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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
BIODEGRADABLE METALWORKING FLUIDS
FOR MACHINING PROCESS
NORFAZILLAH BINTI TALIB
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF BIODEGRADABLE METALWORKING
FLUIDS FOR MACHINING PROCESS
NORFAZILLAH BINTI TALIB
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
NOVEMBER 2017
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, first of all, all praises is for Allah SWT, the most gracious and the
most merciful, who has given me His guidance and blessing in finishing this thesis,
entitled “Performance Evaluation of Biodegradable Metalworking Fluids for
Machining Process”.
I would like to convey my deepest gratitude to those who have assisted and
inspired me in completing this study. I wish to express my sincere thanks to my
supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Erween Bin Abd. Rahim and my co-supervisor
Dr. Ramdziah binti Md. Nasir for their continuous support, guidance and valuable
suggestions throughout the progress of this study. I would also like to express my
appreciation to Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor and the
Ministry of Education Malaysia for the financial support given through the Academic
Staff Bumiputera Training Scheme (SLAB) during the period of study.
I am grateful and indebted to the academic and laboratory staffs of UTHM
who either directly or indirectly helped or supported me in various ways during the
experimental stages. Many thanks are also extended to all Precision Machining
Research Center (PREMACH) group members, research fellows, and my precious
friends.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratefulness to my beloved family
for their support and understanding throughout the journey. To my parents, Hj. Talib
bin Burok and Hjh. Rasidah binti Md. Dawi, thank you for your blessings and
prayers, endless love and support, and always cheered me up during the hard times.
To the rest of my family, many thanks for your great support and prayers.
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ABSTRACT
The widely use of metalworking fluids (MWFs) petroleum-based in the industry
have a negative impact to the environment and human. Thus, various initiatives have
been undertaken to develop bio-based MWFs especially from crude jatropha oil
(CJO). However, the main drawback of CJO is that it has low thermal-oxidative
stability. Therefore, the objective of this study is to develop a new formulation of
CJO-based MWFs. The newly developed modified jatropha oils (MJOs) were
formulated using transesterification process at various molar ratios of jatropha
methyl ester to trimethylolpropane (JME:TMP) denoted by MJO1 (3.1:1), MJO3
(3.3:1) and MJO5 (3.5:1). Later, the MJOs were blended with hexagonal boron
nitride (hBN) particles at various concentrations (0.05 to 0.5wt.%). MJOs with and
without hBN particles were analysed based on the physicochemical properties,
tribology behaviour test, orthogonal cutting and turning proses. From the results,
MJO5 showed an improvement at thermal (high viscosity index) and oxidative
stability (lubricant storage). MJO5c (MJO5+0.5wt.% of hBN particles) showed the
optimum physicochemical properties. In the contrary, MJO5a (MJO5+0.05wt.% of
hBN particles) exhibited excellent tribological behaviour as reduction of friction and
wear, with high tapping torque efficiency. In the orthogonal cutting process, MJO5a
recorded the lowest machining force and temperature, thus contributed to the
formation of thinner chips, small tool-chip contact length and reduction of the
specific energy. MJO5a produced an excellent result in the machinability test by
reducing the cutting force, cutting temperature and surface roughness stimulated
longer tool life and less tool wear. In conclusion, the MJO5a has a potential impact
on the lubricant market as a sustainable MWFs for the machining processes.
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ABSTRAK
Penggunaan bendalir kerja logam (MWFs) berasaskan petroleum secara meluas di
industri telah memberikan kesan negatif kepada alam sekitar dan manusia. Justeru,
pelbagai inisiatif telah dilakukan untuk membangunkan MWFs berasas bio
terutamanya daripada minyak jatropha mentah (CJO). Namun begitu, kelemahan
utama CJO ialah mempunyai kestabilan terma-oksidatif yang rendah. Oleh itu,
objektif kajian ini adalah untuk membangunkan formulasi baharu MWFs berasaskan
CJO. Minyak yang baru dibangunkan, minyak jatropha yang dibuahsuai (MJOs)
telah diformulasi mengunakan proses transesterifikasi pada pelbagai nisbah molar
metil ester jatropha kepada trimetilolpropana (JME:TMP) yang diwakili oleh MJO1
(3.1:1), MJO3 (3.3:1) dan MJO5 (3.5:1). Kemudian, MJOs telah dicampur dengan
zarah heksagonal boron nitrida (hBN) pada pelbagai kepekatan (0.05 to 0.5wt.%).
MJOs dengan dan tanpa zarah hBN telah dianalisis pada sifat-sifat fizikokimia, ujian
kelakuan tribologi, pemotongan ortogonal dan proses pelarikan. Daripada hasil
kajian, MJO5 menunjukkan peningkatan terhadap kestabilan termal (index kelikatan
yang tinggi) dan oksidatif (penyimpanan pelincir). MJO5c (MJO5+0.5wt.% zarah
hBN) menunjukkan sifat-sifat fizikokimia yang optimum. Sebaliknya, MJO5a
(MJO5+0.05wt.% zarah hBN) mempamerkan tingkah laku tribologi yang sangat baik
dengan pengurangan terhadap geseran dan kehausan, serta kecekapan penguliran tork
yang tinggi. Di dalam proses pemotongan ortogonal, MJO5a mencatatkan daya dan
suhu pemotongan yang rendah, seterusnya menyumbang kepada pembentukan tatal
yang nipis, panjang sentuhan mata alat-tatal yang kecil dan pengurangan tenaga
spesifik. MJO5a menghasilkan keputusan yang cemerlang dalam ujian
kebolehmesinan dengan mengurangkan daya pemotongan, suhu pemotongan dan
kekasaran permukaan merangsang jangka hayat mata alat yang lebih panjang dengan
kurang kehausan. Kesimpulannya, MJO5a mempunyai potensi di pasaran minyak
pelincir sebagai MWFs yang mampan untuk proses pemesinan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxi
LIST OF APPENDICES xxvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of study 1
1.2 Problem statement 3
1.3 Aim and objectives 6
1.4 Scopes of the research 6
1.5 Organization of thesis 8
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Sustainable manufacturing 9
2.3 Metalworking fluids in machining process 12
2.3.1 Flood coolant 14
2.3.2 Dry machining 15
2.3.3 Minimum quantity lubrication 16
2.3.4 Cryogenic cooling 17
2.4 Metal cutting 18
2.4.1 Orthogonal cutting mechanism 18
2.4.2 Cutting force 21
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2.4.3 Cutting temperature 22
2.4.4 Chip formation 28
2.4.5 Tool chip contact length 30
2.4.6 Specific energy 32
2.4.7 Tool wear 33
2.5 Lubricant sources 37
2.5.1 Mineral-based lubricant 37
2.5.2 Synthetic-based lubricant 38
2.5.3 Vegetable-based lubricant 40
2.5.4 Polyol ester 44
2.6 Modification methods for vegetable-based
metalworking fluids 45
2.6.1 Chemical modification 46
2.6.2 Additive reformulation 50
2.6.3 Genetic modification 53
2.7 Physicochemical properties 54
2.7.1 Viscosity and viscosity index 54
2.7.2 Density 55
2.7.3 Flash point 55
2.7.4 Acid value 55
2.7.5 Water content 56
2.7.6 Lubricant storage (oxidative stability) 56
2.8 Tribological behaviour of vegetable-based
lubricant 57
2.9 Applications of vegetables-based metalworking
fluids in machining process 61
2.9.1 Turning process 68
2.9.2 Drilling process 72
2.9.3 Grinding process 74
2.9.4 Milling process 76
2.10 Effect of additive particles in lubricant for
machining processes 77
2.11 Jatropha oil as potential bio-based metalworking
fluid 80
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2.12 Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) as an additive in
metalworking fluid 81
2.13 Summary 85
CHAPTER 3 MODIFICATION OF CRUDE JATROPHA OIL FOR
METALWORKING FLUID APPLICATION 87
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Experimental procedure 85
3.3 Material preparation 89
3.4 Development of modified jatropha oils as
bio-based metalworking fluids 90
3.4.1 Esterification process of crude jatropha oil 90
3.4.2 Determination of free fatty acid (FFA) value 92
3.4.3 Transesterification process of jatropha
methyl ester 94
3.4.4 Transesterification process of modified
jatropha oils 96
3.4.5 Mixture of MJOs with hexagonal boron
nitride (hBN) additive 98
3.5 Analysis of modified jatropha oil properties 100
3.5.1 Gas chromatography (GC) analysis 102
3.5.2 Density test (ASTM 4052) 104
3.5.3 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445) and
viscosity index (ASTM D2270) 105
3.5.4 Flash point (ASTM D93) 107
3.5.5 Acid value test (ASTM D664) 107
3.5.6 Water content (ASTM D2709) 107
3.5.7 Lubricants storage 108
3.6 Results and discussions of the development
of modified jatropha oils 109
3.6.1 Free fatty acids reduction by esterification
process 109
3.6.2 Production of jatropha methyl ester 110
3.6.3 Production of modified jatropha oils 112
3.6.4 Gas chromatography analysis 116
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3.6.5 Mixed with additive 118
3.7 Results and discussions of the physicochemical
properties of modified jatropha oils 120
3.7.1 Density 120
3.7.2 Viscosity and viscosity index 122
3.7.3 Flash point 127
3.7.4 Acid value 128
3.7.5 Water content 130
3.7.6 Lubricant storage (Oxidative stability) 131
3.8 Summary 136
CHAPTER 4 TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF NEWLY
DEVELOP METALWORKING FLUID 137
4.1 Introduction 137
4.2 Experimental procedure 137
4.3 Four ball testing (ASTM D4172) 137
4.4 Tapping torque test (ASTM D5619) 143
4.5 Results and discussions of four ball test 144
4.5.1 Coefficient of friction 144
4.5.2 Friction torque 148
4.5.3 Wear scar diameter 150
4.5.4 Worn surface analysis 152
4.5.5 Surface roughness 158
4.5.6 Volume wear rate 162
4.6 Results and discussions of tapping torque test 164
4.6.1 Tapping torque and thrust force 164
4.6.2 Tapping torque efficiency 167
4.7 Summary 169
CHAPTER 5 EVALUATION OF MODIFIED JATROPHA OIL
IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING PROCESS 170
5.1 Introduction 170
5.2 Experimental procedure 170
5.3 Workpiece materials: AISI 1045 171
5.4 Cutting tool 173
5.5 Experimental test set-up 174
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5.6 Minimum quantity lubrication unit 177
5.7 Cutting force measurement 178
5.8 Cutting temperature measurement 178
5.9 Chip thickness measurement 181
5.10 Tool chip contact length measurement 181
5.11 Specific energy consumption 182
5.12 Results and discussions 183
5.12.1 Cutting force 183
5.12.2 Cutting temperature 187
5.12.3 Chip thickness 192
5.12.4 Tool-chip contact length 196
5.12.5 Specific energy 203
5.13 Summary 205
CHAPTER 6 PERFORMANCES OF A MODIFIED JATROPHA
OIL AS A BIO-BASED LUBRICANT
FOR GREEN MACHINING 207
6.1 Introduction 207
6.2 Experimental procedure 207
6.3 Workpiece materials: AISI 1045 209
6.4 Cutting tool 209
6.5 Experiment test set-up 210
6.6 Cutting force measurement 213
6.7 Cutting temperature measurement 213
6.8 Surface roughness measurement 214
6.9 Tool wear and tool life assessment 216
6.10 Wear mechanism analysis 218
6.11 Results and discussions 219
6.11.1 Cutting force 219
6.11.2 Cutting temperature 223
6.11.3 Surface roughness 225
6.11.4 Tool life 228
6.11.5 Wear mechanism 231
6.12 Summary 240
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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 242
7.1 Conclusions 242
7.2 Contributions of the research 244
7.2 Recommendations 244
REFERENCES 246
APPENDIX A 271
APPENDIX B 272
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 273
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LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Biodegradability of oil-based lubricants 12
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of MWFs 14
2.3 Examples of lubricant oils from mineral-based 38
2.4 Examples of lubricant oils from synthetic-based 39
2.5 Examples of lubricant oils from vegetable-based 40
2.6 Fatty acid structure of various vegetable oils 43
2.7 Additives in vegetable oils 51
2.8 Summary of the research in the application of vegetable-
based oils as the metalworking fluids on different
machining process 63
2.9 Summary of the effects of various additive particles in
different machining processes 78
3.1 FFA range, alcohol volume and the strength of alkali 93
3.2 Specification of JME according to ASTM D6751 96
3.3 MJOs at various ratios of JME:TMP 97
3.4 MJOs at various composition of hBN 98
3.5 Physicochemical properties of hBN particles 98
3.6 The lubricant properties according to related standards 100
3.7 The lubricant properties from previous findings 100
3.8 The lubricant properties of MQL oils in the market 101
3.9 Required properties of MJOs 102
3.10 The samples of JME at different molar ratios 111
3.11 The properties of JME at different molar ratios 111
3.12 The physicochemical properties of the reproducibility
samples of E20T6 111
3.13 The physicochemical properties of the reproducibility
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samples of MJO1 115
3.14 The physicochemical properties of the reproducibility
samples of MJO3 115
3.15 The physicochemical properties of the reproducibility
samples of MJO5 115
3.16 Compositions of product for the synthesis of JME with
TMP 118
3.17 The physicochemical properties for all samples 120
3.18 Density of lubricant’s sampling 121
3.19 Kinematic viscosity of lubricant’s sampling 125
3.20 Flash point of lubricant’s sampling 127
3.21 Acid value of lubricant’s sampling 129
3.22 Water content of lubricant’s sampling 130
4.1 Measurement conditions for surface roughness
measurement 142
4.2 Test parameter 143
4.3 Coefficient of friction of lubricant’s sampling 145
4.4 Friction torque of lubricant’s sampling 149
4.5 Wear scar diameter of lubricant’s sampling 151
4.6 Surface roughness of lubricant’s sampling 159
4.7 Volume wear rate of lubricant’s sampling 163
4.8 Tapping torque of lubricant’s sampling 165
4.9 Thrust force of lubricant’s sampling 165
4.10 Tapping torque efficiency for all lubricants 168
5.1 Elemental composition of AISI 1045 172
5.2 Mechanical properties and thermal properties of AISI 1045 172
5.3 Cutting tool geometry for orthogonal cutting 173
5.4 Machining conditions for orthogonal cutting 176
5.5 Cutting force of lubricant’s sampling at various feed rates
and cutting speeds 184
5.6 Cutting temperature of lubricant’s sampling at various
feed rates and cutting speeds 188
5.7 The average chip thickness of lubricant’s sampling
at various feed rates and cutting speeds 193
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5.8 Shear angle of lubricant’s sampling at various feed
rates and cutting speeds 193
5.9 Tool chip contact length of lubricant’s sampling at
various feed rates and cutting speeds 198
5.10 Specific energy of lubricant’s sampling at various
feed rates and cutting speeds 204
6.1 Cutting tool geometry for turning 209
6.2 Machining conditions for turning 211
6.3 Measurement conditions for surface roughness
measurement 215
6.4 Tool wears criteria 217
6.5 Cutting force of lubricant’s sampling 220
6.6 The maximum cutting temperature of lubricant’s
sampling 224
6.7 Surface roughness of lubricant’s sampling 226
6.8 Tool life and tool failure modes for different lubricant
samples 228
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Metalworking fluids usage 2
1.2 Description of health effects on experts and workers
due to MWF’s exposure 4
1.3 The flow chart of the research scopes 7
2.1 Model-based sustainable manufacturing 11
2.2 Characteristics of sustainable machining 11
2.3 Component of metalworking fluids 13
2.4 Machining parameters 18
2.5 Three dimensional process of orthogonal cutting model 19
2.6 Two dimensional side view 19
2.7 Deformation zones in the cutting 21
2.8 Forces in metal cutting 22
2.9 Temperature measurement methods 23
2.10 Tool-workpiece thermocouple method 23
2.11 Embedded thermocouple method 24
2.12 PVD film method 24
2.13 Infrared pyrometer method 25
2.14 Infrared camera method 26
2.15 Heat generation zone 27
2.16 Distribution of temperature in the cutting zone 27
2.17 Types of chips 30
2.18 Tool-chip contact length regions 31
2.19 SEM image of the tool-chip contact length 31
2.20 Types of wear 34
2.21 Adhesion and attrition (plucking action) wear mechanisms 36
2.22 Abrasive wear mechanism 36
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2.23 Applications of bio-based lubricant 37
2.24 Triglyceride structure 42
2.25 Oil modification methods 46
2.26 Various type of chemical modification process of
triglycerides 47
2.27 Two step acid-base catalysed transesterification chemical
formulation 47
2.28 Synthesis of TMP ester 48
2.29 The function of additives 51
2.30 Lubrication regime in Stribeck curve 59
2.31 Schematic of contacting interface in the presence of
oil with nanoparticles 60
2.32 Application of vegetable-based MWFs in machining process 62
2.33 Hexagonal boron nitride structure 82
2.34 SEM micrograph of hBN particles 82
2.35 3D Optical profilometer images of worn surface 84
2.36 Summary of literature review 86
3.1 Experimental flow chart 88
3.2 Synthetic ester (Unicut jinen) 89
3.3 Esterification reaction of jatropha oil with methanol 91
3.4 Set-up of esterification process 91
3.5 Separation process of esterified jatropha oil 92
3.6 Titration process set-up 93
3.7 Permanent pink colour of mixture solution from titration
process 93
3.8 Reaction of esterified jatropha oil with methanol 95
3.9 Separation process of JME 95
3.10 Separation of JME after washing process 96
3.11 Reaction of JME with TMP 97
3.12 Transesterification set-up for reaction of JME with TMP 97
3.13 SEM micrograph of hBN particles 99
3.14 EDS analysis of hBN particles 99
3.15 Gas chromatography (GC) device 103
3.16 The position of each group esters from gas
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chromatography analysis 103
3.17 Density test set 105
3.18 Viscometer 106
3.19 Pensky-Martens PMA 4 106
3.20 Coulometric KF titrator 108
3.21 The FFA values of CJO and esterified jatropha oil 109
3.22 Percentage yield of JME 112
3.23 The kinematic viscosity at 40 °C for modified jatropha oils 113
3.24 Bio-based MWFs at various ratios of JME:TMP 114
3.25 Percentage yield of MJOs 114
3.26 Gas chromatogram showing the position of each
group of esters namely JME, ME, DE, and TE for MJO5 117
3.27 Gas chromatogram showing the position of each
group of esters namely JME, ME, DE, and TE for MJO3 117
3.28 Gas chromatogram showing the position of each
group of esters namely JME, ME, DE, and TE for MJO1 118
3.29 Bio-based MWFs at various concentrations of hBN particles 119
3.30 Density values of the lubricants at 15 °C 121
3.31 The kinematic viscosity of CJO, SE and MJOs at
various temperatures from 30 to 100 °C 123
3.32 The kinematic viscosity of all samples at various
temperatures from 30 to 100 °C 124
3.33 The kinematic viscosity values at operating temperatures
of 40 and 100 °C and the calculated viscosity index value 125
3.34 The flash point value for all samples 127
3.35 The acid value for all samples 129
3.36 The water content value for all samples 130
3.37 Effect of long-term storage on acid value 133
3.38 Effect of long-term storage on kinematic viscosity at 40 ºC 134
3.39 The percentages of changes on acid value for various
types of lubricants 135
3.40 The percentages of changes on kinematic viscosity
for various types of lubricants 135
4.1 Experimental flowchart for tribological behaviours 138
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4.2 Four ball tester machine 139
4.3 Surface morphology of the steel ball material before
testing at 500x magnifications 140
4.4 EDS spectrum for new ball steel surface 140
4.5 Three stationary balls in the ball port 140
4.6` Schematic diagram of the four ball tester 141
4.7 Schematic diagram of tapping torque set-up 144
4.8 Tapping tool 144
4.9 Coefficient of friction for the sample of lubricants 146
4.10 Schematic diagram of lubrication film in MJO samples 146
4.11 Variation of friction torque for all samples 149
4.12 Variation of mean wear scar diameter for all samples 151
4.13 SEM micrographs of worn surface on the steel balls
at the magnifications of 50x and 500x 153
4.14 EDS spectra of worn surface of CJO 156
4.15 EDS spectra of worn surface of SE 156
4.16 EDS spectra of worn surface of MJO5 157
4.17 EDS spectra of worn surface of MJO5a 157
4.18 Variation of surface roughness of the worn surface for
all samples 159
4.19 AFM micrographs of worn surfaces 160
4.20 Variation of volume wear rate for all samples 163
4.21 Variation of average tapping torque and thrust force for
all samples 166
4.22 Relationships of tapping torque efficiency with
coefficient of friction for all samples 168
5.1 Experimental flowchart for orthogonal cutting process 171
5.2 AISI 1045 172
5.3 Kendex positive flat top insert, SPGN 120308 173
5.4 Modified Kennametal tool holder, CSDPN 2525M12 173
5.5 Orthogonal cutting set-up 175
5.6 Nozzle location 176
5.7 EcoSaver KEP-R MQL device 177
5.8 Mist spray pattern 177
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5.9 Cutting force data evaluation system 179
5.10 FLIR T640 thermal imager camera 179
5.11 Image capture from orthogonal cutting process 180
5.12 Data extracted from recorded video 180
5.13 Chip thickness measurement 181
5.14 Nikon MM-60 tool makers measuring microscope 182
5.15 Tool maker microscope image at rake face 182
5.16 Cutting force results 184
5.17 Cutting temperature results 188
5.18 Chip thickness results 194
5.19 Shear angle results 185
5.20 Tool chip contact length results 198
5.21 Optical images of tool chip contact length 200
5.22 SEM micrograph of tool chip contact length 201
5.23 The specific energy results 204
6.1 Flowchart of experimental work for turning process 208
6.2 The uncoated cermet tool (TNGG220408R-UM) 210
6.3 Tool holder (MTQNR2525M22N) 210
6.4 Turning process set-up 212
6.5 Nozzle location 213
6.6 Image capture from turning process 214
6.7 Arithmetical mean of the profile (Ra) 215
6.8 Mahr roughness specimen plate 216
6.9 Four different locations of roughness at machined surface 216
6.10 Tool wears region 217
6.11 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 218
6.12 The micrograph of new cutting tool 218
6.13 Variation of cutting forces 220
6.14 Variation of maximum cutting temperatures 224
6.15 Variation of average surface roughness (Ra) 226
6.16 Tool life for different lubricant samples 228
6.17 Progression of average flank wear (VBB) 229
6.18 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for SE lubricant 232
6.19 EDS analysis for SE lubricant 232
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6.20 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO5 lubricant 234
6.21 EDS analysis for MJO5 lubricant 234
6.22 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO3 lubricant 236
6.23 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO1 lubricant 236
6.24 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO5a lubricant 237
6.25 EDS analysis for MJO5a lubricant 237
6.26 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO3a lubricant 239
6.27 Flank and rake face of the cutting tool for MJO1a lubricant 239
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
% - Percent, efficiency
µ - Micro
µ - Coefficient of friction
µm - Micrometer
a - Radius of wear scar diameter
ADDC - Antimony dialkyldithiocarbamate
Al - Aluminium
Al2O3 - Aluminium oxide
AOCS - American Oil Chemist’s Society
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Material
AW - Anti-wear
B - Boron
BHA - Butylated hydroxyl anisole
BHT - Butylated hydroxyl toluene
BSTFA - N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)tri-fluoroacetamide
BUE - Built-up-edge
C - Carbon
C3H8O - 2-propanol
CAN - Canola oil
CC - Coconut oil
CH4O - Methanol
CJO - Crude jatropha oil
cm - Centimeter
CNT - Carbon nanotube
Co - Cobalt
COF - Coefficient of friction
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cP - Centipoise
CPO - Crude palm oil
Cr - Chromium
cSt - Centistoke
CTAB - Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
Cu - Copper
CVD - Chemical vapour deposition
d - Depth of cut
DAQ - Data-acquisition
DBDS - Dibenzyldisulfide
DBP - Dibutyl 3.5-di-t-butyl-hydroxy
DE - Diester
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid
DTC - Dithiocarbamates
DTP - Zincdithiophosphates
E - Elastic modulus
EDS - X-ray spectrometer
EHD - Elastohydrodynamic
EJME - Epoxidized jatropha methyl ester
EJO - Esterified jatropha oil
EJRO - Epoxidized jatropha raw oil
emf - Electro motive force
EP - Extreme pressure
EPME - Epoxidized pongam methyl ester
EPRO - Epoxidized pongam raw oil
F - Friction force
FAME - Fatty acid methyl ester
Fc - Cutting force
Fe - Iron
FESEM - Field emission scanning microscope
FFA - Free fatty acid
Fn - Normal force to friction
fr - Feed rate
Fs - Shear force
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Ft - Thrust force
g - Gram
GC - Gas chromatography
G-ratio - Grinding ratio
H - Hydrogen
h - Hour
H2SO4 - Sulfuric acid
H3PO4 - Ortho-phosphoric acid
hBN - Hexagonal boron nitride
HOSBO - High oleic soybean oil
J - Joule
JME - Jatropha methyl ester
k - Volume wear rate
KOH - Potassium hydroxide
l - Litre
L - Evaluation length
Lc - Total contact length
λc - Cut-off length
LCA - Life cycle analysis
LN - Liquid nitrogen
Ls - Sliding length
m - Meter
Mbar - Megabar
ME - Monoester
mg - Milligram
min - Minute
MJO1 - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1)
MJO1a - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.05wt.% of hBN particles
MJO1b - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.1wt.% of hBN particles
MJO1c - Modified jatropha oil (3.1:1) with 0.5wt.% of hBN particles
MJO3 - Modified jatropha oil (3.3:1)
MJO3a - Modified jatropha oil (3.3:1) with 0.05wt.% of hBN particles
MJO3b - Modified jatropha oil (3.3:1) with 0.1wt.% of hBN particles
MJO3c - Modified jatropha oil (3.3:1) with 0.5wt.% of hBN particles
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MJO5 - Modified jatropha oil (3.5:1)
MJO5a - Modified jatropha oil (3.5:1) with 0.05wt.% of hBN particles
MJO5b - Modified jatropha oil (3.5:1) with 0.1wt.% of hBN particles
MJO5c - Modified jatropha oil (3.5:1) with 0.5wt.% of hBN particles
MJOs - Modified jatropha oil
Ml - Millilitre
mm - Millimeter
Mn - Manganese
MoS2 - Molybdenum disulphide
MPa - Megapascal
MQL - Minimum quantity lubrication
MQLPO - MQL palm oil
MQLSE - MQL synthetic ester
MWF - Metalworking fluid
MWSD - Mean wear scar diameter
N - Newton, nitride, normality (strength of alkali)
N - Normal force to friction
NaOCH3- Sodium methoxide
NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
nm - Nanometer
NPG - Neopenthylglycol
npi - Nanoparticle inclusions
O - Oxygen
Ø - Shear angle
Ø - Diameter
º - Degree of angle
ºC - Degree celsius
OL - Ordinary lubricant
P - Phosphorous
PAO - Polyalphaolefins
PCR - Poly-merase chain reaction
PE - Pentaerythritol
PG - Propyl gallate
POME - Palm oil methyl ester
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PVD - Physically vapour deposited
r - Distance from the centre of the contact surface, r =3.67mm
R - Radius of the ball, resultant force
- Density
ra - Chip thickness ratio
Ra - Surface roughness value
RBD - Refined, bleached and deodorised
rev - Revolution
rpm - Revolution per minute
RR - Roundup Ready
rtip - Maximum stylus tip radius
s - Second
S - Sulphur
SBO - Soybean oil
SCCO2 - Supercritical carbon dioxide
SE - Synthetic ester
SEM - Scanning electron machine
Si - Silicon
SS - Sesame oil
T - Friction torque
t - Sliding time, thickness of cutting tool
TAN - Total acid number
TBHQ - Mon-tert-butyl-hydroquinone
tc - Deformed chip thickness
TE - Triester
Ti - Titanium
TiO2 - Titanium dioxide
TMP - Trimethylolpropane
TMPE - Synthetic lubricant
TMPTO - Trimethylolpropanetrioleate
to - Undeformed chip thickness
- Poisson ratio
U - Specific energy
UFA - Unsaturated fatty acids
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v - Kinematic viscosity
V - Vanadium
VBB - Average flank wear
VB B max - Maximum flank wear
VBN - Maximum notch wear
Vc - Cutting speed
VI - Viscosity index
vol. - Volume
vol.% - Percentage based on volume of oil
W - Applied load
W - Tungsten
w - Width of cut
W1 - Weight pycnometer with sample
WC - Tungsten carbide
Wo - Weight of dried pycnometer
WSD - Wear scar diameter
wt. - Weight
wt.% - Percentage based on weight of oil
xGnPs - Exfoliated graphite nano-platelet
ZDDP - Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates
α - Rake angle
β - Beta, clearance or relief angle
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LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Example calculation in two step acid-base 271
catalysed transesterification process
B Example calculation to develop modified jatropha oil 272
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Sustainability has become an important element to be considered in manufacturing
industry. Sustainability is commonly divided into three main pillars which are social,
environment and economic. There are six factors that significantly affect the
sustainable manufacturing; energy consumption, manufacturing cost, environmental
effect, operational safety, personal health and waste reduction (Jawahir et al., 2013).
It has enlightened the manufacturers in machining industries to shift their trend
towards other potential alternative solutions that can replace the petroleum-based
lubricant. Petroleum-based lubricants possess poor biodegradability, need high
processing cost of recycling processes and cause environmental pollution and health
problems. Recently, petroleum prices are fluctuating due to the decrease in total rate
of crude oil output.
This scenario triggers an interest in finding alternatives to petroleum-based
lubricant. The vegetable oils such as the soybean oil, sunflower oil and canola oil are
promising natural sources to be developed as lubricants for industrial applications. It
was estimated that only 0.1% lubricants in the market are made from vegetable oils
(Erhan et al., 2006). From the recent research by Lawal et al. (2012), it seems that
vegetable oil was the suitable replacements of the petroleum-based lubricant. These
oils indeed could offer significant environmental benefits with respect to resource
renewability, biodegradability, as well as providing satisfactory performance in a
wide array of applications. However, the usage of vegetable oil as lubricant also
faced some problems such as low thermal and oxidation stability that caused the oil
to become thick and sticky (Abdalla and Patel, 2006; Akbar et al., 2009; Arbain and
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Salimon, 2011a). The aforementioned problems result in restraints for vegetable oil
to be used as an industrial lubricant. Therefore, the modification of vegetable oil is
crucially important in order to improve the crude oil efficiency. There are three types
of modification that have been identified by Shashidhara & Jayaram (2010) which
include reformulation of additives, chemical modification and genetic modification
of oil seed.
In the machining process, metalworking fluids (MWFs) is used for machining
purposes, stamping processes and manufacturing of automotive components as
shown in Figure 1.1. The absence of MWFs will result in acceleration of tool wear,
residual stress, dimensional error and poor surface finish (Skerlos et al., 2008). The
utilization of MWFs is more than 100 million gallons annually and the current
worldwide consumption is approximately 640 million gallons (Marksberry &
Jawahir, 2008). However, the usage of vegetable oil as MWF is still not widespread
due to its limitation as mentioned earlier. Previous researchers have identified that
MWFs made of rapeseed, palm, coconut and sunflower oils provided greater
lubricating properties and showed comparable performance with currently used
petroleum-based lubricant with regards to cutting force, cutting temperature, surface
finish, tool wear and tribological behaviour (Belluco and Chiffre, 2004; Jayadas et
al., 2007; Kuram et al., 2013c; Rahim and Sasahara, 2011a).
Figure 1.1: Metalworking fluids usage (Marksberry and Jawahir, 2008)
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Rahim and Sasahara (2011b) proved that vegetable oil outperformed
synthetic ester (SE) in terms of force, temperature, energy and power. They exposed
that the properties of palm oil based on viscosity and viscosity index have influenced
the machining performances. Research finding by Kuram et al. (2013a) also pointed
out that the viscosity value affected the MWFs efficiency. Besides, MWFs made of
vegetable oils offers good boundary lubrication with low coefficient of friction
(COF) (Jayadas et al., 2007). In addition, Sales et al. (2006) highlighted that MWFs
formed a thin film between cutting tool and workpiece surface that influenced
reduction in friction and heat generation.
Hence, the development of new modification of vegetable oil is crucially
needed to be applied as MWF. From the modification process, the oil’s properties
can be enhanced and related to the machining performances outcomes. In this study,
modified jatropha oils (MJOs) were selected to be used as sustainable MWFs for the
machining process. In order to explore the reliability of these newly developed
MWFs, the properties of MJOs on tribological behaviour and the machining
performances were evaluated.
1.2 Problem statement
MWFs are used to reduce the generation of heat and friction at the tool-workpiece
interfaces during the machining process. The conventional MWFs which consist of
the combination of petroleum-based lubricant and additives are toxic to the
environment and difficult to be disposed after the consumption (Erhan et al., 2006).
The petroleum-based lubricant exhibited poor biodegradability and required high
processing cost for recycling process. The widespread use of MWFs caused
significant health and environmental hazards through their life cycle. As MWFs are
complex in their composition, they may cause irritation or allergy to the skin, lungs,
eyes, nose and throat. Moreover MWFs lead to more severe conditions such as
dermatitis, acne, asthma, and a variety of cancers. Nicol & Hurrell (2008) reported
that all occupational diseases of workers are due to skin contact with MWFs as
shown Figure 1.2.
To overcome these problems, various alternatives to petroleum-based
lubricant have currently been explored by researchers which include the
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developments of synthetics oils, vegetable based-oil and solid lubricants (Lawal,
2013; Nguyen et al., 2012; Suhane, 2012). The growing demand for biodegradable
materials opened an opportunity for using vegetable oil as a replacement to
petroleum-based oils. This condition is due to the increasing awareness on
sustainable elements in machining process that identified majority of the lubricant oil
consists of non-sustainable elements (Pusavec et al., 2010).
Therefore, MWFs made of vegetables oil are favourable as sustainable
alternative to the conventional MWF. MWFs from vegetables oil served as an anti-
wear and anti-friction medium due to strong interactions with the lubricant at the
contact surfaces (Quinchia et al., 2014). Previous researchers indicated that vegetable
oil exhibited higher lubricity, lower volatility as well as higher viscosity index and
flash point when compared to mineral and synthetic oils (Lovell et al., 2006). MWFs
from edible vegetable oils such as soybean, canola and sunflower oil have been
widely studied by previous researches (Clarens et al., 2004; Erhan and Asadauskas,
2000; Kuram et al., 2010). Hence, aforementioned oils are planted in the four
seasons countries such as United State and European. They are readily biodegradable
and less costly than synthetic base-stocks. They also showed a considerably
acceptable performance as lubricants and have been commercialized. However, the
feedstock used from edible vegetable oils for biolubricant production may compete
with the feedstock used for the food production thus contributes in high rising cost of
Figure 1.2: Description of health effects on experts and workers due to MWF’s
exposure (Nicol and Hurrell, 2008)
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food (Gashaw and Teshita, 2014; Shamsuddin et al., 2015; Umaru and Aberuagba,
2012). Yet, the used of non-edible jatropha oil is preferable to substitute the
petroleum base oil. Jatropha oil has extensively been studied for the usage as biofuel
(Chhetri et al., 2008; Kombe et al., 2012; Okullo et al., 2012) and bio-lubricants
such as for hydraulic fluids and engine oil (Resul et al., 2012; Imran et al., 2013;
Zulkifli et al., 2014). Jatropha oil is a clean and renewable source of lubricant that
cannot be used for the nutritional purposes. A main drawback found in crude
jatropha oil (CJO) is that it has poor thermal-oxidative stability due to unsaturation in
molecule that leads to oxidation reaction (Arbain and Salimon, 2011b). Therefore, it
is crucially needed to chemically modify the CJO to improve the oil’s property. In
addition, the use of jatropha oil as MWF is still not widespread and because of issue,
further research relate to the development of bio-based MWFs is needed in
investigating the potential properties of jatropha oil as MWF.
Moreover, MWF-based oils can be strengthened by the addition of various
functions of additives. Previous studies used sulphur and phosphorous compounds as
additives in vegetable oil lubricant (Belluco and Chiffre, 2004; Minami et al., 2007;
Waara et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2007). Eventhough, these
compound influenced the machining performances by reducing friction and wear,
there were poisonous to environment (Ji et al., 2012; Johnson and Hils, 2013).
Therefore, boron and nitrite compounds have been found in numerous industrial
applications because they are safe to be handled, non-toxic, no limitations on its
operational uses, good thermal stability and high thermal conductivity (Reeves et al.,
2013; Wan et al., 2015). The presence of boron and nitride compound in lubricant
also enhanced the lubrication and tribological behaviours (Abdullah et al., 2013;
Nguyen et al., 2012). However, there is limited study that discussed the effects of the
boron and nitride compounds in tribological behaviours and machining
performances.
An appropriate MWF’s properties significantly affect the machining
performances. Therefore, new formulations of bio-based MWFs made of non-edible
jatropha oil and boron and nitride compounds are desirable in order to develop
sustainable MWF with enhanced lubrication and tribological behaviour. In
discovering a suitability of bio-based MWF, the effects of lubrication properties and
additives concentrations are needed to be studied.
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1.3 Aim and objectives
The aim of this research was to study the performance of newly formulation of MJOs
as bio-based MWFs. The main focus was emphasized on preparing the bio-based
MJOs, analysing the properties of MJOs, examining the tribological behaviours and
evaluating the machining performances. The specific objectives of this study are:
i. To study the application of vegetable-based oils as MWFs in machining
process. (Related to Chapter 2)
ii. To develop a new formulation of MJO-based MWFs and to analyse the
physicochemical properties at various molar ratios (jatropha methyl ester and
trimethylolpropane) and addition with various concentrations of additive.
(Related to Chapter 3)
iii. To examine the tribological behaviour of newly developed MJOs through
four ball and tapping torque tests. (Related to Chapter 4)
iv. To evaluate the performances of newly developed MJOs in the orthogonal
cutting process under minimum quantity lubrication method in terms of
cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length
and specific energy. (Related to Chapter 5)
v. To justify the machinability criteria of the newly developed MJOs under
minimum quantity lubrication method in terms of tool life, tools wear
mechanism, cutting force, cutting temperature and surface roughness through
turning process. (Related to Chapter 6)
1.4 Scopes of the research
Figure 1.3 demonstrates the flow chart of the current research scopes. This study
involved a development of newly formulation of bio-based MWFs denoted as MJOs
by chemical modification and mixed with additive. Two step acid-based catalysed
transesterification process was carried out to develop jatropha methyl ester (JME).
Then, the desired JME which achieved the required properties according to ASTM
D6751 was reacted with trimethylolpropane by varying the molar ratio by
transesterification to develop MJOs. The entire products were compared with
commercial SE and CJO. Physicochemical properties include density, viscosity, flash
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Figure 1.3: The flow chart of the research scopes
point, water content and acid value were analysed. The tribological behaviours of the
products were examined through four ball test and tapping torque test. Both
physicochemical test and tribology test were performed according to ASTM standard
testing procedure. The evaluation of machining performances were carried out by
using orthogonal cutting process at three level of feed rates (0.08, 0.1 and 0.12
mm/rev) and three level of cutting speeds (350, 450 and 550 m/min) in terms of
cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool chip contact length and
specific energy. Finally, the machinability test was conducted by turning process at
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constant machining parameter to investigate the tool life, tool wear, cutting force,
cutting temperature and surface roughness.
1.5 Organization of thesis
The inscription of this thesis is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides a
brief introduction to the research topic, including the problems and related issues.
Based on this, aim and objectives were developed. Chapter 2 presents a review of the
literature in creating the aims study by considering constrains and limitations of
current researches. Topics reviewed include types, sources and application methods
of MWFs, modification of vegetable oils, MWFs properties and application of
vegetable oils in the machining process. Chapter 3 presents the whole experiment
procedure on the developing of the MJOs, including the material preparation,
chemical modification process and physicochemical testing. The effect on the
various molar ratios and various additives concentrations are briefly discussed.
Chapter 4 presents the experiment procedures and analysis method to examine the
tribological behaviour of the newly developed MJOs through four ball test and
tapping torque test. Chapter 5 presents the evaluation of machining performances
through the orthogonal cutting process of the newly developed MJOs by considering
cutting force, cutting temperature, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and
specific energy consumption. Further, Chapter 6 discusses the investigation on
machinability criteria of the newly developed MJOs through turning process
regarding to the tool life, tool wear, cutting force, cutting temperature and surface
roughness. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are presented in Chapter 7.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter consists of reviews on literature related to the development and
application of bio-based oils as metalworking fluids for machining process. The
reviews can be organized into eleven main sections; i.e. sustainable manufacturing,
metalworking fluids in machining process, metal cutting, lubricant sources,
modification method for vegetable-based metalworking fluids, physicochemical
properties, tribological behaviour, applications of vegetables-based metalworking
fluids in machining process, effect of additive particles in metalworking fluids for
machining processes, jatropha oil as potential bio-based metalworking fluid and
hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) as an additive in metalworking fluid.
2.2 Sustainable manufacturing
Sustainability provides an understanding regarding the basic theories and
applications of sustainability science about product life cycle engineering with the
implementation of sustainable in social, economy and environment aspects (Jawahir
et al., 2013). Sustainable manufacturing can be expressed as providing goods and
services for costumer satisfying while accelerating economic growth and
decelerating the environmental damage. The sustainability is aiming a quality level
of product, process and system that allows preserving, keeping and maintaining
something (Molamohamadi and Ismail, 2013). Sustainable manufacturing delivers
product and process that affect the quality of human life and contribute to the world
economy.
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There are six elements which contribute in the sustainability of product
include environmental effect, social impact (in terms of health, safety and ethics),
functionality, resource utilization and economy, manufacturability and product’s
recyclability and remanufacturability (Jawahir et al., 2013). In addition, Jawahir et
al. (2013) also revealed that there are six elements affect the sustainability in
manufacturing process; i.e. energy consumption, manufacturing cost, environmental
impact, operational safety, personal health and reduction of waste material. Both
sustainability elements in product and process were implemented in the blueprint for
model-based sustainable manufacturing as shown in Figure 2.1. The concept of “6R”
(reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, redesign and remanufacture) was introduced in
sustainable manufacturing as the innovation based transformation from an open-loop,
single life-cycle paradigm to a closed-loop, multiple life-cycle paradigm (Jawahir
and Jayal, 2011). The implementation of sustainability principles in machining
process encourages the industry to save money and improve the environmental and
social performance. In this way, Jawahir and Jayal (2011) defined that sustainable
machining techniques use less quantity of metalworking fluid, liquid nitrogen,
vegetable oil or compressed air as a cooling-lubrication medium. The lubricants used
in sustainable machining methods are totally biodegradable and eco-friendly. Chetan
et al. (2015) defined the various characteristics of sustainable machining techniques
which increased awareness of the sustainability issues in machining as shown in
Figure 2.2.
Skerlos et al. (2008) initiated that metalworking fluid (MWF) systems are
excellent candidate to implement sustainable machining since simultaneous
improvements of economic, environmental and health dimensions are possible and
critically necessary. They suggested the development of gas-based minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL) systems such as the development supercritical carbon
dioxide (SCCO2) MWF. On the other hand, Kuram et al. (2013b) have suggested
three methods that contributes to the sustainable machining were dry cutting, MQL
and implement of vegetable oil. Further, Lawal et al. (2013) identified another
alternative to the conventional lubricant to be applied in the machining process. They
initiated the conventional lubricant that was normally produced from the petroleum-
based oil can be replaced using high-pressure coolant technique, cryogenic cooling,
solid lubricant and air or gas or vapour coolant.
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Figure 2.1: Model-based sustainable manufacturing (Jawahir and Jayal, 2011)
Figure 2.2: Characteristics of sustainable machining
The implementation of MWF in the machining process increases the quality
and productivity of the products. However, the conventional cooling method by
delivering with a huge amount of coolant (flood cooling technique) required a high
machining cost (Pusavec et al., 2010). Berchmans & Hirata (2008) recognized that
inexpensive feedstock such as non-edible oils, animal fat and waste cooking oil could
reduce the machining cost. Therefore, this study focused on the implementation of
vegetable oil and green solid lubricant would be applied for MQL methods in
machining process.
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2.3 Metalworking fluid in machining process
An increasing awareness with regards to sustainable aspect in the manufacturing
industry leads to the consideration for renewable and biodegradable-based oils.
Biodegradability shows the ability of MWF to be decomposed by microorganisms
(Anand and Chhibber, 2006). Table 2.1 displays the biodegradability of some base
lubricants. This property ensures the environmentally friendly of vegetable-based oil
and modified vegetable-based oil, thus enhances the commercial value. Abdalla et al.
(2007) indicated a huge total of 320,000 tons of MWF had to be disposed every year,
which acquires a high recycling cost. The complex formulation of MWFs generated
fungi and bacteria which cause irritation or allergy upon skin contact (Bakalova et
al., 2007). Furthermore, a long exposure to MWF causes serious health problems,
such as lung infection, eye irritation and cancer (Nicol and Hurrell, 2008).
In addition, previous study indicated that 85% of the global lubricant
consumption are petroleum-based oil (Pop et al., 2008). Further, Lukoil (2013)
reported that, a global demand for liquid hydrocarbon would grow annually by 1.2%,
and the quantity would reach 105 million barrels oil per day in 2025. The high
demand of petroleum-based oils in the industry led to the research and development
of environmentally friendly lubricants. Therefore, the bio-based MWF from
vegetable oil has become crucial to be explored and developed as it is a safe and
environmentally friendly type of oil. In addition, several methods have been
developed for controlling the temperature and to reduce the friction in the cutting
zone in order to increase the machining efficiency such as flood coolant, dry
machining, minimum quantity lubrication method (MQL) and cryogenic coolant.
During the machining process, MWFs penetrated into the cutting zone to
provide sufficient lubrication and cooling effect. They reduced the friction between
the tool-chip interfaces and adsorbed the heat generated associated with the reduction
Table 2.1: Biodegradability of oil-based lubricants (Anand and Chhibber, 2006)
Types of lubricants Biodegradability (%), CEC-L-33-A-94 method
Mineral oil 20-40
Vegetable oil 90-98
Ester 75-100
Polyol 70-100
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of power consumption. They removed debris or swarf from the work surfaces
(Brinksmeier et al., 2015). MWFs are used as lubricant in machining processes to
increase tool life, enhance machining efficiency and provide excellent surface quality
and accuracy. There are two major components in MWFs which are basic fluid and
an additive package as shown in Figure 2.3 (Winter et al., 2012). In general,
conventional-based MWF (straight or neat oil) are mostly from petroleum-based oil.
Synthetic ester and vegetable oil are currently used as a replacement of mineral oil.
Furthermore, the addition of various types of additives is to improve the specific oil
characteristic.
MWF can be classified as straight oil, soluble oil, synthetic, semi-synthetic
and vegetable-based oil as shown in Table 2.2. Semi-synthetic and fully- synthetic
oils have been recently used due to their good lubrication and cooling behaviours.
The semi-synthetic oil contains a combination of petroleum-based oil with additives
that mixed with water and the fully-synthetic oil contains a combination of chemicals
and additives that mixed with water (Rudnick and Erhan, 2013). Both petroleum-
based oil and synthetic oil with the combination of various additives can be harmful
to human and the environment due to their high toxicity, non-renewability and high
disposal cost.
Figure 2.3: Component of metalworking fluids (Winter et al., 2012)
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Table 2.2: Advantages and disadvantages of MWFs (Rudnick and Erhan, 2013)
Types Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages
Straight
oils
These products derived primarily
from petroleum oils or animal and
vegetable oils are occasionally
used. These oils contain no water
and used singly or in combination
with or without additives. These
oils are not diluted with water and
offer excellent lubricants but
having limited cooling capacity.
Excellent lubricity and
rust control
Low cooling, fire
hazard, create a
mist/smoke, limited
to low speed and
heavy cutting
operation
Soluble
oils
There are actually oil-in-water
emulsions which are
combinations of 30%-85%
severely petroleum oils and
emulsifiers that may include other
additive.
Good lubricity and
cooling
Rust control
problems, bacteria
growth and
evaporation losses
Semi-
synthetics
These products concentrate
contains water-soluble additive,
emulsifiers and less than 20%
petroleum oil
Good cooling, rust
control and microbial
control
Easily foam and
contaminated by
other machine
fluids, stability is
affected by water
hardness
Synthetics There are contains no petroleum
oil and form true solutions when
diluted with water.
Excellent cooling, and
microbial control, non-
flammable, non-
smoking, good corrosion
control, reduced misting
and foaming problems
Poor lubricity and
easily contaminated
by other machine
fluids
2.3.1 Flood coolant
In regular machining operation, MWF is supplied through conventional lubrication
by flood coolant to the cutting zone. In this method, large amount of MWF is
continuously delivered to the cutting zone by pipe, hose or nozzle. The MWF is
cumulated in a reservoir, filtered and pumped back to the delivery nozzle. The use of
flood coolant method has increased the overall machining cost especially in disposal
matter (Sharma et al., 2009). Madhukar et al. (2016) pointed that 22% of the MWF
costs in machining process come from disposal cost. Moreover, as flood coolant is
used for several times, the MWFs may become dirty and contaminated as it
continuously in contact to the machined particles. Furthermore, the physical and
chemical properties of MWFs changed adversely, thus affected the machining
efficiency and induced adversely impacts on the environment and human health
(Tazehkandi et al., 2015a). Normally, the flood coolants are mainly made from
water-based oil. Hence, the presence of water led the growth of various bacteria and
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microbes which can endanger the human health (Kuram et al., 2013b). Therefore,
several methods such as dry machining, MQL and cryogenic cooling are finding their
ways as an alternative to the flood cooling.
2.3.2 Dry machining
Dry machining is a machining process without the presence of MWFs. This method
offers several beneficial aspects with regard to environment and human health. Dry
machining confirms workers’ health and a clean work environment. Moreover, dry
machining reduces the machining cost cutting down the cost of purchasing the
MWFs, reduces the disposal cost and provides less hazardous impact to environment.
However, this method is not suitable to cut very hard materials and it highly
dependent on the selection of appropriate cutting tools, cutting parameters, and types
of workpiece material (Ghani et al., 2014).
Dry machining process indicates high friction at tool-workpiece interface,
thus increases cutting temperature at the cutting zone stimulated with excessive tool
wear and decreases tool life. Furthermore, the chips produced during machining
cannot be carried away and deteriorating the machined surface. Tasdelen et al.
(2008) investigated the influenced of MQL compared with dry cutting in machining
100Cr6 through orthogonal turning test in terms of tool–chip contact and chip
morphology. They found that the contact length decreased using MQL methods as
compared to dry cutting for both short and long engagement time of the section at
intermittent turning. This scenario was mainly due to cooling effect from air
constituent in the aerosol flow. Furthermore, it can be seen that the chips produced in
dry machining were wider than the chips produced in cutting using MQL.
The performances of dry machining can be enhanced by developing cutting
tool coating materials, developing tool materials with lower COF and high heat
resistance and appropriate tool geometries (Kuram et al., 2013). In this way, MQL
and cryogenic cooling methods during machining may offer a solution to overcome
some drawbacks of the dry machining.
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2.3.3 Minimum quantity lubrication
Due to the negative effects of the flood coolant on environment and human health
and limited material to cut in dry machining, the MQL or near dry machining (NDM)
has shown greater effect in the machining process. In MQL, a combination of high
pressure and oil are transported in the form of an aerosol (mist) to the cutting zone.
Aerosols are generated by atomization process, which is the conversion of a bulk
MWFs into a mist through the nozzle (Astakhov, 2008). Two types of MWF are
typically used for MQL included vegetable oils and synthetic ester (Khan and Dhar,
2006; Suda et al., 2002). The reasons are these two types of MWF have high
biodegradability and less toxic which lead to the environmental compatibility. The
synthetic ester is commonly made from chemically modified vegetable oil has high
boiling temperature and flash point and a low viscosity that promoted a thin
lubrication film on the tool-workpiece interface to reduce friction and heat
generation. Meanwhile, fatty acids alcohol synthesized from long-chained alcohols
are made from natural raw materials or from mineral oils have lower flash point and
high viscosity. The lubricating effects is very moderate, but they have better heat
removal due to evaporation of heat (Weinert et al., 2004).
In recent times, nanofluids such as molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), carbon
nanotube (CNT), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) have been
used in MQL systems. The addition of nanofluid in MQL showed an improvement
on thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficient (Dixit et al., 2012). Zhang et al.
(2015) applied nanofluid containing MoS2 with a diameter of 50 nm in several types
of oil-based (liquid paraffin, palm oil, rapeseed oil, and soybean oil for grinding
process. The grinding performances were compared in terms of cutting force, particle
size, viscosity of nanofluids, and workpiece surface roughness. The experimental
results revealed that the addition of MoS2 in soybean-based oil increased the
nanoparticle concentration and the nanofluid viscosity which corresponded to better
lubricating property. However, the addition of MoS2 more than 6% deteriorated the
grinding performance due to nanoparticle agglomeration that reduced the lubricating
property.
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2.3.4 Cryogenic cooling
During cryogenic cooling, the liquid nitrogen (LN) at 196º is applied to the cutting
zone. Nitrogen is odourless, colourless, non-toxic gas and evaporates into the air,
which there is no MWF used to be disposed. Tazehkandi et al. (2015a) studied the
machining of Inconel 740 using the application of LN and spray mode of
biodegradable vegetable cutting fluid through turning process. The result showed that
use of LN in a combination with spray mode of the cutting fluid and compressed air
was more efficient that the flood mode in terms of cutting force and tool tip
temperature. There was a reduction in the amount of tool wear which prevented the
formation of built-up-edge. Moreover, by employing this method the consumption of
the cutting fluid during turning process can be significantly reduced.
Furthermore Rahim et al. (2016) promoted supercritical carbon dioxide
technique (SCCO2) of coolant in order to replace the usage of LN. They investigated
the cutting temperature, cutting force, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and
specific energy in orthogonal cutting of AISI 1045 using the approach of SCCO2
method of coolant. They revealed that using SCCO2, cutting temperature, cutting
force, chip thickness, tool-chip contact length and specific energy can be decreased
significantly when compared to MQL method. They initiated that the carbon dioxide
is a non-toxic gas and has excellent solubility with vegetable oils above its critical
point (critical temperature = 31.2 °C, critical pressure = 7.38 MPa), much cheaper
and easily availed as compared to LN. The carbon dioxide offers rapid expansion of
supercritical solutions for coating and spraying applications. The SCCO2 produces a
homogenous and finely dispersed spray of dry ice and frozen oil particles at a few
microns in size, thus provides sufficient heat removal and lubrication to the cutting
zone.
It can be seen that, the cryogenic machining is a recommendable alternative
to flood coolant and MQL. However, Deiab et al. (2014) stated that the machining
cost of cryogenic machining is still undoubted and need to be further investigated.
Moreover, overcooling during the cryogenic machining induces to embrittlement of
workpiece and hence increases the cutting force (Chetan et al., 2015).
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2.4 Metal cutting
Metal cutting is the process of removing unwanted material from workpiece to obtain
a part with a certain desired shape and size with high dimensional accuracy and high
quality surface finish. Machining performances are influenced by various machining
parameters as shown in Figure 2.4. It can be divided into five main categories
namely cutting fluid, cutting tool, machine tool, workpiece and machine conditions.
Figure 2.4: Machining parameters
2.4.1 Orthogonal cutting mechanism
Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which cutting edge is
perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed. The orthogonal cutting models are
shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.6. The surface along the chip flows is known as rake face
and the surface ground back to clear the new or machined workpiece surface known
as flank. The tool used in orthogonal cutting only has two elements of geometry
which are rake angle (α) and relief angle or clearance angle (β). The rake angle
determines the direction of chip formation, meanwhile the relief angle is made to
avoid the tool from touching the newly cut workpiece surface as it passes the
workpiece. During the cutting process, there are forces generated between the
workpiece and cutting tool. The depth of the individual layer of material which have
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Figure 2.5: Three dimensional process of orthogonal cutting model (Groover, 2007)
Figure 2.6: Two dimensional side view (Groover, 2007)
been removed by the action of the tool is known as undeformed chip thickness, to
(Groover, 2007).
As shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.6, the cutting tool penetrates into the
workpiece and forces to form the chips that fly along the rake face of the tool. High
pressure and plastic deformation occur in front of the cutting edge where the elastic
limits of workpiece materials are exceeded. The chip deformation is dependent on
the cutting conditions (cutting speed, feed, depth of cut), tool geometry and material
properties. From Figure 2.5, the uncut chip thickness (to) is known as the feed while
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the deformed chip has a different chip thickness (tc). The friction that occurs between
the chip and the tool significantly affects the cutting process. The huge amount of
heat energy produces from this process will be transferred into the workpiece. The
shearing action will takes place along the shear plane when the cutting tool is forced
into the workpiece material. The chip is formed by shear deformation along a thin
shear plan, oriented at shear angle () with the surface of the workpiece as shown in
Figure 2.6. The relationship between shear angle and rake angle is expressed in
Equation 2.1.
Shear angle, (º) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑟𝑎cos𝛼
1−𝑟𝑎sin𝛼) (2.1)
where, ra = Chip thickness ratio, ra = 𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑐
to = Undeformed chip thickness
tc = Deformed chip thickness
α = Rake angle
The optimization of cutting tool geometry, cutting tool material, cutting
speed, rake angle and cutting fluid are needed to reduce or minimize the friction. In
the metal cutting operation, there are three locations of deformation, namely primary
shear zone, secondary shear zone and tertiary shear zone, as shown in Figure 2.7
(Kiliçaslan, 2009).
Primary shear zone (A-B): The chip formation takes place firstly and mainly in this
zone as the edge of the tool penetrates into the work-piece. Material in this zone has
been deformed by a concentrated shearing process.
Secondary shear zone (A-C): The chip and the rake face of the tool are in contact
from A to C. When the frictional stress on the rake face reaches a value that is equal
to the shear yield stress of the work-piece material, material flow also occur on this
zone.
Tertiary shear zone (A-D): When a clearance face of the tool rubs the newly
machined surface deformation can occur on this zone.
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Figure 2.7: Deformation zones in the cutting (Kiliçaslan, 2009)
2.4.2 Cutting force
Cutting forces can be defined as the forces generated by friction in machining. The
generated forces can be used to estimate the lubrication efficiency of the
metalworking fluid. The generated friction is the resisting force of a workpiece
material while it slides over the cutting tool and acts oppositely to the relative motion
(cutting speed, Vc) of the surface. Figure 2.8 shows Merchant’s force diagram which
the forces acts on the chip during orthogonal cutting process. The cutting force (Fc)
is in the direction of cutting which in the same direction as the cutting speed and the
thrust force (Ft) is perpendicular to the cutting force. Both, cutting force and thrust
force can be directly measured through force measuring device called dynamometer
during the machining operation. Meanwhile, the other four forces components;
friction force (F), normal force to friction (N), shear force (Fs) and normal force to
shear (Fn) can be calculated by Equations 2.2 to 2.5 (Groover, 2007);
F = Fc sin + Ft cos (2.2)
N = Fc cos- Ft sin (2.3)
Fs = Fc cos- Ft sin (2.4)
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos (2.5)
The cutting forces were influenced by machining parameters such as feed
rate, depth of cut, cutting speed and types of lubricant used. Rahim and Sasahara
(2011b) reported that the cutting force significantly decreased as the cutting speed
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Figure 2.8: Forces in metal cutting (Groover, 2007)
increased. The reduction of cutting force is due to the reduction of contact area at
tool-chip interfaces which reduces the specific cutting energy. In addition, cutting
force increases with the increase in feed rate. The reason is due to the increased chip
load as the feed has been increased during the cutting process. Thicker chips formed
as the feed rate increases which substantially increases the cutting force.
Moreover, Khan and Dhar (2006) stated that the cutting force significantly
decreased using MQL method using vegetable-based oil. The usage of vegetable oil
beneficially improves the workpiece quality and reduces friction and heat generation.
The vegetable oil’s molecules have high absorption ability due to the long, heavy and
dipolar in nature, create a strong lubrication film. Furthermore, greater molecular
weight of vegetable oil stimulates less loss from vaporization and misting. Liu et al.
(2011) found that the usage of MQL method significantly reduced the cutting force.
The oil’s droplets easily penetrated into the contact zone of the chip-tool-workpiece
interface, led to the friction reduction.
2.4.3 Cutting temperature
There are various methods to measure the cutting temperature under different
conditions and on different types of machines as shown in Figure 2.9 (Longbottom
and Lanham, 2005). The tool-workpiece thermocouple (Figure 2.10) and embedded
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Figure 2.9: Temperature measurement methods
Figure 2.10: Tool-workpiece thermocouple method (Leshock and Shin, 1997)
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Figure 2.11: Embedded thermocouple method (Hadad and Sadeghi, 2013)
Figure 2.12: PVD film method (Shinozuka et al., 2008)
thermocouple (Figure 2.11) are regularly used methods to measure the cutting
temperature. The tools and/or workpieces have to be insulated in order to avoid
short-circuit in the system during using the tool-workpiece thermocouple method.
Here the cutting temperature is associated to the electro motive force (emf) generated
across the hot interface between tool and workpiece. Meanwhile, the embedded
thermocouple is placed in a hole drilled in the tool in the case of turning or in the
workpiece for milling. The holes have to be placed close to the cutting edge at very
precise locations. This method can be used to identify the temperature distribution
within the tool or workpiece but not for determining the surface temperature.
Another approached method is physically vapour deposited (PVD) film (Figure
2.12). The PVD film method requires the workpiece to be cut into two parts and the
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