UNIT 61869-1900

Forging an Industrial Society

Forging an Industrial Society

America went from a rural society beginning of the Civil War to urbanizing, industrial one by the end of the century

Economic and technological change allowed a whole new civilization to emerge

The last part of the 1800’s saw the rise of industry and industrial giants

American movement to urban areas brought into question the spirit of individualism, but also expansion and closure onto the Western frontier

Reformers ushered in an age of more active governmental affairs on the social and business fronts

Economic change brought political and social turmoil and allowed for the expansion of labor unions

Disputes over monetary policies divided industrialists and farmers and gave rise to the Populist party

The South remained untouched by this prosperity and African Americans became victims of institutionalized racism

As the century ended Americans were again gripped by expansionism and people questioned American’s role on the world stage

CHAPTER 23

Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

I. The Bloody Shirt Elects Grant

Civil War brought government corruption and many Americans were disillusioned

Politics during the last 30 years of the century were corrupt at best

1868 US Grant elected president Grant’s victory could be attributed to

former slaves voting him into office, also the memories of his war exploits (waving the bloody shirt)

First many money issues came up during this election; eastern wealth focused on gold standard vs. Midwestern farmers who wanted to stay with system of greenbacks (money backed by faith and credit of US)

Farmers wanted to keep more money in circulation and keep interest rates low

II. The Era of Good Stealings

Postwar political atmosphere was full of political corruption

Jay Gould and Jim Fisk and their plot to corner the gold market was an example of the time

Tweed Ring in NYC- Boss Tweed leader gained favor of immigrants by making promises, providing services to them in return for support

Once in office he stole, bribed and fleeced the city for over $200 million (cartoons of Thomas Nast brought public attention and put him behind bars (1871)

III. A Carnival of Corruption

Misdeeds of federal governmentGrant’s cabinet was full of crooks1872 Credit Mobilier Scandal Union Pacific RR

formed Credit Mobilier Construction to build railroads and hired themselves at inflated prices

Gave stock to key Congressmen to cover up investigation, even paid off VP

1874-1875 Whiskey Ring robbed treasury of millions in excise tax revenue

1876 Sec. of War had to resign after pocketing bribes from suppliers to Indian reservations

IV. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872

Reformers tired of corruption formed Liberal Republican Party in 1872

Nominated editor of New York Tribune, Horace Greely

Democrats endorse Greely and his views on national unity

Election 1872 between Grant and Greely a choice of the lesser of two evils and Grant won

V. Depression, Deflation and Inflation

1873 Economic Panic Over production, expansion caused loans to go

unpaid Riots in NYC, black Americans and business

hardest hit (less stable footing) Call for “greenbacks”, not money based on gold

standard to pay back debt easier (greenbacks could be traded for gold)

Hard money people wanted to get rid of currency, removing it from circulation would make the value higher not lower (create scarcity)

Soft Money advocates wanted more money in circulation, it would cause higher prices, more profit and make debt easier to pay

Hard money won out, Grant refused to print more money

V. Depression, Deflation and Inflation

Debtors looked to silver as a substitute for greenbacks and gold

Silver undervalued by US government (16:1), higher prices on open market so miners did not sell to US government

1873 Congress formally drops making silver coins New discoveries in the same year, production up and mining

interests and debtors called end of production “Crime of ’73” Demand for more silver scheme to promote inflation Grant has government buy more gold and reduce

greenbacks, policy of contraction worsened panic 1874- Result of money policy led to Democrats regaining

control of Congress 1878 limited production of silver coinage (Bland-Alison Act)

VI. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

Political balance switched back and forth during this period, no president won popular vote during this period

Voter turnout was high and few significant economic issues separated the parties

Political affiliation came from ethnic and cultural differences

Lifeblood of both parties was political patronage, federal jobs (civil service) in exchange for votes, kickbacks in exchange for votes

1870’s Republicans split into two camps Stalwarts (led by Roscoe Conkling) and Half Breeds (led by James Blaine)

Stalwarts embraced system of exchanging votes for jobs, Half Breeds toyed with idea of civil service reform

Republicans vs. Democrats

Northern ProtestantAfrican AmericansSupported nativitist

causesSupported prohibitionPro-business

Southern whitesImmigrantsCatholicsJewsFreethinkersFarmers

Role of Government During Gilded Age

From 1870-1900 Govt. did very little domestically.

Main duties of the federal govt.: Deliver the mail. Maintain a national military. Collect taxes & tariffs. Conduct a foreign policy. Administer the annual Civil War veterans’

pension. Americans expected little support from federal

government most was local and state support Party bosses ruled. Congress most powerful branch of government

during this period Presidents should avoid offending any factions

within their own party. The President just doled out federal jobs.

Roscoe ConklingUS Senator

aka Lord Conkling

VII. Hayes-Tilden Standoff and Compromise (1876-1877)

1876 Grant does not run, Republicans pick Rutherford Hayes as compromise (from electoral rich Ohio)

Democrats pick Samuel J. Tilden (NY), man who bagged Boss Tweed

Tilden wins popular vote, disputed electoral votes in SC, LA, FL- no official winner as inauguration approached

Compromise of 1877 settled dispute

Hayes would take office in exchange for federal troops leaving the south

Republicans promised political patronage to Dems. and to subsidize construction of southern RR

VII. Hayes-Tilden Standoff and Compromise (1876-1877)

Compromise brought end to Reconstruction, also sacrificed A-A’S in South

Civil Rights Act of 1875 last major legislation by radicals in Congress (guaranteed equal accommodations in public places)

Declared unconstitutional 1883, ruling stated only government, not individuals, were subject to 14th Amendment

When troops left Republican regimes across South fell apart

VIII. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South

White Redeemers using fraud, intimidation and playing on racial fears retook power

Blacks who tried to assert their rights faced discrimination at every turn

Many blacks and poor whites were forced into tenant farming (crop-lien system) and remained perpetually in debt

What began as informal separation of the races in 1870’s became systematic across the south within 20 years

Legal codes that became known as Jim Crow laws

VIII. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South

Jim Crow laws: Literacy requirements and poll taxes

ensure disenfranchisement of South’s black population

1896 Supreme Court validates South’s social order with Plessey vs. Ferguson ruled “separate but equal” was constitutional under 14th Amendment

Created inferior schools, separated most public facilities, made blacks second class citizens

Blacks that tried to stand up for themselves were dealt with harshly, indicated by record number of lynching's

Would be nearly a century before these problems were addressed

IX. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

1877 Ended age of regional warfare and opened age of racial and class warfare

Byproduct of economic depression following Panic in 1873 RR workers wages cut and workers struck back Work stoppages across nation and Hayes sent in troops to quell

unrest (hundreds killed) Failure of strike showed weakness and first stirrings of labor

movement Racial and ethnic tension fractured unity

IX. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

Tension high in California between Chinese and Irish

Many Chinese came to work in goldfields and RR’s

Irish (Kearneyites) resented competition of cheap Chinese labor , terrorized Chinese

1882 Congress cuts off further immigration from China until 1943

1896 and 1898 victory for Chinese in Yik Wo vs. Hopkins, US vs. Wong Kim protected them in employment and citizenship (guaranteed by 14th Amendment)

Wong Kim case protected other immigrant groups as well

X. Garfield and Arthur

1880 presidential campaign Republicans nominate James Garfield and Stalwart running mate Chester A. Arthur, they win election

Garfield was assassinated by disgruntled office seeker Charles Guiteau

Outcome of death was that it led to call for reforming spoils system

Arthur was thought to be a man in favor of the spoils system but he shut out many of his Stalwart pals and advocated for reform

X. Garfield and Arthur

1883 Pendleton Act passed – established a Civil Service Commission that made appointment to federal jobs based on examination rather than influence and political favor

Banned practice of compulsory campaign donations from federal employees

Politicians had to find money elsewhere and they turned to the big corporations; they supported big business with legislation, they were rewarded with money

XI. Blaine- Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

1884- Blaine (leader of Half- breeds) nominated , Democrats nominate Grover Cleveland

Cleveland had been reformer mayor of Buffalo, NY and Governor of NY

Reformers called Mugwumps Reform to them, create a disinterested,

impartial govt. run by an educated elite like themselves.

Social Darwinists Laissez faire government to them: Favoritism & the spoils system seen as

govt. intervention in society. Their target was political corruption,

not social or economic reform Campaign 1884 one of the dirtiest in

American history with accusations and partisan fervor (turned many off to voting)

XII. Old Grover Takes Over

The “Veto Governor” from New York. First Democratic elected since 1856. A public office is a public trust His laissez-faire presidency: Opposed bills to assist the poor as

well as the rich. Vetoed over 200 special pension bills

for Civil War veterans Biggest political issue was the tariff America had profited from protection and the Treasury

had a huge surplus ($145 million) 1887 Cleveland brings up tariff issue and this becomes a

major issue in the next presidential election 1888 Cleveland voted out of office and Republican

Benjamin Harrison takes over

XIII. The Billion Dollar Congress

Republicans couldn’t wait to take office, Democrats planned to thwart all House business

Republicans in Congress passed first billion dollar budget and depleted treasury

Gave out more pensions to Civil War veterans, increased government purchases of silver, passed higher tariff

Tariff caused farmers more problems selling goods on the unprotected world markets, protected goods were very profitable for American industry

Rural voters turned out in 1890 Congressional elections and Republicans fell out of power

XII. Cleveland, Depression and Backlash

Democrats and Cleveland retake presidency 1892

1893 financial panic and depression hit American economy

Over speculation, overbuilding, depressed agricultural prices, labor unrest all contributed

Free silver agitation hurt American credit abroad and European banks called in loans

Federal government laissez faire policies did not help American people

Cleveland had to deal with deficit left behind by Harrison

Gold reserve in the Treasury fell and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was repealed

US was in danger of going off gold standard and having currency become unreliable

XII. Cleveland, Depression and Backlash

1895 Cleveland turns to financier J.P. Morgan and Wall Street to lend government $65 million worth of gold

Created a backlash that seemed like government was in bed with big business

Democrats tried to lower tariffs to make economy more competitive abroad and they passed a small income tax (later struck down by Supreme Court)

Disallowing income tax seemed like more proof that government was a tool of big business

XIV. The Drumbeat of Discontent

1892 Populist Party first appeared It was a coalition of frustrated farmers in the south and west that

denounced government injustice They met in Omaha to announce their support for the following1. System of “sub-treasuries.”2. Abolition of the National Bank.3. Direct election of Senators.4. Govt. ownership of RRs, telephone & telegraph companies.5. Government-operated postal savings banks.6. Restriction of undesirable immigration.7. 8-hour work day for government employees.8. Abolition of the Pinkerton detective agency.9. Australian secret ballot.10.Re-monitization of silver.11.A single term for President & Vice President

XIV. The Drumbeat of Discontent

1892 Nationwide strikes, Homestead Steel strike Workers rights seen as trampled on Populists see possibility of farmers and workers joining together Populists run James Weaver for president and win over 1 million votes The populists did not get the support from the industrial workers in the

north and the farmers in the south In the south the political elite played on racial fears to keep Populist

support down Caused Southern states to aggressively disenfranchise A-A voters (literacy

tests and using the “grandfather clause”), 50 years before blacks would vote in heavy numbers again

Chapter 24Industry Comes of Age

1865-1900

I. Iron Colt Becomes the Iron Horse

Many lured away from politics to business

America lost civic leadership in late 19th century

US move to industrialization caused transformation in everyday lives of Americans, growth of railroad leads the way

Prime example of government and business entanglements was the RR industry

RR building expensive and needed government money

Arguments used- to populate country, postal needs and military needs

Federal government gave land grants to RR, all land given to them was not open to public until they decided what they wanted to do with it

I. Iron Colt Becomes the Iron Horse

1887 Cleveland opens up unclaimed land to the public Government received benefits of using RR for military and

mail Granting land was way to subsidize RR construction

without taxes or cash RR used land as collateral for loans, and to make money

selling it (land had little value until RR ) Many frontier outposts competed for RR, those that won

bidding flourished

II. Spanning the Continent with Rails

1862- Congress passes provisions to allow for transcontinental RR, to bind east and west

Construction begins after war

1869- Union Pacific from the east, Central Pacific from the West meet in Ogden, Utah

Allowed goods to travel across country for first time, opened trade with Asia, allowed for opening of growth of West

III. Binding the Country With Railroad Ties

Four other Transcontinental lines completed by 1900All except Great Northern received federal land grants

III. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

Many western lines were expansion of older eastern lines

Major player behind this was Cornelius Vanderbilt, offered superior railway service at lower rates

Technology and standardization effected RR industry

Steel, not iron railsAir brakesStandard gauge track widthPullman cars

IV. Revolution on the Railways

RR changed many parts of American life Country united in a physical sense Created domestic market for consumer goods and raw

materials, spurred industrialization Opened up new markets and sources for raw materials Allowed cities to grow Immigrants came to regions advertised in Europe

Environmental Impact: Destruction of tall grass prairie, “industrialized” land into square grain plots, cattle displaced buffalo, forests cut and transported to growing cities

Time was “industrialized” with establishment of standardized time zones to keep train running on schedule

Made millionaires of men (new RR aristocracy), became an investment opportunity for those on Wall Street

V. Wrongdoing in Railroading

Corruption allowed fortunes to grow Credit Mobilier, land speculation, boom and

bust of RR stock Stock watering favorite get rich quick scheme Inflated value of lines assets and profitability,

sold overvalued stocks to investors Forced RR to charge higher rates to provide

return on investments Railroaders bought and sold public officials to

gain favor Control of RR by few allowed monopoly to grow Competition between RR grew into cooperation,

used the “pool” method to divide business in given area and split the profits

Some granted special rates to some shippers for steady money and traffic

Charged more for short haul than long haul These actions were done with little regard to

the American consumer

VI. Government Bridles the Iron Horse

Farmers resented RR plutocracy because of high rates

Government slow to respond to economic injustice, counter to American ideal of free enterprise, competition and government interference in business

Depression of 1870’s hit farmers hard and felt RR rates were part of the problem

Agrarian groups like the Grange formed to lobby for farmers and use state legislative action to regulate the RR monopoly

VI. Government Bridles the Iron Horse

States had some successes in the Midwest (Grange Laws) but Supreme Court put an end to all of it

1886 Wabash vs. Illinois decided that states had no authority to regulate interstate commerce, only the federal government

1887 Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Act Prohibited rebates and pools RR had to publish rates openly Forbid discrimination against shippers, rates for short and long

haul Set up Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to enforce,

regulate new legislation Act provided a way for business interests to resolve their

differences in the open, country could avoid rate wars and action by state legislatures

ICC stabilized business in America First large scale attempt to regulate business in the interest

of society at large, demonstrated that government would protect public interest

VII. Miracles of Mechanization

After the war America steadily grew to be the world leader in Industrial production

Why?A. Natural resources- coal, timber, many navigable rivers, in 1859 oil

was discovered - new source of inexpensive energyB.Workforce growth- Immigrants pushed from their homeland

pulled by the opportunity that America offered. Mechanization of agriculture pushed many farmers to the new, growing cities to find work. Provided new industry a huge workforce

C. Capitalism- liquid capital became more available after the war, system of free enterprise allowed entrepreneurs to fuel industrial growth, established factories, created jobs, attracted foreign investment

D.Government Policies- encouraged growth of business. Provided railroads millions of acres of land to link the country. Passed protective tariffs, encouraged laissez- faire policies Strong legal system and private property rights encouraged investment and growth

E. Technological Innovation- capitalism encouraged innovation and efficiency, brought women into the workplace, established a communication network, changed the daily lives of Americans

VIII. The Trust Titan Emerges

New ways of doing business emerged that concentrated capital and allowed for more efficient control of industry

Corporation people share ownership through stock ownership, created huge pool of capital to invest in the business, run different factories

Corporations worked to maximize profits, tried to pay workers as little as possible, pay low prices for raw materials.

Monopolies were formed to gain complete control of a product or service charge low fares to put others out of business,

Others tried to eliminate competition by forming cartels to keep prices artificially high

More efficient ways of doing business and organizing their companies

Two new methods: Horizontal Integration- consolidating many firms into one

business (Standard Oil and refineries) Vertical Integration- gaining control of the many different

businesses that make up all parts of a products development (Carnegie Steel)

Vertical and Horizontal Integration

Capitan’s of Industry

Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan, Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck were men skilled in organizing and promoting big business.

A.Rockefeller, Carnegie were known for their innovations in organization

B.J.P. Morgan developed investment bankingC.Sears and Roebuck were the pioneers of mail

order retailing

IX. The Supremacy of Steel and Andrew Carnegie

Steel was a scarce expensive commodity before the Civil War, after the war with the perfection of the Bessemer Process steel became inexpensive and fueled industrial and economic expansion in the US

By 1900 the US produced 1/3 of the worlds steel

America was one of the few places in the world where the raw materials needed for steel production were found close together (coal, iron ore, abundant labor supply)

IX. The Supremacy of Steel and Andrew Carnegie

Master of steel industry was Andrew Carnegie Born in Scotland to a poor family experienced a rise from

rags to riches During the Civil War developed a military telegraph

system After the war- built railroad bridges, steelmaking and

investments 1873 Carnegie began to concentrate on steel Not a technical expert but a salesman, promoter and

organizer Hired men of ability to run business and used the most up

to date machinery Bought out struggling companies and had a philosophy of

continual innovation Stood out as a thinker and publicized a philosophy for big

business, “ The Gospel of Wealth” (1889) When he retired at 65 devoted himself to giving away his

fortune for the public good. Gave money to universities, libraries, parks, churches, public buildings

John D. Rockefeller

Obsessed with order, precision, tidiness he decided to bring order to the oil industry

Recognized the potential for profits in the oil industry

1870-Standard Oil of Ohio, began to buy out other refiners, in less than six weeks he controlled 90% of all oil refining in the United States

Began to purchase all aspects of production barrels, pipelines, tank cars, oil storage facilities and he made deals with railroads to ship his products cheaply

Established a trust to make business more efficient, centralize control of the business, established the idea of a holding company (controlling the majority of stock of many different companies)

End of his life Rockefeller gave most of his fortune away, gave away more than $500 m.

J.P. Morgan

Born to a wealthy family Used his connections to bring capital

from Europe to the United States to invest in businesses

Purchased stock and bonds wholesale and sold them for a profit- beginning of investment banking

Morgan began to consolidate these companies into trusts

By the 1890’s he was in charge of one sixth of the nations railroads

Morgan believed that control brought stability to the economy

1901 Morgan purchased Carnegie’s steel and iron holdings

Created the first billion dollar corporation in the United States (US Steel)

Sears and Roebuck

Many new products in the later 1800’s needed markets.

How did retailers reach the millions of people that lived in small towns and isolated farms?

1890’s two Chicago entrepreneurs Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck began offering goods by mail.

They purchased goods in high volume from wholesalers and sold it at prices lower than the local rural stores

Development of free rural mail delivery in 1898 meant that rural Americans could purchase goods, before were expensive or only available to city dwellers

The new business helped create a truly national market

X. The Gospel of Wealth and Social Darwinism

Industrialists credited heavenly help for success

Carnegie said wealthy entrusted with riches of society, they must be morally responsible according to Gospel of Wealth

Wealthy trustees of poor Many business leaders followed idea of

Social Darwinism, survival of the fittest theories (business and race)

Questioned what do social classes owe each other?

Involved contempt for the poor Industrial plutocracy took its stand based

on the Constitution Lawyers stood behind 14th Amendment,

corporation was a legal entity and had same protections as individuals when it came to protection of rights

Many business incorporated in easy states like where restrictions were mild or nonexistent

XI. Government Tackles the Trust Evil

Masses begin to mobilize against the monopoliesState legislation did not work1890- Congress passes the Sherman Anti-

Trust ActForbid monopolies that restrained trade (bigness

was the sin)Law was ineffective and hard to enforce,

actually used against labor unions to curb their activities

Early step to government control of the business sector

Robber Barons or Captains of Industry?

Captains of IndustryCaptains of Industry Business leaders served

nation positively Provided jobs Technology, innovation

helped American economy, allowed America to become an international leader

Many were important philanthropists

Robber BaronsRobber Barons Americans felt that cartels,

trusts, monopolies gave businessmen unfair advantage

Consumers and workers were harmed by these business practices

XII. The South in the Age of Industry

Industrial expansion did not touch south, after Reconstruction South struggled to develop industry, remained agricultural and poor

Absentee land ownership (land worked by sharecroppers)

South produced fraction of manufactured goods as the north

1880’s Southern agriculture received a boost with invention of machine rolled cigarettes, tobacco consumption went up

Tobacco became a consolidated monopoly , controlled by James Duke

Southern leaders pushed for “New South”- modernized economy, agriculture and industry

XII. The South in the Age of Industry

Railroads expanded, linked rural areas across south and to port cities

Few railroads connected to northern cities South used federal money and prison labor to

finance and build rail lines Plenty of natural resources, not enough skilled

labor or capital Limited education, few technical colleges Low wages Banks had limited assets, wealth concentrated

among small group of people Railroad rates- charged more for goods going

north; except raw materials Manufacturing cotton textiles had modest

success in south Labor nonunionized and cheap, Southern

leaders also gave manufacturers tax incentives Cheap labor major southern attraction Provided work to women and children instead

of farm work (working conditions no better than in north)

XIII. The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on America

Increased wealth, higher standard of living Urban centers grew Cities and jobs attracted rural people and

immigrants Jeffersonian ideal of Americans as small farmers was

dying Federal authority was expanding to protect

consumers from large corporations Lives were chained to factory whistle Women felt biggest changes, invention of typewriter

and telephone provided employment opportunities Marriage was delayed and the size of families

dropped Women still earned lower wages Image of women as having more power “Gibson Girl” Extravagance of age led to criticism, mostly from

European immigrants (socialists) Nation of farmers became a nation of wage earners,

more venerable to swings in economic cycle Reformers wanted more economic security for

workers

The Labor Movement

XIV. In Unions there is Strength

Wage workers did not share in benefits employers had Worker was lever puller, originality and creativity stifled Personal relationship with employers was lost, factory was depersonalized Mechanization caused unemployment, a glutted labor market, brought down wages Individual workers were powerless so they united Corporation had federal courts in their corner They could request troops to break strikes, impose lockouts or make employees

sign oath of allegiance Many lived in company towns and were in perpetual debt to the company Middle class did not listen to outcry, agreed with ideas of the day like Social

Darwinism Strike also seemed like foreign idea and was seen as unpatriotic

XV. Labor Limps Along

Civil War put a premium on labor, boost to unions

By early 1870’s thousands of workers unions 1866 National Labor Union, skilled and

labor, mostly white males Colored National Labor Union represented A-

A’s NLU worked for 8 hour day, arbitration of

industrial disputes Labor hurt during economic troubles of 1870’s 1869 Knights of Labor pick up where NLU

left off, included skilled and unskilled labor, did not enter politics , instead campaigned for economic and social reform, also campaigned for 8 hour work day

Against foreign labor, wanted worker owned shops, equal pay

Leader Terence Powderly

XVI. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

Knights downfall came in 1886 Called for May Day strikes across nation

mostly failed Chicago where most violent action

occurred Anarchists mixed with strikers at

Haymarket Square during workers protest

Tensions escalated and somebody threw a bomb in the crowd, killing and injuring civilians and police

Anarchists charged with bombing known as “Haymarket Riot”

Five sentenced to death, others received long prison terms, later pardoned by governor of IL.

Decline of Knights of Labor- Public began to associate Knights with anarchists, Knights inclusion of skilled and unskilled labor undermined position to bargain

XVII. The AFL to the Fore

1886- American Federation of Labor founded, early leader was Samuel Gompers; Jewish immigrant that worked his way up the ladder, led AFL 1886-1924

AFL consisted of self governing national unions

AFL just unified overall strategy Only open to skilled labor Did not enter politics, presented

economic strategies and goals Wanted better wages and working

hours Major goal was closed shop (all

union work force) Chief weapon was walkout or boycott,

kept national strike fund to ride out prolonged strikes

Labor Disputes 1870-1900

XVII. The AFL to the Fore

Labor disorders were not solved by labor unions, continued through the end of the century

Won about half of their strikes but management still held upper hand

By 1900 public attitude toward labor changed, they thought workers had right to organize

Management wanted to avoid economic warfare and began to bargain with labor, although equality was a long way off

Chapter 25

America Moves to the City1865-1900

I. The Urban Frontier

Decades following Civil War, population doubled, population of American cities tripled

By 1900 40% of Americans were urban dwellers

European peasants pushed off land to cities by lure of industrial jobs, revolution in American agriculture fed growing American and European cities

1860 no city in US had 1 million people, by 1890 three cities had over 1 million population (NYC, Chicago, Philadelphia)

Skyscrapers became a symbol of the growth of the American city

Americans became commuters, mass transit lines spread out from central city to suburbs

City became immense, impersonal, megalopolis

Different distinct enclaves emerged for business, industry and residential living (often separated by race, ethnic and social class)

I. The Urban Frontier

Farmers (rural to urban migrants) – agriculture became more mechanized, making a living farming became harder, city life seen as more exciting

Move to city was hard, worked on schedule, confined factories

African- Americans left the south for Midwestern cities

Economic opportunity (factory jobs, service industry)

More opportunity and promise for women and children (jobs, schools)

Variety, glamour- theaters, social clubs, museums

Opportunity for people to raise their standard of living

Department stores (Macy’s, Marshall Fields) provided urban workers jobs (many women), ushered in age of consumerism

Products available at lower prices, advertising, money back guarantee, trademarks, distinctive brands emerged, contributed to mass culture of Americans

I. The Urban Frontier

Growth caused cities to respond to new problems (water, sewers, schools, safety)

New technology developed to meet challenges Skyscrapers- more efficient use of space, gave cities

recognizable skylines Technology- steel frames, elevator, central heat, telephone,

electricity Architecture- emerged as a specialized career, new buildings

used artistic design to magnify height City Planning designed to make cities more beautiful,

functional, control growth Zoning laws- certain areas for certain functions Public libraries, public buildings, parks and recreational spaces Fredrick Law Olmsted designed Central Park nations first

urban public park (1860’s)

I. The Urban Frontier

Overcrowding, poverty caused problems Poor lived near their work Lived in densely populated

neighborhoods, tenement buildings (low-cost housing designed to house many families)

Cities were filthy Unpaved streets, trash, dead horses,

animal waste all left in the streets Many tenements had no indoor

plumbing Late 1880’s government, city planners

regulate housing, sanitation, public health, water quality Developed police force and firefighters,

improved safety with streetlights Tension between ethnic groups, race,

class, neighborhood loyalties defined life for many generations

II. The New Immigration

Many Europeans migrated to American cities at the end of the 19th century

Until 1880’s most came from British Isles and Western Europe

Had high rates of literacy and were familiar with representative forms of government

After 1880 character of immigrant changed

New Immigrants came from Eastern Europe, many Jewish or worshiped in Orthodox churches, poor, illiterate

Came to urban areas to seek jobs, some went back many stayed

Settled in ethnic neighborhoods and did not assimilate easily into American life

III. Southern Europe Uprooted

60 million left in the late 19th and early 20th century, more than half came to US

US seen as land of opportunity American industry needed their low wage

labor, wanted buyers for western land, Advertisements in Europe enticed many to

come over, persecution pushed many from their homes

Jews had best experience with city life and they assimilated and experienced success in cities

Many immigrants that stayed struggled to preserve their traditional culture, established schools, newspapers and ethnic restaurants to preserve culture of home

Children of immigrants typically adopted American language and culture

IV. Reaction to New Immigrants

Government did little to weed out new immigrants or help them adjust to American life

City government was the most proactive force for their assimilation and they did very little

Political machines and party bosses took care of many immigrants; they provided jobs, housing, food and public services in return for votes

Immigrants awakened social consciences of American reformers, many used ideas of Christian charity to help immigrants (Christian Socialists), paved the way for Progressive movement of early 20th century

IV. Reaction to New Immigrants

Jane Adams, reformer form middle class family

1889 opened Hull House in Chicago Settlement House movement began Located in poor neighborhoods;

provided instruction in English, daycare, counseling on how to cope with new life, cultural activities

Other settlement houses were opened in big cities

Became centers of women's activism and social reform

Lobbied for women’s protection in factories, battled for welfare for consumers, blacks

IV. Reaction to New Immigrants

Work of women began new career of social work

Urban frontier opened up more opportunities for women

Strict social codes prescribed work for women

Usually single and type of job depended on race and ethnic class

Jobs brought working women economic freedom and social independence

V. Narrowing the Welcome Mat

1880’s nativisim returned New immigrants seen as un-American

in their ways Competition was fierce for American

jobs Worry about dangerous doctrines of

socialism, communism, anarchism Anti-foreign organizations grew Hard to unionize new immigrants and

they were usually used as “scabs” during strikes

American workers wanted to be protected from foreign labor like American industry was protected from foreign competition

1882 Congress passes first restrictive laws to check flow of immigrants, many more passed over the next few decades

VI. Churches Confront the Urban Challenges

Protestant churches suffered under changing urban conditions Traditional doctrines seemed irrelevant, and were slow to raise

voice against changing social and economic values Concern with mounting emphasis on materialism New Gospel of Wealth said God allowed righteous to prosper 1875-1925 new liberal ideas and rise of liberal Protestants Adaptation to modern culture called for social reforms “Social Gospel” movement Message of forgiveness, community fellowship, focus on earthly

salvation and personal growth Roman Catholics strong in labor movement Salvation Army established, appealed to down and out Christian Scientist movement founded by Mary Baker Eddy

found converts in urban areas YMCA’s provided spiritual, physical education

VII. Darwin Disrupts Churches

Religion received blows from modern science

Darwin and natural selection, rejected dogma of “special creations”

Darwin and other new ideas loosened America’s religious roots; religion and personal faith became private matters

VIII. The Lust for Learning

More acceptance for tax supported public schools

Helped check abuses of child labor, schools Americanized immigrants and made them better citizens

1880’ and 1890’s high school education began to spread, idea of free education became a birthright of Americans

Teacher training and teaching as a science (John Dewey)

New Immigration allowed for expansion of Catholic parochial schools

For adults there were free public lectures, the Chautauqua Movement provided lectures and home study

Cities provided better educational facilities than rural areas but across the country literacy rates climbed throughout the century

IX. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

South lagged behind in public education (44% illiterate in 1900)

Champion of black education was Booker T. Washington

1881 began career at Tuskegee Institute in AL

Taught trades as way to gain economic security

Washington advocated economic progress as path to social equality

W.E.B. Du Bois condemned Washington’s approach

Du Bois was Harvard educated , founder of NAACP (1910)

Demanded A-A’s be given full and immediate equality

Ideas of each reflected life experience of southern and northern blacks

X. Hallowed Halls of Ivy

Colleges and universities grew during period College education became noteworthy for success in the

modern world Women’s colleges, black institutes of education were founded Growth of higher education can be traced to Morrill Act of

1862 that granted public land to to states to support education Hatch Act 1887 extended Morrill Act and provided funds to

establish agricultural experiment stations for “land grant” colleges

New industrial millionaires gave money to colleges (Vanderbilt, Stanford, Duke, University of Chicago)

Increase in technical, professional and graduate schools Increase in elective system of education was due to increasing

specialization of workforce Medical schools were established that promoted public health

XI. The Appeal of the Press

Books, magazines, newspapers all grew during the Gilded Age

More literate population was a factor Mechanization allowed presses to feed word

hungry public Public libraries opened in big cities,

Carnegie contributed millions toward the construction of libraries

Newspapers became less opinionated and began to publish sensational, scandalous articles

New journalistic tycoons William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer built powerful newspapers

“Yellow journalism” was name given to scandalous papers

Creation of press services like the Associated Press led to the standardization of news

XII. Postwar Writing

Dime novels about “wild west” first appeared Horatio Alger “rags to riches” stories, reward

of success because of hard work Novel writing reflected materialism of

industrial society (not rugged individualism of earlier in century), realism about problems of changing society

Mark Twain, satire about greed an corruption gave time period its name (Gilded Age 1873)

Twain humorist, satirist, foe of social injustice, captured frontier realism with American dialect

Stephen Crane wrote about life on streets of urban America, most famous novel The Red Badge of Courage, about Civil War life

Jack London wrote about contemporary life and social problems; Call of the Wild, about struggle between modern and older society

Black writers, Paul Lawrence Dunbar and Charles Chestnut, different type of realism with black dialect and folklore that captured richness of southern black culture

Postwar Art

Modern realistic art replaced impressionism

Depicted scenes of urban life, slums and streets

At turn of the century New York group of artists known as the Ashcan School

XIII. The New Morality, Families and Women in the City

Battle between sexual attitudes and place of women continued

New opportunities for women became tools for liberation

Soaring divorce rates, use of birth control, discussion of sexual topics

Cities were isolating places for families, family only place for emotional, psychological satisfaction (no longer extended family)

Family work habits changed, more children meant more mouths to feed in uncertain urban environment, because of this marriage was delayed, family size dropped

1898- Charlotte Perkins Gilman called on women to abandon dependent status, became part of economy

Many feminists began to demand the right to women's suffrage

XIV. Families and Women in the City

New generation of feminist leaders emerged like Carrie Chapman Catt, demanded equality for women

Social responsibilities of women as head of family needed voice in community to vote for public positions

Women were increasingly giving right to vote in local elections and control their own property after marriage by the turn of the century

Excluded black women, Ida B. Wells took the lead for these women by launching an anti-lynching crusade

1896- formed National Association of Colored Women

XV. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

Temperance reform found a new life with influx of immigrants

Assault amounted to a type of class warfare (middle class reformers vs. working classes)

1869 National Prohibition Party formed

Carrie Nation was a leading reformer breaking into saloons and smashing them with a hatchet

Culminated in 1919 with passage of 18th Amendment

XV. The Business of Amusement

Music through the phonograph for the masses and the patronage of the newly rich became popular forms of entertainment

Vaudeville and its variety of acts was popular The first circus appeared (P.T. Barnum) Wild West shows traveled the country Baseball was emerging as a national pastime Basketball was invented by a YMCA

instructor in Mass. Spectator sports like football, boxing,

horseracing became popular Ethnic Americans supported athletes that

shared their background These forms of entertainment, the rise of

cities and their cultural attractions caused Americans to adopt a popular mass culture

THE GREAT WEST AND THE AGRICULTURAL

REVOLUTIONCHAPTER 26

1865-1896

I. THE CLASH OF CULTURES ON THE PLAINS

After Civil War frontier in America steadily marched westward

On Great Plains relatively few white settlers right after Civil War, habitat of Indian, buffalo

1860 most Native Americans confined to this region

Migration and conflict not foreign to tribes, many had been pushed westward by white settlement and clashed with other tribes

White soldiers and settlers in the decades before the Civil War accelerated a fateful cycle of disease, environmental destruction and settlement that undermined foundations of Native American culture

Inevitable clash between acquisitive, industrial civilization and Native American culture

By 1890 entire region populated by American settlers

I. CLASH OF CULTURES ON THE PLAINS American policy since the 1830’s had been

resettlement and confinement of Native Americans

1850’s beginning of reservation system, established boundaries for Indian and white settlement

Whites misunderstood basic structure of Indian culture in these agreements

1860’s intensification of policy of confinement, herded Indians into smaller reservations

Indians received promises from federal government for food, clothing and supplies, run by Indian agents that were often corrupt

Decade after Civil War saw increase of warfare on Plains

Army troops met formidable resistance by Native Americans

20% of U.S. soldiers were African American (buffalo soldiers)

II. RECEDING NATIVE POPULATION

1864- Sand Creek, CO U.S troops attack Indian camp, kill 400

1866- Sioux ambush US Calvary in MT, killing all; one of the few Indian victories (whites abandon region temporarily)

1868- Ft. Laramie Agreement guarantees new reservation to Sioux

1874- gold discovered in Black Hills of North Dakota, white settlers swarm to region that was part of Sioux land and Indians took to the warpath

1876- Gen. George Custer attacks Indian force on Little Bighorn River (MT), superior Indian force wipes out all of Custer’s troops

II. RECEDING NATIVE POPULATION 1877- US authorities try to heard Nez

Perce of Idaho onto reservations, pursue then for 3 months and send to reservation in KS

1880’s Apache of Arizona one of the last tribes to be subdued by US troops

Indian policy shattered spirit, ghettoized Indians on reservations, placed them on marginal lands

Became wards of the government, easier to feed than fight

RR’s instrumental in defeat; brought people (soldiers, farmers, settlers), white disease and alcohol contributed

Destruction of buffalo that had provided sustenance to Plains culture was also a factor

III. THE END OF THE TRAIL 1880’s national conscience turned to

plight of NA’s Helen Hunt Jackson A Century of Dishonor

(1881) recorded ruthless government dealing with Indians

Some Americans sympathized with Indians, some wanted policy of forced containment, neither side showed much respect for Indian culture and wanted Indians to assimilate into American culture (boarding schools, Carlisle Indian School)

Ghost Dance cult of 1890 (centered on Sioux reservation in the Dakota Territory)

Religious revival to banish white settlers and bring back the buffalo (Ghost Dance)

Grew in popularity, U.S. government became concerned

Wounded Knee Indian Reservation, soldiers fired into a group protesting death of Sitting Bull, 100 men, women, children killed

End of Native American resistance

III. END OF THE TRAIL

1887 Dawes Severalty Act dissolved tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, provided families 160 acres of land, citizenship in 25 years

Reservation land not allotted was sold to settlers, proceeds used for education of tribes

Tried to make farmers out of Indians, ignored tradition of tribally held lands

Forced assimilation was Indian policy for 50 years

IV. MINING BOOM :FROM DISHPAN TO ORE BREAKER After Civil War millions of acres of land

permanently altered by humans Ming first great boom (three phases)

A. DiscoveryB. People pour into areaC. Communities grew, others saw opportunity supply

miners Gold and silver discoveries across West (CA, CO,

ID, MT, NV) brought miners, settlers Boomtowns sprang up where lynch law and

vigilante justice reigned Once surface gold was mined, big industry moved

in Big business entered mining 1870’s Capital used to buy equipment, hire crews of

immigrant labor Mining companies caused extensive

environmental damage Federal government supported large mining

operations- provided inexpensive land, approved patents, provided RR land to move out ore

Mining boom helped fuel nations industrial growth, injected silver issue into American politics, caused conflict with Native Americans

V. BEEF BONANZAS AND THE LONG DRIVE

Texas plains great for raising of beef, no way to profitably get them to market

Issue solved by building of RR’s, cattle could be shipped to stockyards of KC and Chicago

“Beef barons”, Swift, Armor; and a highly industrialized meatpacking industry developed

Products could be processed and shipped on refrigerated car to eastern urban centers

1866-1888 ‘Long Drive”, “cow towns” sprang up

Age of the cowboy End of “open range” ranching mid 1880’s

A. Invention of barbed wireB. Supply of beef exceeded demandC. Extreme winters, droughts (1886-1887) D. Ranchers used hay to feed cattleE. Farmers began to settle on open range,

brought by railroads

VI. THE FARMERS’ FRONTIER Homestead Act 1862 allowed settlers to

acquire 160 ac. of land by living on it for 5 years, paying nominal fee

Land divided along section, township lines set out in Northwest Ordinance

Public land given away to fill it up, not for revenue, provide stimulus to family farm

Many purchased land from RR, states and land companies

Land speculators took advantage of system to grab up best land

RR’s induced immigrants with cheap land Higher wheat prices, iron plows made marginal

land more attractive 160 acres inadequate on arid Great Plains Innovations in farming, new types of grain made

region profitable for agriculture Drought persistent problem, farming techniques

led to “Dust Bowl” of the 1930’s Federal government financed huge irrigation

projects to allow for agriculture in region; had more to do with shaping of west than settlers, miners, cowboys

VII. FAR WEST COMES OF AGE AND THE FADING FRONTIER

Far West growth in population from 1870-1890 Republican Congress gathered more Republican votes

during period with admission of states 1889 Oklahoma open to white settlers, no longer

“permanent” Indian reservation 1890 superintendant of the census declared frontier

“closed” 1893 Fredrick Jackson Turner’s “The Significance of the

Frontier on American History” published Americans disturbed to find free land gone 1872-1890- Government began to set aside land for

national parks (Sequoia, Yellowstone, Yosemite)

VIII. THE FADING FRONTIER Frontier seen as symbol of opportunity, could

always start over Land was many settlers most profitable crop Frontier acted as a safety valve for displaced;

you could always move west Did not really happen, too expensive to get into

farming, possibility of moving west kept industrial wages higher (maybe)

Settling Trans-Mississippi West distinct chapter in American history

Collision of Anglo, Indian, Mexican cultures where Anglo’s established dominance

Scale and severity of environment had unique challenges that were met by massive government action (RR’s, irrigation, Homestead Act) that played a role in economic and social development

IX. THE FARM BECOMES A FACTORY

Situation of American farmers changing High process for specialized cash crops provided profits

to buy manufactured goods Large scale farmers became business people, part of the

new industrial order Tied into RR’s, banks, manufacturing Costly equipment, lack of business sense by many

farmers led to banks, RR’s and global marketplace becoming scapegoats

Mechanization and expense took many farmers off lands American agriculture became butcher, breadbasket of the

world

X. DEFLATION DOOMS THE DEBTOR

One crop economy good as long as prices high

Prices were determined on world market (which also experienced mechanization)

Low process, deflated currency, static money supply (not enough dollars to go around) chief concerns of farmers

Many operated year after year at a loss Vicious cycle: machines increased output,

supply lowered price, had more debt High rates of interest from banks ruined

many farmers By 1880 ¼ of all farms operated by tenants,

industrial feudalism

Declining Farm Prices 1865-1910

XI. UNHAPPY FARMERS Nature conspired against farmers-

grasshoppers, floods, drought In the South the boll weevil wreaked

havoc on the cotton crop in the 1890’s

Government over assessed their land for taxes

Protective tariffs keep prices high on the international market, also had to buy high priced (tariff protected) goods at home

Corporations that supplied farm equipment, seed, fertilizer controlled prices

Grain storage operators and RR’s charged high fees

1890- ½ of population farmers but they had nobody to organize them (by nature individualistic and independent)

XII. THE FARMERS TAKE THEIR STAND 1867- The National Grange of the

Patrons of Husbandry (Grange) founded

Enhance isolated lives of farmers, provide social, fraternal, educational activities

1875- 800,000 members mostly in Midwest and South

Began to concern themselves with collective plight of farmers

Established cooperatively owned stores, grain elevators and warehouses

Entered politics to control grain, freight prices, had biggest success in Upper Midwest

Many “Granger” laws were struck down by the Supreme Court (Wabash vs. Illinois) and their influence faded

XIII. PRELUDE TO POPULISM Late 1870’s Farmers’ Alliances established in Texas Grassroots movement By 1890 over 1 million members Organized to break control of RR’s through cooperative

buying and selling Ignored plight of tenant farmers, excluded blacks Racial division kept farmers from working together Blacks formed Colored Farmers’ National Alliance By 1890’s Farmers Alliances prelude to Populist Party Farmers organized to attack money trust of Wall Street Wanted nationalization of banks, RR’s, telephone, telegraph

and called for graduated income tax Biggest issue was coinage of silver, to create money flow and

make debt easier to pay Party wanted to relive farmers problems, unite farmers and

urban workers 1892 election won several congressional seats Racial division kept them apart in the South, more popular in

the West

XIV. COXEY’S ARMY AND THE PULLMAN STRIKE Panic 1893 strengthened Populist position’ Armies of unemployed began marching to protest plight 1894- most famous Jacob Coxey and followers, marched on

Washington to demand federal works program to ease unemployment Violent strikes, labor protest Pullman Strike in Chicago Eugene V. Debs, labor leader, organized strike to protest wage cuts

and no living cuts in company town Paralyzed rail traffic across nation Cleveland sends out federal troops (justification to keep mail moving),

crushed strike and sent Debs to prison Debs sent to prison because he ignored court injunction to stop strike,

first time this tactic used Seen by labor as proof of government, business, court alliance

Populist Party Cartoon 1892

XV. GOLDEN MCKINLEY AND SILVER BRYAN

1896 farmers and labor wanted relief, conservatives feared upheaval

Monetary policy major issue of election of 1896

William McKinley backed by Mark Hanna was nominee of Republican Party

Republican platform favored big business, hard money policies, protective tariff and the gold standard

Democrats were divided at convention until Nebraskan William Jennings Bryan gave his “Cross of Gold” speech that brought him the nomination

Platform demanded unlimited coinage of silver at 32:1 creating

XVI. CLASS CONFLICT: PLOW HOLDERS VS. BONDHOLDERS Populists endorsed Bryan, Democratic party took over

agrarian politics Bryan traveled around country preaching free silver Caused panic for Republican “gold bugs”, Hanna used slush

fund to push McKinley Republican business people used fear of unemployment and

economic hard times to win support Huge voter turnout, McKinley won election New era in American politics, ascendancy of urban, middle

class voter, Republican grip on White House until FDR, diminishing voter turnout, rise of new political issues- industrial regulation and welfare of labor

Why Did Populism Decline?

1. The economy experienced rapid change.

2. The era of small producers and farmers was fading away.

3. Race divided the Populist Party, especially in the South.

4. The Populists were not able to breakexisting party loyalties.

5. Most of their agenda was co-opted bythe Democratic Party.

XVII. Republican Stand-pattisim Enthroned

McKinley as president – business given free reign, trusts allowed to develop, tariffs high (46.5%)

Prosperity returned, farm prices rose, all credit given to Republicans

Money issue faded away- new gold deposits found around the world, new technology allowed for extraction of gold

Caused more gold on market, increased supply and inflated value of currency redeemed in gold

Gold Standard Act of 1900 allowed paper currency to be redeemed freely in gold, victory for conservatives