Pharmaceutics 3

Drug Clearance Through Metabolism Once a drug enters the body, the process of elimination

begins.

The three major routes of elimination are:

Hepatic metabolism.

Biliary elimination.

Urinary elimination.

Together, these elimination processes decrease the plasma

concentration exponentially That is, a constant fraction of

the drug present is eliminated in a given unit of time.

Most drugs are eliminated according to first-order kinetics,

although some, such as aspirin in high doses, are eliminated

according to zero-order or nonlinear kinetics.

Metabolism leads to production of products with increased

polarity, which allows the drug to be eliminated.

• Clearance (CL) estimates the amount of drug cleared

from the body per unit of time.

• Total CL is a composite estimate reflecting all

mechanisms of drug elimination and is calculated as

follows:

o t1/2 is the elimination half-life.

o Vd is the apparent volume of distribution.

o 0.693 is the natural log constant.

Drug half-life is often used as a measure of drug CL,

because, for many drugs, Vd is a constant.

Kinetics of Metabolism 1. First-order kinetics: The metabolic transformation of drugs

is catalyzed by enzymes, and most of the reactions obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics.

In most clinical situations, the concentration of the drug, [C], is much less than the Michaelis constant, Km, and the Michaelis-Menten equation reduces to

First-order kinetics (linear kinetics):

the rate of drug metabolism and elimination is directly proportional to the concentration of free drug.

constant fraction of drug is metabolized per unit of time (that is, with each half-life, the concentration decreases by 50%).

Kinetics of Metabolism 2. Zero-order kinetics: With a few drugs the doses are very large such as:

Aspirin.

Ethanol.

Phenytoin.

Therefore, [C] is much greater than Km, and the velocity equation becomes:

Zero-order kinetics (nonlinear kinetics):

The enzyme is saturated by a high free drug concentration, and the rate of metabolism remains constant over time.

A constant amount of drug is metabolized per unit of time.

The rate of elimination is constant and does not depend on the drug concentration.

Reactions of drug metabolism

• The kidney cannot efficiently eliminate lipophilic drugs that

readily cross cell membranes and are reabsorbed in the distal

convoluted tubules.

• Therefore, lipid-soluble agents are first metabolized into more

polar (hydrophilic) substances in the liver via two general sets

of reactions, called phase I and phase II.

Reactions of drug metabolism

Phase I reactions convert lipophilic drugs into more polar molecules by

introducing or unmasking a polar functional group, such as –OH or –NH2.

Phase I reactions usually involve reduction, oxidation, or hydrolysis.

Phase I metabolism may increase, decrease, or have no effect on pharmacologic

activity.

A. Phase I reactions utilizing the P450 system: The phase I reactions most

frequently involved in drug metabolism are catalyzed by the cytochrome P450

system (also called microsomal mixed-function oxidases).

The P450 system is important for:

Metabolism of many endogenous compounds (such as steroids, lipids)

For the biotransformation of exogenous substances (xenobiotics).

Cytochrome P450, designated as CYP, is a superfamily of heme-containing

isozymes that are located in most cells, but primarily in the liver and GI tract.

Nomenclature of P450 system :

The family name is indicated by the Arabic number that follows CYP,

Capital letter designates the subfamily, for example, CYP3A

A second number indicates the specific isozyme, as in CYP3A4.

Specificity of P450 system

Because there are many different genes thatencode multiple enzymes, there are many different P450 isoforms. These enzymes have the capacity to modify a large number of structurally diverse substrates.

In addition an individual drug may be a substrate for more than one isozyme.

Four isozymes are responsible for the vast majority of P450-catalyzed reactions. They are:

• CYP3A4/5.

• CYP2D6.

• CYP2C8/9.

• CYP1A2.

Genetic variabilityof P450 system

• P450 enzymes exhibit considerable genetic variability among individuals and racial groups.

• Variations in P450 activity may alter drug efficacy and the risk of adverse events.

• Examples:

Clopidogrel carries a warning that patients who are

poor CYP2C19 metabolizers have a higher incidence

of cardiovascular events (for example, stroke or

myocardial infarction) when taking this drug.

Clopidogrel is a prodrug, and CYP2C19 activity is

required to convert it to the active metabolite.

Some individuals obtain no benefit from the opioid

analgesic codeine, because they lack the CYP2D6

enzyme that activates the drug. Similar polymorphisms

have been characterized for the CYP2C subfamily of

isozymes.

Pharmacokinetic Drug Interactions Inducers:

• The CYP450-dependent enzymes are an important target for pharmacokinetic drug

interactions.One such interaction is the induction of selected CYP isozymes.

• Xenobiotics (chemicals not normally produced or expected to be present in the

body, for example, drugs or environmental pollutants) may induce the activity of

these enzymes.

• Certain drugs (for example, phenobarbital, rifampin, and carbamazepine) are

capable of increasing the synthesis of one or more CYP isozymes.

• This results in increased biotransformation of drugs and can lead to significant

decreases in plasma concentrations of drugs metabolized by these CYP isozymes,

with concurrent loss of pharmacologic effect.

• For example, rifampin, an antituberculos is drug significantly decreases the plasma

concentrations of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease inhibitors, thereby

diminishing their ability to suppress HIV replication.

Consequences of increased drug metabolism include:

Decreased Plasma Drug Concentrations.

Decreased Drug Activity If The Metabolite Is Inactive.

Increased Drug Activity If The Metabolite Is Active.

Decreased therapeutic drug effect.

Inhibitors:

• Inhibition of CYP isozyme activity is an important source of drug

interactions that lead to serious adverse events. The most common form of

inhibition is through competition for the same isozyme.

• Some drugs, however, are capable of inhibiting reactions for which they are

not substrates (for example, ketoconazole), leading to drug interactions.

• Numerous drugs have been shown to inhibit one or more of the CYP-

dependent biotransformation pathways of warfarin. For example,

omeprazole is a potent inhibitor of three of the CYP isozymes responsible

for warfarin metabolism.

• If the two drugs are taken together, plasma concentrations of warfarin

increase, which leads to greater anticoagulant effect and increased risk of

bleeding.

• The more important CYP inhibitors are erythromycin, ketoconazole, and

ritonavir, because they each inhibit several CYP isozymes.

• Natural substances may also inhibit drug metabolism. For instance,

grapefruit juice inhibits CYP3A4 and leads to higher levels and/or greater

potential for toxic effects with drugs, such as nifedipine, clarithromycin, and

simvastatin, that are metabolized by this system.

B. Phase I reactions not involving the P450 system:

• Amine Oxidation (For Example, Oxidation Of Catecholaminesor Histamine)

• Alcohol Dehydrogenation (For Example, Ethanol Oxidation)

• Esterases (for example, metabolism of aspirin in the liver)

• hydrolysis (for example, of procaine).

2. Phase II: This phase consists of conjugation reactions.

• If the metabolite from phase I metabolism is sufficiently polar, it can be excreted by

the kidneys. However, many phase I metabolites are still too lipophilic to be

excreted.

• A subsequent conjugation reaction with an endogenous substrate, such as

glucuronic acid, sulfuric acid, acetic acid, or an amino acid, results in polar, usually

more water-soluble compounds that are often therapeutically inactive.

• A notable exception is morphine-6-glucuronide, which is more potent than

morphine. Glucuronidation is the most common and the most important conjugation

reaction.

• Drugs already possessing an –OH, –NH2, or –COOH group may enter phase II

directly and become conjugated without prior phase I metabolism.

• The highly polar drug conjugates are then excreted by the kidney or in bile.

Drugs Clearance by The Kidney

• Drugs must be sufficiently polar to be eliminated from the body.

• Removal of drugs from the body occurs via a number of routes, the most

important being elimination through the kidney into the urine.

• Patients with renal dysfunction may be unable to excrete drugs and are at

risk for drug accumulation and adverse effects.

A. Renal elimination of a drug

Elimination of drugs via the kidneys into urine involves the processes of

glomerular filtration, active tubular secretion, and passive tubular reabsorption.

1. Glomerular filtration: Drugs enter the kidney through renal arteries.

Free drug (not bound to albumin) flows through the capillary slits into the

Bowman space as part of the glomerular filtrate.

The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is normally about 125 mL/min but may

diminish significantly in renal disease.

Lipid solubility and pH do not influence the passage of drugs into the

glomerular filtrate.

o variations in GFR and protein binding of drugs do affect this process.

Drugs Clearance by The Kidney 2.Proximal tubular secretion: Drugs that were not transferred into the

glomerular filtrate leave the glomeruli through efferent arterioles.

• Secretion primarily occurs in the proximal tubules by two energy-requiring

active transport systems: one for anions (for example, deprotonated forms of

weak acids) and one for cations (for example, protonated forms of weak

bases).

• Each of these transport systems shows low specificity and can transport

many compounds.

• Thus, competition between drugs for these carriers can occur within each

transport system.

• Premature infants and neonates have an incompletely developed tubular

secretory mechanism and, thus, may retain certain drugs in the glomerular

filtrate.

Drugs Clearance by The Kidney

3. Distal tubular reabsorption:

• As a drug moves toward the distal convoluted tubule, its

concentration increases and exceeds that of the perivascular space.

• The drug, if uncharged, may diffuse out of the nephric lumen, back

into the systemic circulation

• Manipulating the urine pH to increase the fraction of ionized drug in

the lumen may be done to minimize the amount of back diffusion and

increase the clearance of an undesirable drug.

• As a general rule, weak acids can be eliminated by alkalinization of

the urine, whereas elimination of weak bases may be increased by

acidification of the urine.

• This process is called “ion trapping.” For example, a patient

presenting with phenobarbital (weak acid) overdose can be given

bicarbonate, which alkalinizes the urine and keeps the drug ionized,

thereby decreasing its reabsorption.

Drug elimination by the kidney

Role of drug metabolism:

• Most drugs are lipid soluble

and, without chemical

modification, would diffuse out

of the tubular lumen when the

drug concentration in the filtrate

becomes greater than that in the

perivascular space.

• To minimize this reabsorption,

drugs are modified primarily in

the liver into more polar

substances via phase I and phase

II reactions.

• The polar or ionized conjugates

are unable to back diffuse out of

the kidney lumen.

Clearance by Other Routes

• Drug clearance may also occur via the intestines, bile, lungs, and breast

milk, among others.

• Drugs that are not absorbed after oral administration or drugs that are

secreted directly into the intestines or into bile are eliminated in the

feces.

• The lungs are primarily involved in the elimination of anesthetic gases

(for example, isoflurane).

• Elimination of drugs in breast milk may expose the breast-feeding infant

to medications and/or metabolites being taken by the mother and is a

potential source of undesirable side effects to the infant.

• Excretion of most drugs into sweat, saliva, tears, hair, and skin occurs

only to a small extent.

• Total body clearance and drug half-life are important measures of drug

clearance that are used to optimize drug therapy and minimize toxicity.

A. Total body clearance

• The total body (systemic) clearance, CLtotal, is the sum

of all clearances from the drug-metabolizing and drug-

eliminating organs.

• The kidney is often the major organ of elimination.

• The liver also contributes to drug clearance through

metabolism and/or excretion into the bile.

• Total clearance is calculated using the following

equation:

• Where CLhepatic + CLrenal are typically the most

important.

B. Clinical situations resulting in changes in drug half-life

When a patient has an abnormality that alters the half-life of a drug,

adjustment in dosage is required.

Patients who may have an increase in drug half-life include those

with:

Diminished renal or hepatic blood flow, for example, in cardiogenic

shock, heart failure, or hemorrhage.

Decreased ability to extract drug from plasma, for example, in renal

disease.

Decreased metabolism, for example, when a concomitant drug inhibits

metabolism or in hepatic insufficiency, as with cirrhosis.

These patients may require a decrease in dosage or less frequent

dosing intervals.

In contrast, the half-life of a drug may be decreased by increased

hepatic blood flow, decreased protein binding, or increased

metabolism.

This may necessitate higher doses or more frequent dosing intervals.

Design and optimization of dosage regimen • To initiate drug therapy, the clinician must select

the appropriate:

Route Of Administration.

Dosage.

Dosing Interval.

• Selection of a regimen depends on various patient

and drug factors, including:

• How rapidly therapeutic levels of a drug must be

achieved.

• The regimen is then further refined, or optimized,

to maximize benefit and minimize adverse effects.

A. Continuous infusion regimens

• Therapy may consist of a single dose of a drug, for example, a sleep inducing

agent, such as zolpidem.

• More commonly, drugs are continually administered, as an IV infusion or in oral

fixed-dose/ fixed-time interval regimens.

• Continuous or repeated administration results in accumulation of the dreither ug

until a steady state occurs.

• Steady-state concentration is reached when the rate of drug elimination is equal

to the rate of drug administration, such that the plasma and tissue levels remain

relatively constant.

1. Plasma concentration of a drug following IV infusion: With continuous IV

infusion, the rate of drug entry into the body is constant. Most drugs exhibit

first-order elimination, that is, a constant fraction of the drug is cleared per unit

of time.

• Therefore, the rate of drug elimination increases proportionately as the plasma

concentration increases.

• Following initiation of a continuous IV infusion, the plasma concentration of a

drug rises until a steady state (rate of drug elimination equals rate of drug

administration) is reached, at which point the plasma concentration of the drug

remains constant.

• a. Influence of the rate of infusion on

steady-state concentration:

The steady-state plasma concentration

(Css) is directly proportional to the

infusion rate.

For example, if the infusion rate is

doubled, the Css is doubled

Furthermore, the Css is inversely

proportional to the clearance of the

drug.

Any factor that decreases clearance,

such as liver or kidney disease,

increases the Css of an infused drug

(assuming Vd remains constant).

Factors that increase clearance, such as

increased metabolism, decrease the Css.

b. Time required to reach the steady-state drug concentration:

• The concentration of a drug rises from zero at the start of the infusion to its

ultimate steady-state level, Css.

• The rate constant for attainment of steady state is the rate constant for total

body elimination of the drug. Thus, 50% of Css of drug is observed after the

time elapsed, since the infusion, t, is equal to t1/2, where t1/2 (or half-life) is

the time required for the drug concentration to change by 50%. After another

half-life, the drug concentration approaches 75% of Css . The drug

concentration is 87.5% of Css at 3 half-lives and 90% at 3.3 half-lives.

• Drug reaches steady state in about four to five half-lives.

• The sole determinant of the rate that a drug achieves steady state is the half-

life (t1/2) of the drug, and this rate is influenced only by factors that affect

the half-life.

• The rate of approach to steady state is not affected by the rate of drug

infusion.

• When the infusion is stopped, the plasma concentration of a drug declines

(washes out) to zero with the same time course observed in approaching the

steady state.

B. Fixed-dose/fixed-time regimens

• Administration of a drug by fixed doses rather than by continuous

infusion is often more convenient.

• Fixed doses of IV or oral medications given at fixed intervals result in

time-dependent fluctuations in the circulating level of drug, which

contrasts with the smooth ascent of drug concentration observed with

continuous infusion.

Multiple IV injections: When a drug is given repeatedly at regular

intervals, the plasma concentration increases until a steady state is

reached

• Because most drugs are given at intervals shorter than five half-lives and

are eliminated exponentially with time, some drug from the first dose

remains in the body when the second dose is administered, some from

the second dose remains when the third dose is given, and so forth.

• Therefore, the drug accumulates until, within the dosing interval, the rate

of drug elimination equals the rate of drug administration and a steady

state is achieved.

a. Effect of dosing frequency: With repeated

administration at regular intervals, the plasma

concentration of a drug oscillates about a mean.

Using smaller doses at shorter intervals reduces

the amplitude of fluctuations in drug

concentration.

• The Css is affected by neither the dosing

frequency (assuming the same total daily dose is

administered) nor the rate at which the steady

state is approached.

• t1/2=12hr

Example of achievement of steady state using different dosage

regimens: Curve B shows the amount of drug in the body when 1 unit

of a drug is administered IV and repeated at a dosing interval that

corresponds to the half-life of the drug. At the end of the first dosing

interval, 0.50 units of drug remain from the first dose when the second

dose ism administered. At the end of the second dosing interval, 0.75

units are present when the third dose is given.

• The minimal amount of drug remaining during the dosing interval

progressively approaches a value of 1.00 unit, whereas the maximal

value immediately following drug administration progressively

approaches 2.00 units.

• Therefore, at the steady state, 1.00 unit of drug is lost during the

dosing interval, which is exactly matched by the rate of

administration.

• That is, the “rate in” equals the “rate out.” As in the case for IV

infusion, 90% of the steady-state value is achieved in 3.3 half-lives.

2. Multiple oral administrations

Most drugs that are administered on an

outpatient basis are oral medications taken

at a specific dose one, two, or three times

daily.

In contrast to IV injection, orally

administered drugs may be absorbed

slowly, and the plasma concentration of

the drug is influenced by both the rate of

absorption and the rate of elimination.

Optimization of dose:

• The goal of drug therapy is to achieve and maintain

concentrations within a therapeutic response window while

minimizing toxicity and/ or side effects.

• With careful titration, most drugs can achieve this goal.

• If the therapeutic window of the drug is small (for example,

digoxin, warfarin, and cyclosporine), extra caution should be

taken in selecting a dosage regimen, and monitoring of drug

levels may help ensure attainment of the therapeutic range.

• Drug regimens are administered as a maintenance dose and

may require a loading dose if rapid effects are warranted.

• For drugs with a defined therapeutic range drug

concentrations are subsequently measured, and the dosage and

frequency are then adjusted to obtain the desired levels.

Maintenance dose: Drugs are generally administered to

maintain a Css within the therapeutic window.

It takes four to five half-lives for a drug to achieve Css.

To achieve a given concentration, the rate of administration

and the rate of elimination of the drug are important.

The dosing rate can be determined by knowing the target

concentration in plasma (Cp), clearance (CL) of the drug

from the systemic circulation, and the fraction (F) absorbed

(bioavailability).

Loading dose:

• Sometimes rapid obtainment of desired plasma levels is

needed (for example, in serious infections or arrhythmias).

• Loading Dose of drug is administered to achieve the

desired plasma level rapidly, followed by a maintenance

dose to maintain the steady state.

• In general, the loading dose can be calculated as:

• For IV infusion, the bioavailability is 100%, and the

equation becomes:

Loading Doses • Loading doses can be given as a single

dose or a series of doses.

• Disadvantages of loading doses

include:

increased risk of drug toxicity.

longer time for the plasma

concentration to fall if excess levels

occur.

• A loading dose is most useful for drugs

that have a relatively long half-life.

• Without an initial loading dose, these

drugs would take a long time to reach a

therapeutic value that corresponds to

the steady-state level.

Dose adjustment: The amount of a drug administered for a

given condition is estimated based on an “average patient.”

• This approach overlooks interpatient variability in

pharmacokinetic parameters such as clearance and Vd,

which are quite significant in some cases.

• Knowledge of pharmacokinetic principles is useful in

adjusting dosages to optimize therapy for a given patient.

• Monitoring drug therapy and correlating it with clinical

benefits provides another tool to individualize therapy.

• When determining a dosage adjustment, Vd can be used to

calculate the amount of drug needed to achieve a desired

plasma concentration.

• For example, assume a heart failure patient is not well controlled due

to inadequate plasma levels of digoxin.

• Suppose the concentration of digoxin in the plasma is C1 and the

desired target concentration is C2, a higher concentration.

• The following calculation can be used to determine how much

additional digoxin should be administered to bring the level from C1

to C2.

• Difference between the two values is the additional dosage

needed, which equals Vd (C2 − C1).