petroleum engineer's guide to oil field chemicals and fluids · petroleum engineer's...
TRANSCRIPT
Petroleum Engineer'sGuide to Oil Field
Chemicals and Fluids
Johannes Karl Fink
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Glilf Professional Publishing is an Imprint of Elsevier
G
P
P
HI
Contents
Preface xxi
1. Drilling Muds
Classification of Muds 2
Dispersed Noninhibited Systems 4
Phosphate-treated Muds 4
Lignite Muds 4
Quebracho Muds 5
Lignosulfonate Muds 5
Lime Muds 5
Sea Water Muds 5
Nondispersed Noninhibited Systems 5
Low-solids Fresh Water Muds 6
Variable Density Fluids 6
Gas-based Muds 7
Drill-in Fluids 7
Mud Compositions 7
Inhibitive Water-based Muds 7
Water-based Muds 8
Oil-based Drilling Muds 12
Synthetic Muds 13
Inverted Emulsion Drilling Muds 15
Foam Drilling 18
Chemically Enhanced Drilling 18
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Drilling 19
Additives 19
Thickeners 19
Lubricants 21
Bacteria 22
Corrosion Inhibitors 23
Viscosity Control 24
Clay Stabilization 24
Formation Damage 24
Shale Stabilizer 24
Fluid Loss Additives 26
Scavengers 28
Surfactants 29
v
Hydrate Inhibitors
Weighting Materials
Organoclay CompositionsMiscellaneous
Multicomponent Additives
Cleaning Operations
Cuttings Removal
Junk Removal
Filter Cake Removal
Drilling Fluid DisposalToxicityConversion Into Cements
Environmental RegulationsCharacterization of Drilling Muds
ViscosityAPI Filtration
Alkalinity and pHTotal Hardness
Roller Oven
References
Tradenames
Fluid Loss Additives
Mechanism of Action of Fluid Loss AgentsAction of Macroscopic Particles
Action of Cement Fluid Loss Additives
Testing of Fluid Loss Additives
Formation DamageReversible Gels
Bacteria
Inorganic Additives
Benton ite
Sodium Metasilicate
Ultra-fine Filtrate-Reducing AgentsBridging Agents for Fluid Loss Control
Organic Additives
Tall Oil Pitch
Mercaptans for Iron Control
PolysaccharidesCellulose-based Fluid Loss Additives
Starch
Borate Crosslinkers
Guar
SuccinoglycanPolyether-modified PolysaccharidesScleroglucanGellan
Contents GD
Humic Acid Derivates 78
Oil-based Well Working Fluids 79
Lignosulfonates 79
Synthetic Polymers 82
Polyorthoesters 82
Polyhydroxyacetic Acid 83
Polydrill 84
Latex 85
Polyvinyl Alcohi 87
Polyethyleneimi 88
Acrylics 88
Silicones 93
Phthalimide as a Diverting Material 94
Special Applications 95
References 106
Tradenames 114
3. Clay Stabilization
Properties of Clays 125
Swelling of Clays 127
Montmorillonite 130
Guidelines 130
Mechanisms Causing Instability 131
Kinetics of the Swelling of Clays 131
Hydrational Stress 131
Borehole Stability Model 132
Shale Inhibition with Water-based Muds 132
Inhibiting Reactive Argillaceous Formations 132
Thermal Treatment to Increase the Permeability 132
Formation Damage by Fluids 133
Formation Damage in Gas Production Shut-in 133
Swelling Inhibitors 133
Salts 133
Quaternary Ammonium Salts 134
Potassium Formate 135
Saccharide Derivatives 136
Sulfonated Asphalt 136
Grafted Copolymers 137
Polyoxyalkylene Amines 137
Anionic Polymers 139
Amine Salts of Maleic Imide 139
Comparative Study 139
Test Methods 142
Shale Erosion Test 142
HasslerCell - 142
References(
143
Tradenames 147
Contents
4. Lubricants
Synthetic Creases 149
Base Fluids 150
Extreme Pressure Agents 151
Anti-seize Agents 152
Anti-wear Additives 153
Metal Deactivators 154
Solubility Aids 154
Antioxidants 154
Base stocks 154
Lubricant Compositions 154
Molybdenum disulfide 154
Polarized Graphite 155
Ellipsoidal Glass Granules 156
Calcium-Sulfonate-based Greases 156
Paraffins 157
Olefins 157
Phospholipids 157
Alcohols 158
Ethers 161
Esters 162
Polymers 165
Starch 166
Amides 171
Special Issues 172
Side Reactions 172
Silicate-Based Muds 172
Studies on Pipe Sticking 174
Differential Sticking Reducer 174
References 174
Tradenames 133
5. Bacterial Control
Mechanisms of Growth 185
Growth of Bacteria Supported by Oil Field Chemicals 185
Mathematical Models 186
Detection of Bacteria 1 qj
Sulfate-reducing Bacteria 190
Bacterial Corrosion 191
Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion 191
Corrosion Monitoring 193
Assessment of the Activity of Biocides
Synergistic Action of Biocides
Treatments with Biocides
Previously Fractured Formations
Intermittent Addition of Biocide
Nonbiocidal Control
Contents QD
Biocides197
Various Biocides 198References
209Tradenames
216
6. Corrosion Inhibitors
Classification of Corrosion Inhibitors 218Fields of Application 218Acidization
219Oil Storage Tanks
219Pipelines 220Production Wells
220Scale Removal Treatments Using Acids 220Application Techniques 220Batch Versus Continuous Application 220Emulsions
221Application in Solid Form 221Characterization
221Dye Transfer Method 221Liquid Chromatography 222Thin Layer Chromatography 222Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 222Corrosion Tests
222Side Effects
223Stabilizer for Emulsions
223
Antisynergism with Alcohols 223Synergism with Surfactants 223Interactions with Kinetic Gas Hydrate Inhibitors 224Effect of Flow on Inhibitor Film Life 224Inhibitor Chemicals 225Amides and Imidazolines 225Salts of Nitrogenous Bases 228Nitrogen Quaternaries 228
Polyoxylated Amines, Amides, and Imidazolines 229
Mercaptan Modified Products 229Nitrogen Heterocyclics 233
Carbonyl Compounds 236Silicate-based inhibitors 237Thioacetals 237Miscellaneous Inhibitors 239
Antimony Halides 239Aldol-amine Adducts 239
Encapsulated Types 241Anti-biofoulant Corrosion inhibitors 241Formic Acid Free Formulation 242Intensifiers 242References
- 244Tradenames 252
Contents
7. Scale Inhibitors
Classification and Mechanism 253
Thermodynamic Inhibitors 255
Kinetic Inhibitors 256
Adherence Inhibitors 256
Mathematical Models 256
Optimal Dose 256
Precipitation Squeeze Method 256
Inhibitor Chemicals 257
Water-soluble Inhibitors 258
Oil-soluble Scale Inhibitors 263
Inhibitors for Special Tasks 264
Characterization 267
Spectroscopic Methods 267
Turbidimetry 267
Static Bottle Test 267
References 268
Tradenames 274
8. Gelling Agents
Placing Gels 275
Basic Mechanisms of Gelling Agents 276
Polymer-Crosslinker-Retarder Systems 276
Gelling in Oil-based Systems 277
Aluminum Phosphate Ester Salts 278
Less Volatile Phosphoric Acid Esters 278
Aluminum Trichloride 279
Biopolymers 280
Organic Polysilicate Ester 281
Latex 281
Gelling in Water-based Systems 282
Xanthan Gum 282
Carboxymethyl Cellulose 282
Polyacrylamide-based Formulations 283
Polyacrylic Acid 287
Alkali-Silicate Aminoplast Compositions 288
In Situ Formed Polymers 288
Epoxide Resins 288
Urea-formaldehyde Resins 288
Vinyl Monomers 289
References 290
Tradenames 293
9. Filter Cake Removal
Bridging Agents 296
Degradable Bridging Agents 296
Dissolvable Bridging Agents 298
Contents
Degradation by Acids 298Citric Acid 298Acetic Acid
299Acid Generating Coatings 299Acidic Foam 300Orthoesters
301
Enzymatic Degradation 302Peroxides
303
Hydrogen Peroxide 303Metal Peroxides 303
Magnesium Peroxide in Filter Cake 303Degradation by Oligosaccharides 304Breaking by Emulsions 304Surfactant Nanotechnology 305Special Issues
305Manganese tetroxide 305
Multiply Active Compositions 306Self-destructing Filter Cake 307
Oscillatory Flow 307References 307
10. Cement Additives
Cementing Technologies 312
Primary Cementing 312Secondary Cementing 312Squeeze Cementing 312
Plug Cementing 312Basic Composition of Portland Cement 313
Manufacturing 313Active Components in Cements 314
Chemistry of Setting 314Standardization of Cements 315Mixing with Additives 315Important Properties of Cement Slurries and Set Cement 316Special Cement Types 317Resin Cement
317Oil-based Cement 318
High-temperature Cement 319Low-temperature Cement 320High-alumina Cement 320
Magnesian Cement 321Fiber Cement 321Acid Gas Resistant Cement 322Permeable Cement 322Salt-water Stable Latex Cement 322Settable Drilling Fluids 322Classification ofCement Additives 323Light-weight Cement 324
GD Contents
Foam Cement328
Density-increasing or Weighting Agents 329Control of Thickening and Setting Time 330Viscosity Control
334Dispersants 335Expansion Additives
335Set Strength Enhancement 337Adhesion Improvement 338Fluid Loss Control
338
Clay Control Additives341
Anti-gas-migration Agents 342Corrosion Inhibitors 342Other Chemical Attack
343Use of Waste from Other Industrial Branches 343References
345Tradenames
358
11. Transport
Pretreatment of the Products351
Pretreatment for Corrosion Prevention351
Natural Gas362
Sulfur Contamination of Refined Products354
Demulsifiers354
Heavy Crudes355
Corrosion Control355
Crude Oil Treatment355
Chemical Inhibition366
Coatings 367Paraffin Inhibitors
368Pour Point Depressants 36gDrag Reducers
369
Drag Reduction in Gas Transmission Lines371
Synergism with Paraffin Deposition 371Hydrate Control
371Additives for Slurry Transport 371Additives for Odorization
373Cleaning 373Gelled Pigs 374References
374
12. Drag Reducers
Operating Costs37g
Mechanism of Drag Reduction^SQ
Damping of Transmission of Eddies3qq
Viscoelastic Fluid Thread3Q1
Polymer Degradation in Turbulent Flow381
Contents
Drag Reduction in Two-phase Flow 382Drag Reduction in Gas Flow
382Microfibrils
382Drag-reducing Surfactant Solutions 383Soapy Industrial Cleaner
383Lyophobic Performance of the Lining Material 383Interpolymer Complexes 383Drag-reducing Chemicals 384Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene 384Copolymers of a-Olefins
384Latex Drag Reducers
384Polyether Compounds for Oil-based Well Drilling Fluids 386Tylose
386Microencapsulated Polymers 386Aluminum Carboxylate 386References
387
13. Gas Hydrate Control
Naturally Occurring Gas Hydrates 392Problems with Gas Hydrates in Petroleum Technology 393Nature of Inclusion Compounds 394Gas Hydrates
395Conditions for Formation
397Water Content
397Decomposition 397Stability Diagram 397Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 397Hammerschmidt Equation 399Formation and Properties of Gas Hydrates 399Two-Step Mechanism of Formation 399Nucleation Particle Sizes
400
Clustering Before Nucleation400
. Experimental Methods400
Modeling the Formation of Gas Hydrates 401Test Procedures for Inhibitors 401Screening Method
402High Pressure Sapphire Cell
402Circulating Loop 402Inhibition of Gas Hydrate Formation 403Drying
403Thermodynamic Inhibition with Additives 403Kinetic Inhibition
403Nucleation Inhibitors
404Crystal Growth Inhibitors 404Agglomeration Inhibitors
416Gas Hydrate Inhibitors with Corrosion Inhibition 416Recyclable Antifreeze Agents 417
Contents
Hydrate Inhibitors for Drilling Fluids 419References 420Tradenames 426
14. Antifreeze Agents
Theory of Action 427Antifreeze Chemicals 428Heat Transfer Liquids 429Brines 430Alcohols
430Glycols 430
Toxicity and Environmental Aspects 433
Special Uses434
Hydraulic Cement Additives 434Pipeline Transportation of Aqueous Emulsions of Oil 434Low Temperature Drilling Fluids 435References
435
15. Odorization
General Aspects 438Limits of Explosion 438Desirable Properties of Odorants 438Measurement and Odor Monitoring 439Olfactoric Response 439
Physiological Methods441
Chemical and Physical Methods 444Additives for Odorization 446Sulfur Compounds 446Other Compounds 448Industrial Synthesis of Odorants 450Uses and Properties 451Odorant Injection Techniques 451Leak Detection 452Fuel Cells
452Odor-fading 453Environmental Problems 453References
454Tradenames
458
16. Enhanced Oil RecoveryWaterflooding 460Surfactants
460Interphase Structure 467Interfacial Rheological Properties 468Microemulsion Phase Diagrams 469Interfacial Tension
469Imbibition Experiments 469
Contents
Caustic Waterflooding 470
Injection Strategies 470
Foam-enhanced Caustic Waterflooding 470
Alkaline Surfactant Polymer Flooding 470
Interphase Properties 471
Clay Dissolution 471
Acid Flooding 471
Hydrochloric Acid 471
Sulfuric Acid 472
Emulsion Flooding 472
Micellar Polymer Flooding 473
Chemical Injection 474
Ammonium Carbonate 474
Hydrogen Peroxide 474
Alcohol-Waterflood i ng475
Chemical Injection of Waste Gases 475
Polymer Waterflooding 476
Low-tension Polymer Flood Technique 476
Influence of Viscosity on Ionic Strength 477
Modified Acrylics 477
Biopolymers 477
Combination Flooding 477
Low-tension Polymer Flood 477
Effect of Alkaline Agents on the Retention 478
Alkaline Steamflooding 478
Sediment-forming Materials 478
Water-alternating Gas Technology 479
Hydrocarbon-assisted Steam Injection 479
Foam Flooding 479
Basic Principles of Foam Flooding 479
Ambient Pressure Foam Tests 480
Polymer-enhanced Foams 483
Carbon Dioxide Flooding 483
Steamflooding 484
Carbon Dioxide 484
Air Injection 484
Chemical Reactions 485
In Situ Combustion 485
Special Techniques485
Viscous Oil Recovery485
Low-permeability Flooding 486
Microbial-Enhanced Oil Recovery Techniques 487
Basic Principles and Methods 487
Economics 488
Strict Anaerobic Bacteria 492
Ultramicrobacteria 493
Scale Inhibitors as a Microbial Nutrient 494
Interfacial Properties494
Tracers 495
G5D
Thermal Stability, of Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate
Asphaltene DepositionStabilizer DispersantReservoir PropertiesReservoir Models
Profile Control
Formation DamageWettabilityFlooding of Oil in Chalk
Treatment of Produced Water
Soil Remediation
References
17. Fracturing Fluids
Stresses and Fractures
Comparison of Stimulation TechniquesAction of a Fracturing Fluid
Stages in a Fracturing Job
Types of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids
Comparison of Different TechniquesExpert Systems for Assessment
Water-Based SystemsThickeners and Gelling AgentsConcentrates
Friction Reducers
Fluid Loss Additives
pH Control Additives
Clay Stabilizers
Biocides
Surfactants
Crosslinkers
Gel Breaking in Water-based SystemsScale Inhibitors
Oil-Based SystemsOrganic Gel Aluminum Phosphate Ester
Increasing the Viscosity of Diesel
Gel Breakers
Foam-Based Fracturing Fluids
Defoamers
Fracturing in Coal-Beds
Propping AgentsSand
Ceramic Particles
Bauxite
Light-weight ProppantsPorous Pack with Fibers
Contents
497
497
497
498
498
498
500
501
501
501
502
502
519
520
520
521
521
524
526
526
526
534
535
535
537
538
539
539
541
546
552
553
553
554
554
555
556
558
559
559
559
560
560
560
Contents
Coated Proppants 560
Anti-settling Additives 561
Proppant Flowback 562
Acid Fracturing 564
Encapsulated Acids 565
The In Situ Formation of Acids 565
Fluid Loss 565
Gel Breaker for Acid Fracturing 565
Special Problems 566
Corrosion Inhibitors 566
The Problem of Iron Control in Fracturing 566
Enhanced Temperature Stability 567
Chemical Blowing 567
Frost-resistant Formulation 568
Formation Damage in Gas Wells 569
Characterization of Fracturing Fluids 569
Rheological Characterization 569
Zirconium-based Crosslinking Agent 570
Oxidative Gel Breaker 570
Size Exclusion Chromatography 570
Assessment of Proppants 570
References 571
Tradenames 583
18. Water Shutoff
Classification of Methods 585
In Situ Polymerization 586
Acrylic Gels 587
Crosslinkers 587
Special Applications 590
Shear-Initiated Inversion of Emulsions 591
Thermally Stable Gels 591
Disproportionate Permeability Reduction 591
Field Experience 592
Silicate-based Agents 592
Combined Polymer-Silicate Technology 593
Gel-Foam Technique 593
Resin Types 595
Epoxide Resins 595
Urea-Formaldehyde Resins 595
Furan-Silicone Resins 597
Cement with Additives 597
Polymethyl Methacrylate Modified with Monoethanolamine 597
Crude Light Pyridine Bases 597
Granulated Fly Ash 598
Phosphonic Acid Derivates 598
(xviii) Contents
Phosphonium Complexone 599
Aerated Plugging Solution 599
Compressed Foam Mixture 600
Furfuramide 600
Cellulosics and Polyacrylics 600
Smectite Clays 601
Plasticizers 601
Water Glass 602
Organosilicones 602
Formaldehyde Resin 603
Liquid Metal Alloy 603
Bentonite,
604
Blast Furnace Slag 604
Fiber Reinforcement 605
Gels from Aluminum Hydroxychloride 605
Organosilicones 606
Non-Crosslinked Copolymers 607
Anchoring 607
Inorganic Colloids 607
Water Swelling Additives 608
Water-swelling Cellulose 608
Hydrolyzed Polyacrylonitrile 608
Guar 609
Clays 609
Wastes 609
Waste Oil Sludge 609
Aluminum Trichloride 610
Antifoaming with Sulfite-waste Liquor 611
Surfactants 611
Polymeric Surfactants 611
Viscoelastic Surfactant Solutions 612
Tailoring the Hydrodynamic Volume 613
Temperature-Sensitive Latex Particles 614
References 615
Tradenames 623
19. Oil Spill Treating Agents
History 625
List of Major Oil Spills 625
General Requirements 627
Mechanisms 627
Application 628
Environmental Aspects 630
Implementation Application Programs 632
Tests 633
Subsurface, Soil, and Ground Water 638
In Situ Chemical Oxidation 639
Ground Water 639
Contents
Chemicals in Detail 639
References 641
20. Waste Disposal
Drilling Fluids 647
Bioremediation 647
Assessment of Biodegradability 648
Supercritical Fluid Extraction 649
Cuttings 649
Environmental Impact 649
Modeling the Discharge 650
Microwave Treatment 651
Discharge in Cement 654Fillers in Bitumen 655
Chromium Removal 655
Injection Techniques 655
Acid Gas Injection 656
Storage of Carbon Dioxide 656
Slurry Fracture Injection Technique 656
Use as Sealants 658
References 660
Tradenames 662
21. Dispersions, Emulsions, and Foams
Dispersions 664
Dispersants 664
Emulsions 670
Oil-in-water Emulsions - Invert Emulsions 671
Water-in-water Emulsions 673
Oil-in-water-in-oil Emulsions 673
Microemulsions 674
Solids-stabilized emulsion 674
Biotreated Emulsion 676
Shale Inhibition 677
Transportation 678
Acid-rich Oils 678
Characterization of Emulsions 678
Low Fluorescence Emulsifiers 682
Foams 683
Aphrons 684
References 688
Tradenames 693
22. Defoamers
Theory of Defoaming 695
Stability of Foams 695
Action of Defoamers 696
Contents
Classification of Defoamers 698
Active Ingredients 698
Ancillary Agents 699
Uses in Petroleum Technology 699
Aqueous Fluid Systems 699
Well Treatment and Cementation 700
Plugging Agents 701
Gas-Oil Separation 701
Natural Gas 702
Distillation and Petroleum Production 702
Antimicrobial Antifoam Compositions 703
References 703
23. Demulsifiers
Emulsions in Produced Crude Oil 705
Waterflooding 706
Oil Spill Treatment 706
Desired Properties 706
Mechanisms of Demulsification 706
Stabilization of Water-oil Emulsions 706
Interfacial Tension Relaxation 706
Performance Testing 707
Spreading Pressure 707
Characterization by Dielectric Constant 707
Shaker Test Methods 707
Viscosity Measurements 707
Screening 708
Classification of Demulsifiers 708
Common Precursor Chemicals 708
Demulsifiers in Detail 710
Polyoxyalkylenes 710
Vinyl Polymers 713
Polyamines 716
Polyamides 718
Phenolics 718
Alkoxylated Fatty Oils 719
Biodemulsifiers 719
References 720
Appendix 1: List of Tradenames 727
Appendix 2: List of Acronyms 735
Index
Chemical Index 739
Subject Index 767