Adapted from Zaider 2000


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*He = wr * D

D: absorbed dose (Gy), wr : radiation weighting factor (1-20)

Heff=wT*He

He: equivalent dose (Sv), wT: tissue weighting factor (0.05-0.20)Unit: 1 Sv (sievert)Equivalent Dose/Effective Dose


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*Effective DoseTissue or organWeighting factorGonads0.20Bone marrow (red)0.12Colon0.12Lung0.12Stomach0.12Bladder0.05Breast0.05Liver0.05Oesophagus0.05Thyroid0.01Bone surface0.01Remainder (adrenals, kidney, muscle,0.05upper large intestine, small intestine,pancreas, spleen, thymus, uterus, brain)


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*Diagnostic Effective Dose (mSv)0.010.1110cardioangiography thyroidI-131CT pelvismyocardTl-201large intestineCT abdomenCBFTc-99murographythyroidI-123lumbar spineboneTc-99mthyroidTc-99mliverTc-99mlungTc-99mchestrenographyI-131

extremitiesblood volumeI-125dentalclearanceCr-51X-ray Nuclear medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Rolf Sievert (1896-1966)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Collective DoseThe total equivalent dose or effective dose to a certain population, such as all patients in a nuclear medicine department, all staff in the department, the whole population in a country etc.

The unit is 1 manSv


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Collective effective doses in Sweden


Part 2. Radiation PhysicsModule 2.6. Radiation DetectorsIAEA Training Material on Radiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*The detector is a fundamental base in all practice with ionizing radiationKnowledge of instrumentation potential as well as their limitation is essential for proper interpretation of the measurements


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Any material that exhibits measurable radiation relatedchanges can be used as detector for ionising radiation.

Change of coloursChemical changesEmission of visible lightElectric charge....

Active detectors: immediate measurement of the change.Passive detectors: processing before readingDetector Material


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Detector PrinciplesGas filled detectorsionisation chambersproportional countersGeiger Mller (GM) - tubesScintillation detectorssolidliquidOther detectorsSemi conductor detectorsFilmThermoluminescence detectors (TLD)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*1) CountersGas filled detectorsScintillation detectors2) SpectrometersScintillation detectorsSolid state detectors3) DosimetersGas filled detectorsSolid state detectorsScintillation detectorsThermoluminescent detectorsFilmsDetector Types


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Gas-filled Detectors


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Ionization ChamberHV+-Negative ion

Positive ion1234ElectrometerThe response is proportional toionization rate (activity, exposure rate)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* Activity Meter Monitoring Instruments/ Survey MetersIonization ChambersApplications in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*General Properties of Ionization Chambers High accuracy Stable Relatively low sensitivity


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Regions of Operation for Gas-filled Detectors


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Proportional Counter


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* Monitoring InstrumentsProportional CountersApplications in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Properties of Proportional Counters as Monitor A little higher sensitivity than the ionization chamber Used for particles and low energy photons


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*-+-A single incident particle cause full ionizationGeiger Mller-Tube Principle


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* Contamination Monitor Dosemeter (if calibrated)Geiger Mller - Tube Applications in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* High Sensitivity Lower AccuracyGeneral Properties of Geiger Mller - Tubes


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Scintillation Detectors


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*AmplifierPHAScalerScintillation Detector


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Pulse Height AnalyzerUL

LLTimePulse height (V)The pulse height analyzer allows only pulses of a certain height(energy) to be counted.

countednot counted


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Pulse-Height DistributionNaI(Tl)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*PMPMSample mixed with scintillation solutionLiquid Scintillation Detector


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* Sample counters Single- and multi-probe systems Monitoring instruments Gamma camera PET ScannersScintillation DetectorsApplications in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Other Detectors


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Semi-conductor Detector as SpectrometerSolid Germanium or Ge(Li) detectorsPrinciple: electron - hole pairs (analogous to ion-pairs in gas-filled detectors) Excellent energy resolution


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*KnollComparison of spectrum from a Na(I) scintillation detector and a Ge(Li) semi-conductor detector


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Part 2: Radiation Physics* Identification of nuclides Control of radionuclide puritySemi-conductor DetectorsApplications in Nuclear Medicine


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Principle: As normal photographic filmSilver halide grains, via changes due to irradiation and development to metallic silverApplication in Nuclear Medicine: Personal dosemeterFilm


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*FilmRequires processing ---> problems with reproducibilityTwo dimensional dosimeterHigh spatial resolutionHigh atomic number ---> variations of response with radiation quality


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*ThermoluminescenceTLD principle


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Simplified Scheme of the TLD Process


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Thermoluminescence Dosimetry (TLD)Small crystalsTissue equivalentPassive dosimeter - no cables requiredWide dosimetric range (Gy to 100s of Gy)Many different applications


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Applications in Nuclear medicine

Personal Dosemeters (body, fingers) Special MeasurementsThermoluminescence Dosimetry (TLD)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Disadvantages:

Time consuming No permanent recordThermoluminescence Dosimetry (TLD)


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*Ques-tions?


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*DiscussionA Mo/Tc generator contains 15 GBq Mo-99 at a certain time. What activity concentration of Tc-99m will we get 15h later if the elution volume is 3 ml? Assume an elution efficiency of 75%.


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Part 2: Radiation Physics*DiscussionA treatment is performed using iodine-131. Which are the dominating modes of interaction between the emitted types of radiation and human soft tissue?


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*Discussion A laboratory is performing work with H-3. Discuss the type of detector suitable to detect contamination of equipment and work areas.


Nuclear Medicine

Part 2: Radiation Physics*Where to Get More InformationFurther readings:WHO Manual on Radiation Protection in Hospital and General Practice. Volume 1 Basic RequirementsCherry SR, Sorensen JA & Phelps ME. Physics in Nuclear Medicine. 2003


Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The lecture assumes familiarity with basic physics concepts - the present slide allows the lecturer to review the basic atomic model and the nomenclature for isotope labeling.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Rutherfors is displayed here as the father of the model of the atom with a central nucleus. It can be mentioned that he supervised 11 students which all were rewarded the nobel prize. He got it himself too (in chemistry).Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*It is important to descibe the energy levels of the electrons in order to get the students to understand the excitation and deeaxitation processesPart 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The image describes the process of ionization, which releases an electron from the atom and excitation which lifts an electron from an inner shell to one further out, both processes as a result of transferring energy to the atom. It may be important to discuss how energy can be transferred to the atom.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Remeber to mention that the energy of the characteristic radiation is dependent on the electron energy levels (K, Lm M etc) and hence characteristic of the given atom.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This image is perhaps too complicated for a certain audience. Nevertheless it can be used to explain the different processes involved in excitation and deexcitation processes in the nucleus in terms of energy.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*An image which in simpel terms explain the excitation of a nucleus. Again a discussion of how energy can be transferred to the nucleus might be valuable.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This image illustrates that the gamma ray energies are characteristic of a certain nucleus meaning that the nucleus can be identified by looking at the gamma ray spectrum. This spectrum is from an old Tc99m-generator. It may be important to draw the parallel to characteristic X-rays.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This image is used to explain why a nucleus is stable and why the number of neutrons is inceasing relative to the number of protons for heavy nuclei in order to outbalance the increasing long ranged electrostatic force.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This image should be used to explain that instability of a nucleus can be reached either by an excess of protons or by an excess of neutrons. The image is an introduction to the radioactive decayPart 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This is an insertion to help make sure all participants are at the same level.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*MariaCurie appears as a trigger to mention the old unit of activityPart 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Curie and Joliot were the first to produce an artificial radionuclide in 1934.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Other types of radiation such as infrared, microwaves, radiowaves are non-ionizing. However, this does not mean that biological effects are absentPart 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The image should be used to explain the difference between light and heavy charged particle interactions. It should be mentioned that even if the interaction is called collission it is a collission between electrical fieldsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Bremsstrahlung is generated in the solution and in the shield of unsealed sources emitting high energy beta-particles. Examples are P32, Sr89 and Sm153Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The intention of this slide is not to cover X-ray production extensively. The important issues for the lecturer to point out are mentioned on the next slide.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*In both this and the next slide it is not important to go through all the details of the X-ray production - the important features to note are the target design and the angle of incidence.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The lecturer can mention that at high energies the efficiency of X-ray production can exceed 50% - however, target cooling is still a major issue because of the high beam currents.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*The contents of this slide should follow from the previous discussions. The important points which should be mentioned by the lecturer are given in boxes. An alternative teaching approach would be to delete one or more of the boxes and ask the participants what is displayed.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*Note that in this image the positron is coming from a radionuclide and is not a result of pair production. It is important to explain that the annihilation process is the same.Part 2. Radiation PhysicsPart 2. Radiation PhysicsRadiation Protection in Nuclear Medicine*This image should be used to demonstarte the importance of the compton process in the photon interaction with soft tissue (Z

part 2

Documents

radiation protection

electromagnetic radiation

ionizing radiation

radiation physicspart

radiation physicsmodule

radiation units quantities

excited nucleus

stabilitybinding energy