FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SEMESTER II, ACADEMIC SESSION 2014/2015

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY I

SCT 3013

TITLE: CONTRIBUTION OF ISLAM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

PERFUMES MAKING

NAME : SYAZA SHAHIRAH BINTI HIDZIR 1120658

NUUR SHAHIRAH BINTI MD SAAD 1120657

NUR ASYIQIN BINTI SUHAILI 1120649

NUR FAEZAH BINTI ZALI 1120651

AMIRA ZULAIKHA BINTI ZAKARIA 1120661

NURUL HUSNA ASSAEDAH BINTI BAIN 1120664

NURAIN ZAKIAH BINTI MD HAZIZI 1120668

SITI HAJAR BINTI HADAS@HADIS 1120673

LECTURER: ASSOC. PROF DR. SALINA BINTI MAD RADZI

ii

TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENTS PAGE

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 History of Perfumes Industry 3

2.1 Perfumes during the Islamic Ages 3

2.2 Perfumes during of Venice and the Spread to Europe 4

Chapter 3 Contribution of Islamic Scholars in Perfumes Industry 6

3.1 Distillation Techniques 6

3.2 Introduction of New Raw Material 7

Chapter 4 Development in Techniques of Perfumes Making 10

4.1 Conservative Techniques 10

4.1.1 Technique 1 10

4.1.2 Production Process According to Ancient French Methods 11

4.2 Modern Techniques 13

Chapter 5 Effect of Islam Contribution in Perfumes Making 15

to the Modern World

Chapter 6 Conclusion 16

Chapter 7 References 17

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Fragrance is comparatively strong-smelling organic compounds with characteristic,

usually pleasant odors. Therefore, it is used in perfumes and perfumed products. The

word perfume itself is derived from the Latin word, per fumus which brings the

meaning of through smoke. Perfumery is the words that represent the art of making

perfumes. The introduction of perfumes came from many different regions, time and

perspectives. Some regions and countries which initially introduce the usage of perfume

are Mesopotamia, India, Cyprus, England and America which most of them came from

Western.

Islamic cultures then develop the perfumery from the Western culture into two

significant areas which are the extraction of fragrances through steam distillation and

introducing new raw materials. Muslims improved the perfume production and

continued to use it in daily life and in practicing religion. The industry then developed

the sources of perfume making by using flowers, spices, resins, herbs, precious woods,

herbs and animal fragrance materials. Typically, we can find that many perfumes are

made from floral scent such as roses, blossoms, lavender and jasmines.

Until late nineteenth century, the preparation of perfume or liquid scents was

done by blending the fragrant oils extracted from plants and some ingredients were used

from animal origin. Then, the preparation of perfume was developed into many

techniques but among these techniques, distillation and extraction are the most common

techniques used. In Islamic culture, perfume was used as considered a religious duty. It

shows that Islam concerns about the cleanliness and scents. The prophet Muhammad

said:

The taking of a bath on Friday is compulsory for every male Muslim who has attained

the age of puberty and (also) the cleaning of his teeth with Miswaak (type of twig used

as a toothbrush), and the using of perfume if it is available.

(Recorded in Sahih Bukhari)

2

In 10th

century, many discoveries were made by Muslims scientists such as

Jabir Ibn Hayyan and Al-Kindi. In that period of time, the distillation technique was still

invented and considerably improved. Al-Kindi, however, was the real founder of

perfume industry as he carried out extensive research and experiments in combining

various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products.

Basically, the contribution of Islam in the development of perfume industry

leads to various types of perfume production in our time. However, Islam prohibits the

usage of perfume in some conditions. For an instance, if the women wear perfume with

the aim of letting non-mahram men smell it, this is considered as haram (prohibited). It

was narrated from Abu Moosa that the Prophet Muhammad said:

If a woman puts on perfume and passes by people so that they can smell her fragrance,

then she is such and such, and he spoke sternly, meaning an adulteress.

Narrated by Abu Dawood (4173) and al-Tirmidhi (2786); classed As Saheeh by Ibn

Daqeeq al-Eid in al-Iqtiraah (126) and by Shaykh al-Albaani in Saheeh al-Tirmidhi.

3

CHAPTER 2

HISTORY OF PERFUMES INDUSTRY

Perfume was first used by the Egyptians as part of their religious rituals. The two

principal methods used at this time was the burning of incense and the application of

balms and ointments. Perfumed oils were applied to the skin for either cosmetic or

medicinal purposes. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, perfumes were reserved

exclusively for religious rituals such as cleansing ceremonies. Then, during the New

Kingdom (1580-1085 BC) they were used during festivals and Egyptian women also

used perfumed creams and oils as toiletries and cosmetics and as preludes to love-

making (Lindqvist, 2012).

The use of perfume then spread to Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world. And it

was the Islamic community that kept the use of perfumes since the spread of

Christianity led to a decline in the use of perfume. With the fall of the Roman Empire,

perfume's influence dwindled. It was not until the twelfth century and the development

of international trade that this decline was reversed (Teixeira et al., 2013).

2.1 Perfumes during the Islamic Ages

The history of perfume goes back to Egypt, although it was prevalent in East Asia as

well. Early perfumes were based on incense, not chemicals, so aromas were passed

around through fumes. The Roman and Islamic cultures further refined the harvesting

and manufacturing of perfumery processes to include other aromatic ingredients

(Teixeira et al., 2013).

The extraction of fragrances was perfected through steam distillation. In turn,

the Islamic cultural production of fragrances and distillation technology inspired the

scientific communities of western culture during the fourteenth century, especially in

France, which brought further cultivation of these raw materials and introduced

chemical-based perfume (Minematsu et al., 2013).

4

Modern innovation in the history of perfume can be credited to the West, but the

cultural conceptualization still belonged to Islam according to the hadith that mention

before from the prophet Muhammad

That is why; it is not surprising that Islamic cultures contributed significantly to

this industry (Hanafizadeh et al., 2010; www.the muslimweekly.com, May 30). In

Islamic culture, perfume usage was documented as far back as the 6th century Common

Era (CE). Al-Kindi (c. 801-873 CE - also known as Alkindus in the west), a Muslim

Arab philosopher and scientist, is considered by many as the father of the modern

perfume industry. He is known for his work in isolating alcohol and was the first to

describe the production of pure distilled alcohol from the distillation of wine (Teixeira

et al., 2013).

Al-Kindi invented many different scents by experimentally combining different

plants such as Solanum Jasminoides, Almond blossoms, orchid, Orchideen Zentrum

Celle and other materials in order to produce perfume products. One of his books, the

Kitab Kimiya' al-'Itr (Book of the Chemistry of Perfume) contains recipes for fragrant

oils, salves and aromatic perfume water. The process of distilling in order to extract

essential oils and fragrances was perfected by the Persian physician, philosopher and

alchemist (sometimes referred to as an Arabian), Avicenna, around the 11th century CE

(Hanafizadeh et al., 2010).

2.2 Perfumes during of Venice and the Spread to Europe

Venice was an important center for trade between the west and the east, and became the

main channel through which the raw materials for incense and perfume reached Europe

(Wright, 1985). It continued to play a primary role in the industry, within Europe, for a

few hundred years (Teixeira et al., 2013).

While distillation was already known in the 11th century (from the Islamic

world), many European scientists became fascinated with the process around the 13th

and 14th century. They were determined to separate the 'essential ' from the 'non-

essential' parts of a compound.

The perfume industry around this time (approximately 1300 CE) benefited as a

result of all this activity, and the fragrance production center of Grasse, in the south of

France, began to develop. During this period the Black Plague, dated from 1347 CE to

1351 CE, began to take its toll (Teixeira et al., 2013). The various crusades that stirred

5

Europe (11th century to the end of the 13th century) lured European knights into the

Holy Land, resulting in the interesting additional consequence of stimulating the

perfume industries of Europe (Wright, 1985).

In 1370 the first alcohol-based perfume was created for Queen Elizabeth of

Hungary who was known for her famous toilet water - also referred to as Hungary

Water. The primary ingredient of this toilet water, it was claimed, was rosemary. Some

have argued that this was the secret to Queen Elizabeth's beautiful skin, which she

retained into old age (Wright, 1985).

The importance of perfumers grew together with the extravagance of their rich

and noble consumers. Most productions, however, came to a halt when the French

revolution occurred. The attack on the aristocracy, and the strong association of

perfume with that class, led many manufactures to cease their work. The industry re-

emerged with the rise of Napoleon, who was happy to adopt many of the habits of the

old aristocracy. Some of the companies that developed during this time still exist today

(Minematsu et al., 2013).

In the early 1800s, perfumers started to use a much higher degree of alcohol in

an effort to maximize the process of making perfume. Another major step, which

dramatically affected the perfume industry, was the first attempt to reproduce

synthetically the scent of some fruits and plants. These innovations enabled the creation

of modern day perfumes (Teixeira et al., 2013).

Today, the world history of perfume came to a head. France is still the perfume

center of modern-day Europe, which trades with the United States. Perfumery is now a

world conglomeration and serves as a major division of the world fashion industry. The

history of perfume is now globally involved (Hanafizadeh et al., 2010).

6

CHAPTER 3

CONTRIBUTION OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS IN PERFUMES INDUSTRY

Over the centuries, people have enjoyed perfume from various kind of fragrance. This is

the result of hard work of two talented chemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan was born in 722 and

al-Kindi was born in 801 who helped lay the foundations and established the perfume

industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and

filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be

collected in the form of water or oil.

While, Al-Kindi was the real founder of the perfume industry as he carried out

extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to

produce a variety of scented products. A vast number of recipes for a wide range of

perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals had been elaborated by Al-Kindi . A witness

who was reported on his work in the laboratory said `I received the following

description, or recipe, from Abu Yusuf Yaqub b. Ishaq al-Kindi, and I saw him making

it and giving it an addition in my presence. The writer goes on in the same section to

speak of the preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and

other ingredients which reveals a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus.

Musk and floral perfumes were then brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th

centuries from Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning

Crusaders. Those who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices

and dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London which go back to

1179 and their activities include trade in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes.

3.1 Distillation Techniques

Distillation can be defined as the process of separating liquids through differences in

their boiling points and was invented around the year 800 by Islam's foremost scientist,

Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He was transformed alchemy into chemistry and already invented

many basic processes and apparatus that are still in use today such as liquefaction,

crystallisation, distillation, purification, oxidisation, evaporation and filtration.

7

As well as discovering sulphuric and nitric acid, he also had invented the

alembic still, giving the world intense rosewater and other perfumes and alcoholic

spirits even though drinking them is haram and forbidden in Islam. Ibn Hayyan

emphasised systematic experimentation and was the founder of modern chemistry.

Figure 1: Arabic manuscript held in the British Library showing the distillation

process in a treatise of chemistry. The British Library, London.

According to Jabir Ibn Hayyan, the process of distillation of perfumes occur

when plant material is placed in boiling water and then the essential oil containing the

fragrance will evaporate with the steam. The steam is then condensed back into water,

where the oil floats on top and can be collected. The process may be repeated to obtain

even purer oil. Late in the nineteenth century the process was much improved with

steam distillation, under which the steam was condensed in narrow pipes passing

through cold water.

3.2 Introduction of New Raw Materials

In the early middle Ages, a major step in the history of perfume has occurred. This

happened when the Arabs has developed a technique due to the development of the

large-scale distillation of plants. It is found that the wide areas of Persia were put to

growing the roses in order to get the rose oil. Hence, Baghdad of the Arabian Nights

tales became a city of fragrances. Figure 3.1 shows an example of product available in

the market nowadays which is using the rose oil.

8

Figure 3.1 Example of perfume product using rose oil

Source: www.potterybarn.com

Besides that, musk was found to be the new powerful scent materials. It was

even mixed into the mortar, which then was used to build new mosques and palaces.

This was done due to the purpose of making them scented. Later, the Muslims also

improved its production and continued to use perfumes in daily life and in practicing

religion. This happened with the rise of Islam. The Muslims used musk, roses and

amber, among other materials. Musk and amber which were used in the making of oil

fragrances and candles are shown in the Figure 3.2 below.

Figure 3.2 White musk and amber used for the making of oil and candle

Source: http://www.candle-shack.co.uk/white-musk-amber-fragrance-oil/

In addition to that, it was mentioned in the Islamic culture that the usage of

perfumes has been documented as far back as the 6th

century and its usage is considered

as a religious duty. Until late in the nineteenth century, almost entirely the preparation

of liquid scents was a matter of blending fragrant oils extracted from plants. However, a

few ingredients from animal origin were also used as well.

9

It is surprising how many different parts of a plant can produce fragrance as

most people will think of plant fragrances as the scent of flowers. Also being called as

essence, an essential oil is obtained from flowers, buds, leaves, stems, wood, fruit,

seeds, bark, gum and rhizomes. Moreover, the whole of a plant contains fragrances in

some cases besides different essences can be conjured out of different parts of the same

plant.

The bitter (or Seville) orange tree, for example, provides both neroli and, by

another process, orange-flower oil from its flowers, together with oil of bigarade from

the fruit peel and oil of petitgrain from the leaves, twigs, and small, unripe fruits; all of

these oils have a different fragrance and are used in perfumery. Among flowers, those

with the thickest petals contain the most oil and, with the exception of the rose, white

flowers generally tend to be the most fragrant.

10

CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPMENT IN TECHNIQUES OF PERFUMES MAKING

There are some differences in making perfume by using traditional techniques and

modern techniques which are ancient world used oils as the carrier medium for perfume

while in modern perfume making, an alcohol is usually the carrier medium, with

essential oils added for fragrance combined with fixatives, coloring agents and

preservatives.

4.1 Conservative Techniques

Perfume-making is a labor-intensive process, requiring great talent, skill and patience. It

can take over two weeks to make a small batch of a single perfume.

Before the mid-19th-century, when the first synthetic perfume chemicals were

introduced, natural essential oils, absolutes and tinctures were the basis of the

perfumer's art. Today the perfume industry relies mainly on synthetic chemicals; natural

essential oils and absolutes are used only in small quantities to add richness, depth and

class to the fragrance. So creating perfumes only from natural eo's and absolutes is a

great privilege.

It also means that by using only natural eo's and absolutes, we are working with

materials rich with their own depth, beauty, character and class. Commercial perfumers

often combine hundreds of synthetic chemicals in precision-measured amounts to get

the effect they want. The simple perfumes we make, on the other hand, get their unique

appeal from the natural complexity of the oils and absolutes we use.

4.1.1 Technique 1

From twenty-five to three-hundred and fifty pounds of flower petals are

collected and placed inside a deg. The choosing of flower is very important to have a

nice fragrance of perfume. From the deg, a long bamboo pipe leads downward to a

copper recepticle that contains sandalwood oil. Water is added to the deg, and the lid is

sealed down with a mixture of cotton and clay.

11

The deg sits over a fire and contains no modern gauges or thermostats. As the

steam collects, it condenses and flows into the receiving vessel.

The fire must be constantly monitored to keep the correct temperature. Too

much heat will burn the flowers. It will also create too much pressure which can

explode the clay seal around the deg. The low heat and pressure preserves the fragile

fragrance oils better than the hotter steam distillation method used to obtain essential

oils.

The receiving vessel sits in a pool of water and is continually rotated by hand to

blend the oils and keep them from overheating. Throughout the day, the master distiller

monitors the deg and receiving vessel by feeling them with his hands and listening to

the sounds from inside. When necessary, wet towels are rubbed over the vessels to cool

them down.

At the end of the day, the distillation is stopped. Overnight, as the oil cools

down, the water separates from it. In the morning, the water is poured off from the oil

and put back into the still. Freshly picked flowers are added, and the process begins

anew. This process will be repeated for fifteen to twenty days, until the sandalwood oil

is completely saturated with the fragrant oil of the flowers and this is the perfume that

already complete all the process (Payam, 2010)

4.1.2 Production Process According to Ancient French Methods

1. The first step of the production : STEAM DISTILLATION

Through distillation, we extract the essence of a flower. This must be done quite

soon after the picking up of the flowers when they are still fresh. Here is a drawing of

how distillation with an alembic works:

Figure 4.1: Alembic work

12

Along with essential oils extraction, alembic also allows the recuperation of

distilled water. Only distilled rose water and orange flowers are used. It takes a huge

quantity of flowers to obtain a tiny amount of oil:

600 kg lavender for 1 mere kilo of lavender oil

4000 kg of rose for 1 kg of rose oil

7 kg of dried clove buds for 1 kg of clove oil

2. Enfleurage (cold and warm)

This is a very expensive process used for fragile flowers such as jasmine,

tuberose or daffodil. Due to its high cost, it has been replaced by another technique

called solvent extraction. Nowadays, only artisan perfumers endeavor to keep this

traditional process but with a low yield and a lengthy duration, it is not commercially

viable.

Cold enfleurage consists of using refined lard, spread on both sides of the glass

of a frame (chassis) on which petals of flowers are placed and left for anything between

48 hours and 1 week. The scent of the petals discharges into the lard and they are

regularly replaced by fresh ones. The process can last for several weeks and is very

delicate. 1 kg of lard can absorb about 3 kg of flowers scent. Once the scent has

impregnated, the lard is collected with a spoon and slowly melted then decanted in ethyl

alcohol. The lard is introduced in a centrifuge with alcohol, dissolving the odor

molecules. The blend is then cooled down to get rid of the scented lard through

filtration. This costly technique has been abandoned in Grasse in the 1930s.

Warm enfleurage is a very ancient Egyptian method where lard was being

melted in a big pan through the bain-marie process (double boiler) in which fresh

flowers were added. This was blended for 2 hours. The next day, the old flowers were

removed with a flat sieve and replaced with fresh flowers. This process was repeated at

least 10 times. When the lard could not absorb the scent of the flowers any longer,

filtration was done to separate the lard from the flowers. The result was a scented paste

called pommade which was then processed in the same way as cold

effleurage. Flowers such as Rose Centifolia, violet, orange flowers and cassia were

dealt with in this way.

13

3. Cold expression

This process is used for citrus fruit such as lemon, bergamot and mandarin consists of

pressing the fruit peel to obtain the essential oil. Traditionally, the peel was pressed to

burst out the layers containing the essential oil through scraping them on metallic picks.

Later on, a new process called through sponge was developed whereas the peel was

pressed several times on a set of natural sponges attached to a clay pan. The expression

was done through a rotating movement of the hand. The expressed blend was collected

by squeezing the sponges and then decanted to separate the essential oil from the

aqueous phase which also contained wastes from the laceration of the layers of the peel.

4.2 Modern Technique in Perfume Making

In modern world, five techniques of extraction had been used in order to get an essential

oils or perfume making which are steam distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage,

maceration, and expression. Then, the materials will be blending to get long lasting

perfume.

Extraction

Oils are extracted from plant substances by several methods which are steam

distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression. In steam

distillation, steam is passed through plant material held in a still, whereby the essential

oil turns to gas. This gas is then passed through tubes, cooled, and liquefied. Oils can

also be extracted by boiling plant substances like flower petals in water instead of

steaming them. Furthermore, in solvent extraction, flowers are put into large rotating

tanks or drums and benzene or petroleum ether is poured over the flowers to extract the

essential oils. The flower parts then dissolve in the solvents and leave a waxy material

that contains the oil, which is then placed in ethyl alcohol. The oil dissolves in the

alcohol and rises.

For this step, heat is used to evaporate the alcohol, which once fully burned off

will leave a higher concentration of the perfume oil on the bottom.

During enfleurage, flowers are spread on glass sheets coated with grease. The glass

sheets are placed between wooden frames in tiers. Then the flowers are removed by

hand and changed until the grease has absorbed their fragrance. Maceration is similar to

enfleurage except that warmed fats are used to soak up the flower smell. As in solvent

extraction, the grease and fats are dissolved in alcohol to obtain the essential oils.

14

The last technique is expression where it is the oldest and least complex method

of extraction. By this process, now used in obtaining citrus oils from the rind, the fruit

or plant is manually or mechanically pressed until all the oil is squeezed out. Figure 4.2

below shows on how oils are extracted from plant substances by steam distillation,

solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, or expression.

Figure 4.2: How oils are extracted from plant substances

Blending

Once the perfume oils are collected, they are ready to be blended together according to a

formula determined and it is mixed with alcohol. The amount of alcohol in a scent can

vary greatly. Most full perfumes are made of about 10-20% perfume oils dissolved in

alcohol and a trace of water. Colognes contain approximately 3-5% oil diluted in 80-

90% alcohol, with water making up about 10%. Toilet water has the least amount2%

oil in 60-80% alcohol and 20% water. However, there also a perfume with alcohol-free

that had been manufactured because of Muslim is prohibited from using perfume that

contain an alcohol.

\

15

CHAPTER 5

EFFECTS OF ISLAM CONTRIBUTION IN PERFUMES MAKING TO THE

MODERN WORLD

Islamic cultures contributed significantly to the development of the modern world

perfumery in two significant areas which is perfecting the extraction of fragrances

through steam distillation and introducing new raw materials.

In the Middle East, Arabs preserved the production of perfumes. They use musk,

roses and amber. As traders, Islamic cultures such as the Arabs and Persians had wider

access to a wide array of spices, resins, herbs, precious woods, herbs and animal

fragrance materials such as ambergris and musk. Besides that, many of the flowers and

herbs used in perfumery were cultivated by the Muslims such as rose and jasmine. They

continued used perfumes in daily life and in practicing religion.

Arabian chemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Al-Kindi who established the perfume

industry. They helped developed many techniques such as distillation, evaporation and

filtration which enabled the collection of the odor of plants into vapor that could be

collected in the form of water or oil (Levey, 1973).

However, Al-Kindi was the real founder of perfume industry. He carried out

extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to

produce a variety of scent products. He also wrote in the 9th

century a book on perfumes

which named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations. It contained more

than a hundred recipes for fragnant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or

imitations of costly drugs. The book also described one hundred and seven methods and

recipes for perfume making and even the perfume making equipment like the alembic

(Hassani et al., 2006).

Perfume arrived to European courts through Al- Andalus in the west and with

the crusaders in the east. Floral perfumes were brought to Europe from Arabia through

trade with the Islamic world. Knowledge of something perfumery came to Europe due

to Arabic influences and knowledge. In a conclusion, I can said that, from the Islamic

cultures have helped developed the western perfumery now and also from trade that

were made had helped preach of Islam itself.

16

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

Let us remember our great and glorious heritage by briefly surveying what Islam has

already contributed to the world's civilization, education, culture and to scientific

development. Perfumes industry was one of the highlighted contributions from Muslim

scholars to the world today. The development of the perfumes industry was basically

initiated from the great Alchemist Al-Kindi and Jabir Ibn Hayyan once before.

Perfumes today are widely used all over the world and the manufacture

processes to produce it are different way than previous centuries. Contributions from

Islamic Cultures helped in the development of perfecting fragrances from steam

distillation and the introduction of raw ingredients. Both ingredients significantly

influenced the western perfumery developments in particularly chemistry. The

chemistry knowledge is a very important procedure into the making of perfume due to

careful mixing of chemicals.

During the golden ages of Islam, Spain under the Islamic rule were advances in

industry and perfumes industry is the one of it advancement findings. As stated before,

perfumes were already cultured in Islam world due to encouragement from the prophet

Muhammad SAW and its new development on process making by Muslim scholar was

a big step of an improvement.

17

CHAPTER 7

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