phase and chemical composition analysis of pigments used in

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UDK 903.23'16(498)''634''>902.65Documenta Praehistorica XXXIV (2007)

Phase and chemical composition analysis of pigmentsused in Cucuteni Neolithic painted ceramics

Bogdan Constantinescu1, Roxana Bugoi1, Emmanuel Pantos2, Dragomir Popovici31 ‘Horia Hulubei’ National Institute of Nuclear Physics and Engineering, Bucharest, Romania

[email protected] CCLRC, Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington, UK

3 National Museum of Romania’s History, Bucharest, Romania

Cucuteni ceramics

The history of the V–IVth millennia BCE is markedby the flourishing of some great Eneolithical civiliza-tions in the South-Eastern part of Europe: Vin≠a, Gu-melnita and Cucuteni-Tripolye, representing momentsof high cultural evolution. Spread over a vast terri-tory, with a total area of more than 300 000 km2 inRomania, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, theCucuteni (in Romania, Tripolye in Ukraine) cultureis one of the last brilliant cultural expressions of theCopper Age. Cucuteni-Tripolye culture had a longevolution, being divided by specialists into threemain phases: Cucuteni A, Cucuteni A–B and Cucu-teni B. The skilful and ingenious use of all the natu-ral resources allowed the Cucutenian communitiesto build solid and lasting houses, with resistant wo-oden structures covered with clay mixed with straw

and hay. The craftsmen manufactured tools in eithercarved or polished stone (flint, opal, jasper, etc.),bone, horn or metal (copper), thus showing a highlevel of knowledge.

The ‘Queen’ of prehistoric pottery, the Cucutenianceramics (Figs. 1, 2, 3) represent the most eloquentproof not only of a perfect mastery of pottery (pro-duction and temperature control and clay model-ling), but also of an extremely well-developed aesthe-tic sense that gave birth to genuine and unrivalledprehistoric masterpieces. The decorations on this pot-tery is proof of a remarkable aesthetic sense and, atthe same time, of a very complex spiritual life. Theprehistoric craftsmen created characteristic decora-tions for each of the three evolutional stages of the

ABSTRACT – Two analytical methods – 241Am-based X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Synchrotron Ra-diation X-ray Diffraction (SR-XRD) – were used to investigate the elemental and mineralogical com-position of pigments which decorate some Cucuteni Neolithic ceramic sherds. Local hematite and lo-cal calcite were the main components for red and white pigments, respectively. For black pigments,iron oxides (e.g. magnetite) were used. They were often mixed with manganese oxides (e.g. jacob-site), which originated from Iacobeni manganese minerals deposits on the Bistrita River. Taking intoaccount the results of the experiments, several conclusions regarding manufacturing procedures em-ployed, and potential trade routes during the Neolithic were drawn.

IZVLE∞EK – Za dolo≠anje elementarne in mineralo∏ke sestave pigmentov, s katerimi so okra∏ene ne-katere kerami≠ne posode kulture Cucuteni, sta bili uporabljeni dve analitski metodi – 241Am X-RayFluorescence (XRF) in Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Diffraction (SR-XRD). Lokalni hematit in kalcitsta bila glavni komponenti rde≠ih oziroma belih pigmentov. Za ≠rne pigmente so uporabljali ∫elezo-ve okside (magnetit). Pogosto so jih zme∏ali z manganovimi oksidi (jakobsitom), ki izvirajo iz Iaco-beni manganovih mineralnih depozitov reke Bistrita. ∞e upo∏tevamo rezultate poizkusov, lahko po-tegnemo ve≠ zaklju≠kov o uporabljenih proizvodnih postopkih in o mo∫nih trgovskih poteh v ≠asuneolitika.

KEY WORDS – Cucuteni-Tripolye; ceramics; pigments; XRF; SR-XRD

Bogdan Constantinescu, Roxana Bugoi, Emmanuel Pantos, Dragomir Popovici

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culture, with the use of incised lines, flutings and co-lours (white, black and red), using the spiral as anessential decorative element on the external (andsometimes, internal) surface of the pots. It is almostcertain that the colours had magical significance: red= life (blood), white = the good (light), and black =the evil (darkness).

In the following lines, the previous results obtainedon Cucuteni ceramics by using X-Ray Fluorescence(XRF), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and other specificmineralogical methods will be reviewed. By meansof the XRF and powder diffraction analysis of a num-ber of Cucuteni sherds from the Poduri settlement(Bacau district – 50 km East of the Bistrita River)were analyzed by Niculescu and Coltos (Niculescu,Coltos and Popovici 1982.205–206). They pointedout that the chromatophorous minerals of the white,red and dark brown pigments were calcium silicate,hematite, and jacobsite respectively, confirming theresults obtained for other Cucuteni-Tripolye settle-ments by Stos-Gale and Rook (1981.155– 161).

In a synthetic study of Cucuteni-Tripolye culture,Ellis (1980.211–230) made a technological characte-rization of the Cucutenian pottery. The X-ray diffra-ction and microscopic analyses were aimed at deter-mining the mineralogical components of the ceramiccomposition, and the pigments used in the paintingof the pottery. The results showed that the sources ofclay were local; the black pigment came from manga-nese ores in the region, the red pigment from thealteration of the iron minerals, and the white frommarls and kaolins. In late Cucuteni culture was fired

in kilns with a controlled atmosphere, the tempera-tures in the kilns reaching 1000–1100 °C.

A comprehensive study of Cucuteni ceramics fromNorthern Moldova (including pigments issue) hasbeen made by Gâta in (Marinescu-Bâlcu and Bolo-mey 2000.111–131).

Summarizing the results from all the above referen-ces, it can be stated that the pigments used for theCucuteni ceramics painting were mineral pigmentsincluding clay minerals, quartz, and feldspars, with-out iron and manganese oxides for the white chro-

Fig. 1. Cucuteni A pottery, excavated from Podurisite.

Fig. 2. Cucuteni A pottery, excavated from Podurisite.

Fig. 3. Cucuteni A pottery (Romanian National Hi-story Museum).

Phase and chemical composition analysis of pigments used in Cucuteni Neolithic painted ceramics

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mes, with iron oxides for the red chromes, and withmanganese oxides for the brownish-black chromes.These pigments were prepared starting from diffe-rent coloured clays as raw materials by powdering,dispersion in water, separation of the fine fractionby decantation, and drying. In general, the pigmentparticle dimensions were of 5–15 µm, based on thewidth at half intensity of the quartz line at 4.26 Å(Sherrer’s law). The raw materials were cementsand concretions with manganese oxides (birnesiteand manganite – very often found in Iacobeni depo-sits) for the brownish-black chromes, iron and man-ganese concretions, cambic horizons or lehms (goe-thite – α-FOOH brown-red-brown-yellow colour andlepidocrocite) for the red chromes, and a loam with-out iron and manganese oxides for the white chro-me. Through firing, the iron oxides, goethite and le-pidocrocite, were transformed into hematite (Fe2O3 –reddish-grey-white colour) for the red chromes, themanganese oxides, birnesite and manganite, intobixbyite, and more rarely into jacobsite, dependingon the iron and manganese content, and rarely intohaussmanite. The firing of the clay minerals causedthe predominant components to transform into oxi-des in the process of crystallization, and at a tempe-rature of over 900°C, γ Al2O3 appeared. The fine-ness of the pigment particles and their mineralogi-cal composition indicate that the raw material forthe pigments came from the proximity of the settle-ment, or from the region. The experimental prepara-tion of pigments with brownish black and red chromefrom cemented sand, iron and manganese concre-tions, and reddish clays, and the similar composition,chromes and fineness thus obtained proved thatthese were the sources for pigments.

White pigment was prepared from loam deprived ofchromophorous oxides; analyses of white and of itssources were identical when the former had not un-dergone firing.

The firm adhesion of the pigments to the vessel wallswas explained by their smectite content, a clay mi-neral that gives the required adhesion. Neither theclay, nor the pigments had calcareous concretions ornoticeable amounts of carbonates dispersed in the fa-bric, and their source appeared to be a layer leachedof carbonates. The grain conglomerate structure ofthe medium and course fabric, the large amounts ofiron and manganese concretions and broken sherdsin the ceramic mass, and the presence of remainsfrom pigment preparation, indicated their employ-ment as an admixture in the fabric of vessels withthicker walls.

Regarding the technological aspects of ceramics pro-duction, the pottery was fired in an oxidizing atmo-sphere, in kilns with a combustion chamber and fi-ring chamber separated by a perforated grate. AllCucuteni ceramics in the settlement were invariablyfired according to an imported program. When thetemperature rose too quickly to the nominal firingtemperature during the initial stage, fissures and fir-ing cracks appeared in the ceramic mass. The conti-nuous firing stage was thoroughly maintained at anominal temperature of 800–900°C, which couldbe assessed by the uniform and complete firing ofmost vessels. A slow cooling stage followed, lastingat least half a day, with draught reduced to a mini-mum, allowing the complete transformation of βquartz into α quartz. The hue of the brownish-blackpigment, whose colour was rendered especially bymanganese hydroxides (possibly birnesite and man-ganite), became more intense by firing, due to theformation of bixbyite in most of the cases, of jacob-site more rarely, and of hausmanite accidentally, ac-cording to the content of iron and manganese oxidesand the firing temperature. Lepidocrocite and goe-thite in the red pigments always turned into hema-tite. Clay minerals in the white pigment were dehy-droxylated, and the formation of γ Al2O3 occurredexclusively in the fragments fired at a temperatureabove 900°C.

Experimental

For this study, two analytical methods were used:241Am based XRF and powder SR-XRD. The analyzedceramics sherds were selected from the collection ofthe National Museum of Romanian History in Bucha-rest.

XRF is an analytical method used for the determina-tion of elemental composition. It consists of the de-tection of the characteristic X-ray emitted by the ana-lyzed object as a consequence of its bombardmentwith photons of suitable energy (tens of keV at most).The analytical method is sensitive (minimum detec-tion limits in the order of parts per million – ppm),fast, and, most important when dealing with archa-eological artefacts, non-destructive.

For the XRF measurements performed in this study,a spectrometer consisting of a 30 mCi 241Am annu-lar gamma-source and a Si(Li) detector (180 eVFWHM at 5.9 keV resolution) was used. The elemen-tal intensities data were normalized to their totalbackground spectrum counts – the sum of all charac-teristic X-rays intensities for the excitation source –


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respectively, and subtracted from their correspon-ding normalized paste composition. Due to the pig-ments layers strong non-homogeneity and to avoiddifficult calibration procedures, only the ratios ofthe main characteristic elements were used.

XRD is capable of providing qualitative and someti-mes quantitative information on regarding the pha-ses (e.g. compounds) composition. The analyticalmethod is based on the fact that the wavelengths ofX-rays are of the same order of magnitude as the di-stances between atoms or ions in a molecule or cry-stal (~1 Å = 10–10 m). Therefore, a crystal – or a cry-stalline powder – diffracts an X-ray beam passingthrough it, producing beams at specific angles de-pending on the X-ray wavelength, the crystal orien-tation, and the structure of the crystal. By analyzingthe resulting diffraction pattern, information on thephases present in the analyzed sample are obtained.However, XRD is a destructive method, a certainamount of sample (e.g. crystalline powder) being ne-cessary for the analysis, the measurements takingplace in transmission mode.

Using conventional XRD in pottery analysis, majorphases can be identified. However, in the case of ar-chaeological objects, when the amount of sample tobe analyzed has to be as small as possible, it is neces-sary to use the best experimental facilities. The ad-vent of synchrotron radiation sources promoted themethod of Synchrotron Radiation-X Ray Diffraction(SR-XRD), which became a powerful tool for detailedstructural determination and mineral phase studies(Uda 2000.758–761). Its success is due to the factthat minute amounts of sample can be analyzed in avery short time (Tang 2001.1015–1024).

In particular, this experiment was focused on findingthe composition of the pigments used to decoratesome Cucuteni ceramics sherds. As special case is theone of the black pigments, the main candidates be-long to three categories: graphite, manganese mine-rals and/or iron compounds. From previous analy-ses reported in Dumitrescu (1985) it is known thatfor Gumelnita (3500–2500 BC) culture, graphite, andfor Petresti (3500–2500 BC) culture magnetite wereused.

The SR-XRD measurements were performed at twolocations: at the Synchrotron Radiation Source (SRS),Daresbury Laboratory (DL), UK, and at MAX-lab,Lund, Sweden. Some of the SR-XRD data were takenat station 14.1 of the SRS, by employing X–ray of1.488 Å wavelength, 0.2x0.2 mm beam size and a

flux of 1013 photons/s. The detection of the diffrac-tion pattern was performed using a Quantum 4 ADSCCCD detector, which collects two-dimensional dif-fraction patterns of 2304x2304 pixels. The measure-ments were performed in transmission mode withan acquisition time of 30 seconds.

The pigment powders were gently scratched fromsome tens of ceramics sherds using a diamond file.The pigments were taken from areas of different co-lours (white, red and brown/black), as well as fromthe clay. Clay powders from all the sherds were alsomeasured in order to compare any contribution inthe diffraction patterns of the pigments, taking intoaccount the fact that the painted layers were verythin (tens of µm), and it was likely to have somepowder from the ceramic body in the sample extrac-ted from the decorated surface.

At DL the powders were put in a sample cassette ha-ving 36 holes, each of them having as a backingScotch tape®. The powders were pressed onto theScotch tape and the excess powder was removed inorder to have only a thin layer of it on the tape. Theoverall acquisition time per sample was minimizedby the fact the cassette position (i.e. from a hole tothe neighboring one) was moved under computercontrol from outside the station hutch. Silicon pow-der was used as a standard mineral phase, in orderto determine the distance between sample and de-tector and the centre of the diffraction pattern – bothrequired in order to reduce the data to intensity ver-sus 2θ angle graphs for further analysis.

The data reduction was performed by using the FIT-2D package (the integration of the diffraction rings).The mineral phase identification was carried outwith the aid of the ICDD (International Centre forDiffraction Data) ®/JCPDS (Joint Committee forPowder Diffraction Studies) database, as well as thesearch-match procedures using the X’Pert HighScorePlus and XPLOT software available at DL. The tapebackground has been subtracted for all the spectrausing X’Pert HighScore Plus software.

The MAX II measurements were performed at beamline 7.11 using the Huber G670 imaging-plate Guinercamera (Ståhl 2000.394–396) installed on crystal-lgraphy beamline I711 at the MAX II synchrotron,Lund, Sweden (Cerenius et al. 2000.203–208). Thesamples – powder on Scotch tape – were exposed for1200 s each to synchrotron radiation of 1.364 Å wa-velength.


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The analysis of the experimental data began withthe identification of the relevant pigments using theDiffrac Plus data base of mineralogical compoundsat MAX II. Further analysis consisted of the construc-tion of the diffraction pattern using the data base in-formation, followed by comparison with the resultsobtained from measurements after background sub-traction.

SR-XRD was used as a very accurate method to dis-tinguish different clays and mineral pigments of va-rious Neolithic pottery-producing centers located onRomanian territory, most of them belonging to Cu-cuteni-Tripolye painted Neolithic ceramics.

Ceramics sherds belonging to the following cultures:Cris-Star≠evo (6000–4500 BC), the oldest Neolithicalculture, which covered the whole Balkan Peninsulaand Carpathian Basin, Vin≠a (4200–3500 BC), Tisza-polgar (4500–3500 BC), Petresti (3500–2500 BC),Gumelnita (3500–2500 BC), with its most spectacu-lar archaeological site: the golden cemetery at Var-na, were also studied. The extension of the study toother cultures was due to the fact that the type andquantity of clay minerals and non-plastic inclusionsin the clay can vary from region to region and thecomposition can be altered by the preparation pro-cedure and manufacturing process.

Results

Painted (red-white-brown-black) Cucuteni sherds(Cucuteni A period) found in Moldova in sites situa-ted in Bistrita Valley down the river (Izvoare, Calu,Casaria, Ghelaiesti) were analyzed.

The XRF measurements revealed that for the black(dark brown or chocolate black) colour Mn and Fewere the main elements (see Fig. 4). For provenancestudies, the Mn/Fe ratio is significant because, due tothe very close energy values of the X-rays emittedfrom both atoms, the matrix effects due to the pre-sence of major (and lighter) elements can be assu-med to have the same effect on the numerator anddenominator. Three groups of sherds were found:Mn/Fe = 1/20, 1/5, 1/3 (1/20 is a normal value fora common soil). In the area of Cucuteni culture thereare two main Mn deposits: Iacobeni, up to the Bistri-ta River 150 km north of our analyzed sites in Mol-dova, where the Mn/Fe ratio is under 3/10; and Kri-voi Rog (Nikolaev) on the Dnepr River in Ukraine,where the Mn/Fe ratio is from 8/10 up to 10/10.The results obtained strongly suggest the use of Ia-cobeni Mn minerals.

Concerning the white colour, Ca is the main element,the pigment raw material being a light clay (typekaolin) found relatively frequently in the region.

For the red colour we found Fe and Ti, concludingthat the pigment is an iron-rich, clay-based one, withTi used as reinforcing agent.

The analyzed clay was found to be of local prove-nances, with great variation in composition (e.g. alot of Ca for the central region of Transylvania, a lotof Fe for Moldova and Banat, a lot of K in the North-East Transylvania). No clue regarding possible com-mercial exchanges was obtained from taking into ac-count these results. When the black colour was closeto dark brown, the compositional studies revealedFe oxides in its content. Indications of the use of car-bon from bones (Central Transylvania), but alsofrom graphite (Gumelnita culture), in which connec-tions with the Neolithic graphite mines in North-EastBulgaria were revealed. The most interesting case isthe site from Cris-Star≠evo situated in Oltenia (Sal-cuta), where Mn was detected as pyrolusite. This mi-neral was abundant in the North of Greece and lar-gely used in the 4th–5th centuries BC to produce thefamous Attic black glass sherds. A possible commer-cial connection South-North in the Balkan Peninsulacan thus be deduced. In order to confirm this hypo-thesis, other Neolithic sites in the area of the Carpa-thian Mountains– Danube ceramics have to be ana-lyzed.

Regarding the SR-XRD data obtained at DL, UK, thediffraction pattern analysis led to the following con-clusions:

! In some of the sherds with black decoration thatshowed the presence of Mn in XRF spectra, several

Fig. 4. Cucuteni black pigment XRF spectrum.


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varieties of jacobsite (Fe2MnO4) from the ICDD data-base fit the position and relative intensity of five ofthe peaks reasonably well. On the basis of the XRFdata that showed a clear presence of Mn in thesetwo samples, it was concluded that jacobsite is pre-sent in the black colour decoration of these samples,but with a slightly modified chemical formula whereFe and Mn are reduced in weight due to the presenceof other metal atoms, such as Mg, that alter the cry-stal lattice slightly. Magnesian jacobsite showed thebest fit for the position and relative intensity of thepeaks in the data (see Fig. 5).

! In other sherds, the brown/black colour was dueto the presence of magnetite (iron oxide Fe3O4).

! A considerable amount of time was spent trying toidentify black pigment patterns other than jacobsite,such as graphite, and other Fe and Mn compounds,such as hausmannite, pyrite, pyrolusite, bixbyite, py-roxmangite, manganite, despujolsite, and rhodonite.Graphite is hard to resolve in the acquired diffractionpatterns, since it exhibits a strong overlap at 3.4 Åwith the quartz peak, which is situated at 3.34 Å;however, since the other peaks of graphite were notfound in the black pigment diffraction patterns, thehypothesis of using carbon based pigments can notbe supported. None of the above mentioned Fe andMn minerals were found in any of the black pigmentsamples.

! Although the white colour was explained by theprevious measurements on similar sherds as result-ing either from calcite, kaolinite or from gypsum, thepresent data led to the conclusion that only in oneof the sherds was some calcite found, as well as someaugite (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Cucuteni white pigment SR-XRD spectrum.

Fig. 5. Cucuteni black pigment SR-XRD spectrum.

! The red colour seems to come from the higher con-tent in hematite of the powder (see Fig. 7). Hematitealso seems to be a component of the correspondingceramic body, but in much smaller amounts.

! The ceramic body samples contain silicates, diop-side being identifying as a well matching phase inmost of the samples.

The SR-XRD data obtained in Lund, Sweden, led tothe clear identification of the black pigment compo-sition from Cucuteni in Northern Moldavia and Ari-usd in South-Eastern Transylvania type pottery (6th–4th millennia BC): pyroxmangite (rodonite), an ironmanganese silicate (Fe2+, Mn2+·CaMn4[Si5O15]) forhigh-temperature, ≥600 °C, fired pottery (the advan-ced Cucuteni ceramics types A and B), and a mixtureof goethite (αFeO-OH), haussmanite (MnMn2O4), ja-cobsite (Fe2MnO4), bixbyite (Mn, Fe)2O3 and psilome-lane (MnO + MnO2 + H2O in variable proportions) for

Fig. 7. Cucuteni red pigment SR-XRD spectrum.


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pottery fired at low temperature (≤400 °C) (the pri-mitive pre-Cucuteni type C).

Historically, all these minerals have their origin inthe North Moldavian mineral deposits of Iacobeni,leading to the conclusion that Neolithic trade routesalready existed, covering approximately 500 km withthe crossing of the Carpathians along the Bistrita Ri-ver. In the same samples there was no evidence ofpyrolusite (MnO2) and manganite [MnO(OH)], themain components of Ukrainian Nikopol manganesedeposit (used as black pigment source by contempo-rary Tripolye Neolithic culture). Other important re-sults were the identification of magnetite (iron oxideFe3O4) as the main component for the black pig-ments of the Central Transylvania Petresti culture(4200–3500 BC), and the identification of graphiteas black pigment for Oltenia Star≠evo-Cris culture ce-ramics (6th–5th millennia BC), most probably fromNorthern Bulgaria graphite deposits. Finally, theblack color of some carbon-based pigments is due totheir organic origin (bone or wood) and it was quitechallenging to identify them for several Cucutenisherds from North-Eastern Moldavia.

We can suppose that the transportation from Iacobe-ni downriver of the Mn and Fe containing clays usedas raw materials for pigments was done by raft (na-vigation on rafts made of conifers logs tied togetherusing plant fibre ropes). In this area, rafting is a tra-ditional means of transporting timber (wood used incarpentry and in house building), mentioned in do-cuments as early as the 14th century.

The white pigment composition appears as a combi-nation of calcite (CaCO3) for Cucuteni culture and ascalcium silicates mixed with aluminum silicate-illite{(K,H2))Al2[(H2O, OH)2]AlSi3O10} for Petresti culture(Transylvania). As expected, the measurements haveshown the presence of hematite (iron oxide Fe2O3) asthe main component for red pigments for all thesherds examined. The clay examined for all thesherds was identified as of local provenance. It canbe stated that the pigments used for the examinedNeolithic ceramics painted sherds were mineral pig-

ments including clay minerals, quartz and feldspars,with manganese oxides for the brownish-black chro-mes, with iron oxides for the red chromes, and with-out iron or manganese oxides for the white chromes.Through firing, the manganese oxides were trans-formed into bixbyite, and more rarely into jacobsite,depending on the iron and manganese content, andrarely into haussmanite at temperatures less than400°C, and into piroxmangite at temperatures hig-her than 600°C. Correspondingly, the iron oxideswere transformed into hematite for the red chromes.

Conclusions

The conclusion of this study is that the pigments usedto decorate Cucuteni Neolithic ceramics were mainlybased on iron oxides for the red hues, and calciumsilicate and calcium carbonate for the white, whilethe black pigment was due to different iron and man-ganese compounds, such as magnetite and jacobsite.It is obvious that during this Neolithic period potteryworkshops extended greatly over the present Roma-nian territory, local clays being mostly used. How-ever, in the case of black pigments a type of primi-tive trade is evident. It is worth mentioning here thatour findings are in good agreement with previousXRD and mineralogical studies, proving the use ofthe local manganese deposits from Iacobeni as blackpigments sources for the Cucuteni ceramics in thisarea of Moldova.

EU COST G8 ‘Non-destructive analysis and museumtesting’ action – for funding one of the authors (Ro-xana Bugoi) Short Term Scientific Mission at DL, UK.EU – Research Infrastructure Action under the FP6‘Structuring the European Research Area’ Program-me (through the Integrated Infrastructure Initiative‘Integrating Activity on Synchrotron and Free Elec-tron Laser Science’) – for the financial support provi-ded for the beam-times at MAX-lab, Sweden. Dr. YngveCerenius and the staff of beam-line I711, MAX-lab,Sweden. The staff of beam-line 14.1 of SRS, DL, UK.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


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ELLIS L. 1980. Analysis of Cucuteni-Tripolye and Kurganpottery and the implications for ceramic technology. Jour-nal for Indo-European studies, vol. 8 (1–2): 211–230.

GÂTAG. 2000. A Technological Survey of the Pottery. InMarinescu Bâlcu S. and Bolomey A. (eds.), Draguseni. ACucutenian Community. Archeologia Romanica II se-ries. Editura Enciclopedica. Wasmuth Verlag. Bucuresti,Tübingen: 111–131.

MARINESCU-BÂLCU M. and BOLOMEY A. 2000.Draguseni. A Cucutenian Community. Archeologia Ro-manica II series. Editura Enciclopedica. Wasmuth Verlag.Bucuresti, Tübingen.

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