phosphate mining and reclamation -...

2012, FLORIDA INDUSTRIAL AND PHOSPHATE RESEARCH INSTITUTE 1855 West Main Street • Bartow, FL 33830-7718

(863) 534-7160 • Fax (863) 534-7165 • www.fipr.state.fl.us

Phosphate Mining and Reclamation

A high school grade level unit

created by

Roberta Matousek

George Jenkins High School

Polk County, FL

Phosphate Mining and Reclamation 2

FLORIDA INDUSTRIAL AND PHOSPHATE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

DISCLAIMER

The contents of this teaching unit are reproduced herein as received from the teachers who

authored the unit. The unit has been peer-reviewed and edited in compliance with the FIPR

Institute Education Program lesson plan style.

Mention of company names or products does not constitute endorsement by the Florida

Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute.



Unit Summary

Dear Teachers,

Most students learn best if they can have hands-on activities and are given a chance to apply

what they learn. This unit is designed to give the students opportunities to learn the phosphate

mining process, the characteristics of different natural habitats in Florida, and how to restore

mined land to a diverse natural ecosystem.

The first lesson introduces the students to the four aspects of the phosphate business: mining,

beneficiation, manufacture of fertilizer and animal feed supplements, and reclamation. The

second lesson demonstrates the economics involved in mining and reclamation. Lesson 3

outlines the requirement for the students to conduct a real-life reclamation project. Each of the

subsequent lessons details a required component in completing the reclamation project. This unit

will take at least four weeks.

Some of the key activities are:

Phosphate mining simulation

Identifying a local site that has been degraded due to human activity

Identifying the soil characteristics at the disturbed site

Restoring a degraded site

Presenting a project to fellow classmates

The students that participated in this project have real-life experiences in cooperative decision

making with their teams; they learn how diverse natural habitats are and how difficult and costly

it is to restore degraded ecosystems. Students complete this unit feeling like they accomplished a

lot toward making their environment a better place for wildlife.

Florida Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute

1855 W Main Street

Bartow, FL 33830

(863) 534-7160



Perspective

Florida’s natural beauty, seen in its many diverse habitats, is perhaps one of its greatest assets. That

is why it is easy to understand the concern over the disruption to the environment brought about by

phosphate mining activities.

Many years ago, most mined out areas were simply left and the resulting landscape took on the look

of an alien world. The term “moonscape” was coined to describe the mine cuts and spoil piles left

behind. Over time, nature took its course, and these areas became homes to wildlife and places for

recreational activities, especially fishing.

However, society became more concerned about preserving the quality of the environment as

communities moved closer to mining and processing areas. The phosphate industry came under

increasing pressure to return the landscape to a condition similar to the way it was before it was

mined. Activists pressed for increased regulations to protect certain ecologically sensitive areas from

being mined at all.

In 1975, a law was passed in Florida that made reclamation of phosphate-mined land mandatory.

Reclamation means returning the land to a beneficial use after mining. Today, mining cannot begin

without a reclamation plan in place. The development of such a plan includes regulators, members of

the public and the companies. Land mined before 1975 is eligible to be reclaimed through a state

program financed with a portion of the severance tax the Florida phosphate industry pays on the rock

it mines.

This unit should benefit any teacher exploring Florida’s natural resources and habitats who would

like their students to do an independent habitat study of their own. Much like a reclamation plan is

submitted to the Department of Environmental Protection, students will learn about habitats and

apply the information to their own site. Like the phosphate company before they mine, they will

conduct a detailed study of the land to identify plants, animals, soil types, water supplies and any

potential archaeological sites. Then they will decide how they want to reclaim the land that has been

disturbed by human activity and how they will continue to monitor it, taking on the roles of

biologists, ecologists, geologists, botanists, hydrologists and civil engineers.

This unit shows that the value of land as wildlife habitat is important. As growth and development

have destroyed wildlife habitat elsewhere, reclaimed land provides a much-needed refuge for all

kinds of bird, fish, and animal life. Careful planning of reclamation projects has allowed for the

creation of wildlife corridors, which allow animals to roam between mined and unmined areas.

Roberta Matousek took the information she learned about phosphate mining and reclamation from

the FIPR Institute and used it to enhance her high school biology classes. Students were engaged in

scientific inquiry when they were doing their own projects. By having the students create maps of

their sites and do oral presentations of their projects in front of the class, the unit incorporated

language arts and social studies benchmarks as well, making the unit multidisciplinary.

This unit will challenge any teacher to take his/her students’ interaction with the content to a higher

level of understanding and greater sense of ownership as students gain the knowledge and skills that

the state of Florida expects them to master.



Table of Contents

Concept Map 6

Next Generation Sunshine State Standards 7

Specific Objectives 10

List of Activities 11

Unit Vocabulary 12

Unit Vocabulary Definitions 13

Pre/Post Test 18

Lesson Plans

1. Overview of the Phosphate Business 16

2. Mining Economics: Cookie Mining 28

3. Understanding Requirements of Site Reclamation Project 34

4. Florida Plants 45

5. Phosphate Land Reclamation 48

6. Soil Analysis 64

7. Culminating Activities 71

List of Materials 73



Concept Map



Next Generation Sunshine State Standards

Science Benchmarks

SC.912.L.15.5 Explain the reasons for changes in how organisms are classified.

SC.912.L.17.1 Discuss the characteristics of populations, such as number of individuals, age

structure, density, and pattern of distribution.

SC.912.L.17.4 Describe changes in ecosystems resulting from seasonal variations, climate

change and succession.

SC.912.L.17.8 Recognize the consequences of the losses of biodiversity due to catastrophic

events, climate changes, human activity, and the introduction of invasive, non-

native species.

SC.912.L.17.9 Use a food web to identify and distinguish producers, consumers, and

decomposers. Explain the pathway of energy transfer through trophic levels

and the reduction of available energy at successive trophic levels.

SC.912.L.17.11 Evaluate the costs and benefits of renewable and nonrenewable resources,

such as water, energy, fossil fuels, wildlife, and forests.

SC.912.L.17.12 Discuss the political, social, and environmental consequences of sustainable

use of land.

SC.912.L.17.13 Discuss the need for adequate monitoring of environmental parameters when

making policy decisions.

SC.912.L.17.15 Discuss the effects of technology on environmental quality.

SC.912.L.17.16 Discuss the large-scale environmental impacts resulting from human activity,

including waste spills, oil spills, runoff, greenhouse gases, ozone depletion,

and surface and groundwater pollution.

SC.912.L.17.17 Assess the effectiveness of innovative methods of protecting the environment.

SC.912.L.17.18 Describe how human population size and resource use relate to environmental

quality.

SC.912.L.17.19 Describe how different natural resources are produced and how their rates of

use and renewal limit availability.

SC.912.L.17.20 Predict the impact of individuals on environmental systems and examine how

human lifestyles affect sustainability.



SC.912.N.1.1 Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example:

biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science, and do the following:

1. pose questions about the natural world,

2. conduct systematic observations,

3. examine books and other sources of information to see what is already

known,

4. review what is known in light of empirical evidence,

5. plan investigations,

6. use tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data (this includes the use of

measurement in metric and other systems, and also the generation and

interpretation of graphical representations of data, including data

tables and graphs),

7. pose answers, explanations, or descriptions of events,

8. generate explanations that explicate or describe natural phenomena

(inferences),

9. use appropriate evidence and reasoning to justify these explanations to

others,

10. communicate results of scientific investigations, and

11. evaluate the merits of the explanations produced by others.

SC.912.N.1.7 Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods

and explanations.

Language Arts Benchmarks

LA.1112.5.2.3 The student will use research and visual aids to deliver oral presentations that

inform, persuade, or entertain, and evaluates one’s own and others’ oral

presentations according to designed rubric criteria;

LA.1112.1.7.3 The student will determine the main idea or essential message in grade-level

or higher texts through inferring, paraphrasing, summarizing, and identifying

relevant details and facts;

LA.1112.5.2.4 The student will use appropriate eye contact, body movements, and voice

register for audience engagement in formal and informal speaking situations;

and

LA.1112.5.2.5 The student will research and organize information and demonstrate effective

speaking skills and behaviors for a variety of formal and informal purposes.

LA.1112.4.2.2 The student will record information and ideas from primary and/or secondary

sources accurately and coherently, noting the validity and reliability of these

sources and attributing sources of information;

LA.1112.4.2.5 The student will write detailed travel directions and design an accompanying

graphic using the cardinal and ordinal directions, landmarks, streets and

highways, and distances.



Social Studies Benchmarks

SS.912.G.1.2 Use spatial perspective and appropriate geographic terms and tools, including

the Six Essential Elements, as organizational schema to describe any given

place.

SS.912.G.3.2 Use geographic terms and tools to explain how weather and climate influence

the natural character of a place.



Specific Objectives

The students will...

Lesson 1

1. Build background knowledge of mining and processing of phosphate.

2. Know the terms and steps associated with phosphate mining, beneficiation, manufacture of

fertilizer, and reclamation.

3. Participate in small group discussions.

4. Participate in a “partners check” of handout questions.

5. Participate in explaining and organizing the steps in a phosphate flow chart.

Lesson 2 1. Simulate the evaluation and decision making process that affects profit. 2. Students will calculate whether their decisions led their company to produce a profit or go into

debt. 3. Students will appreciate the substantial reduction in profits due to the cost of reclaiming the land

and restoring it to a diversified habitat.

Lesson 3

1. Locate a natural site that has been disturbed by man’s activities and secure permission to study

and reclaim the property.

2. Complete the reclamation work and all required field tests on the site.

3. Write a highly structured report detailing their restoration activities in a prescribed way.

4. Work collaboratively with a partner to complete the assignment.

Lesson 4

1. Identify native plants by key features.

2. Identify exotic plants by key features.

Lesson 5

1. Read nonfiction text independently for factual information.

2. Work cooperatively in groups in an assigned role and contribute to a group project.

3. Share information orally with the class.

4. Answer an open-ended question in class discussion/brainstorming session.

5. Synthesize previously discussed information.

6. Formulate a logical reclamation plan, make a schematic drawing to represent that plan, and track

changes to that plan over time.

Lesson 6

1. Complete a soil sample and soil texture analysis on the chosen natural site.

2. Follow directions on the lab sheet to complete the soil texture analysis.

3. Interpret the results of their test to correctly identify the soil texture of their soil.

4. Follow directions on the lab sheet to complete the soil percolation rate test.

5. Interpret the results of their test to correctly identify the percolation rate of their soil. Write a lab

report that describes their soil from the results of the soil texture and percolation tests.

Lesson 7

1. Write a reflective report that describes specific learning and attitudes they developed.

2. Report anticipated benefits of the planned restoration project to the class.

3. Give an oral presentation about their restoration project.

4. Understand the benefits of reclamation.

5. Appreciate the importance and effort required to maintain natural balance in ecosystems.



List of Activities

Lesson 1: Overview of the Phosphate Business

Pre Test 18

Pre/Post Test Answer Key 20

Florida Counties Map 21

Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate 22

Steps in Phosphate Mining 26

Lesson 2: Mining Economics: Cookie Mining

Cookie Mining Activity 31

Cookie Mining Worksheet 32

Lesson 3: Understanding Requirements of Site Reclamation Project

Checklist for Site Reclamation Project 36

Project Timeline 38

Permission Slip (Habitat Restoration Project) 40

Habitat Restoration Project Worksheet 41

Photo Reference List 43

Lesson 4: Florida Plants

Identify Native and Exotic Plants 46

Major Land-based Florida Biological Communities 47

Lesson 5: Phosphate Land Reclamation

Reclamation Strategies and Stages 51

Concepts of Planned Reclamation 54

Mined Site Parameters 63

Lesson 6: Soil Analysis

Soil Texture Test 66

Percolation Rate Lab 67

Soil Sample Analysis Worksheet 68

Soil Triangle Instructions 69

Lesson 7: Culminating Activities

Final Report for Reclamation Project 71

Post Test 18



Unit Vocabulary

Beneficiation

Coastal strand

Contouring

Dragline

Ecosystem

Estuary

Exotic

FIPR Institute

Growth plan

Gypsum

Habitat network

Hydric hammock

Loss

Mangrove swamp

Matrix

Mesic hammock

Monoculture

Native

Non-ornamental

Overburden

Percolation

Phosphogypsum

Profit

Reclamation

Retention

Scrub habitat

Slash pine

Slurry

Sulfuric Acid

Water Table

Wetlands

Xeric hammock



Unit Vocabulary Definitions

Beneficiation: Separating a wanted material from other material contained in a mixture.

In the case of phosphate, where the mixture is called “matrix,” this means

separating clay and sand from the phosphate rock.

Coastal strand: Low, shrubby, plant community that develops on low dunes paralleling the

coast. Typical plant communities include dense thickets of sea grape,

prickly-pear cactus, poison ivy, Spanish bayonet, wax myrtle, salt myrtle,

coral bean, saw palmetto, and other shrubs.

Contouring: Filling holes, leveling, and reshaping disturbed land in order to maximize

function and minimize erosion.

Dragline: A large machine used in excavation. In the Florida phosphate industry,

draglines with large bucket capacities are used to remove the overburden

and excavate the phosphate matrix.

Ecosystem: A natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms in an

area functioning together with all of the physical factors of the

environment.

Estuary: The near-shore areas where outflows of freshwater rivers and streams mix with

salt water of the ocean or sea resulting in brackish water (a mixture of and salt

water). Estuaries are important "nursery areas" for many fish and invertebrate

species.

Exotic: A species that is not indigenous (not native) to a region.

FIPR Institute: The Florida Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute (FIPR Institute) is the

successor to the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research, which was created

by the Florida Legislature in 1978 to investigate ways to make phosphate

mining and processing more efficient and less harmful to the environment.

FIPR Institute is funded by a portion of the severance tax from phosphate

mining.

Growth plan: A visual or written descriptive projection into the future of how a

particular reclamation planting is expected to grow and expand into

maturity.

Gypsum: A finely-grained solid consisting primarily of calcium sulfate, either

naturally or chemically produced, in which case is referred to as

phosphogypsum.

Habitat network: In land management, the concept of providing connected habitat corridors for

wildlife instead of randomly reclaiming unconnected patches of land.

Hydric hammock: Poorly drained forested areas on sand/clay/organic soil, often over



limestone. Characteristic species include water oak, cabbage palm, red

cedar, red maple, bays, hackberry, hornbeam, black gum, needle palm, and

mixed hardwoods.

Loss: The excess of expenses over income.

Mangrove swamp: A community occurring primarily along saltwater shorelines. Soils are

very poorly drained peat or fine sand underlain by sands or clay. The most

frequently found tree species in this community are red, black and white

mangroves, buttonwood and pond apple.

Matrix: The phosphate-bearing layer or strata, consisting of phosphate rock, clay

and sand, usually found 15-50 feet below the ground surface in the Bone

Valley region of west central Florida.

Mesic hammock: Ecosystem where soils are moist but do not become water logged; they hold

oxygen and drain well, providing a habitat for a mixture of evergreen and

deciduous trees. This ecosystem supports an abundant population of bird

species and the insects that they eat.

Monoculture: An area or habitat that shows very little biodiversity of species.

Native: That which occurs naturally in a particular region, state, ecosystem, and

habitat without direct or indirect human actions.

Ornamental: A plant that is grown primarily for the showy nature of its flowers, leaves

or bark; typically grown as house plants or in outdoor landscaping; many

varieties are non-native; the opposite of this term is non-ornamental

(plants that are naturally recruited or native).

Overburden: The soil or rock that covers a mineral source; dirt miners dig through in

order to reach the matrix below. In Florida this layer is used for

reclamation.

Percolation: The movement of water through openings in the soil.

Phosphogypsum: The co-product formed (a type of gypsum (calcium sulfate)) when digesting

phosphate rock with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid.

Profit: The excess of income over expenses.

Reclamation: The process of rehabilitating lands disturbed by mining so that they serve a

desirable and useful purpose, the result of which may or may not be returning the

land to its original uses and functions.

Retention: The ability of soil to hold water.

Scrub habitat: A specific ecosystem type characterized by the presence of deep, fine sand

soils that are excessively drained. Scrub areas in Florida are the

corresponding areas to ancient beaches when the sea level rose and fell during

the last 24 million years. Typical plant species include sand pine, scrub oaks,



rosemary and lichens. The Lake Wales Ridge scrub areas are among the

oldest plant communities in Florida and are home to high numbers of endemic

and rare species.

Slash pine: A species of pine tree in Florida; usually found growing in flatwoods habitats

with poorly drained soil.

Slurry: A semi-fluid mixture of a liquid (usually water) and insoluble solid particles

such as clays, phosphogypsum or sand.

Sulfuric acid: A strong mineral acid, notated as H2SO4, made by burning molten sulfur in

the presence of air, followed by hydration. Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive,

especially on reactive metals. In phosphate fertilizer production, the

generation of sulfuric acid is the first industrial step, as it subsequently used

to digest (or dissolve) the phosphate rock to form phosphoric acid and

phosphogypsum in a replacement reaction.

Water table: Refers to the depth beneath the surface of the ground where the upper limit of

the groundwater can be detected.

Wetlands: An area that is saturated by surface or ground water with vegetation adapted

for life under those soil conditions, such as swamps, bogs, fens, marshes, and

estuaries.

Xeric hammock: Areas where soils are dry and contain ample oxygen to meet plant needs. Rain

water drains rapidly from xeric soils. Oaks and hickory are abundant in this habitat,

which has a wide diversity of animal species such as squirrels, wild turkey and

hogs, deer, toads, snakes, owls, opossums, and armadillos.



Lesson 1: Overview of the Phosphate Business

Author: Roberta Matousek

Introduction:

Florida phosphate is found in a matrix approximately 15 to 50 feet below the ground. The matrix

that is mined consists of approximately one-third sand, one-third clay and one-third phosphate.

After a reclamation plan has been approved and a permit for mining has been granted, mining

can begin. The process for beneficiation and chemical processing can be found in the Florida’s

Wealth: Phosphate handout.

This lesson assesses students’ prior knowledge of the phosphate industry, then introduces them

to the four aspects of the phosphate business: mining, beneficiation, manufacture of fertilizer

and animal feed supplements, and reclamation.

Activity:

Introduce the vocabulary and teach the steps in the mining and processing of phosphate using the

Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate handout.

Estimated Time:

One—90 minute class

Grade Level:

10-12

Standards: SC.912.L.17.11 SC.912.L.17.19

Objectives:

The students will…

1. Build background knowledge of mining and processing of phosphate.

2. Know the terms and steps associated with phosphate mining, beneficiation, manufacture of

fertilizer, and reclamation.

3. Participate in small group discussions.

4. Participate in a “partners check” of handout questions.

5. Participate in explaining and organizing the steps in a phosphate flow chart.

Vocabulary:

overburden matrix

dragline slurry

beneficiation sulfuric acid

gypsum reclamation

phosphogypsum



Materials:

Pre-test

Map of Florida’s counties

Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate handout

Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate questions

Steps in Phosphate Mining diagram with steps

Steps in Phosphate Mining diagram without the steps

Procedure:

1. Students will take a short pre-test to evaluate what they know about phosphate mining and

reclamation.

2. Divide the students into groups and hand out the map of Florida divided into counties and ask:

a. Which counties contain phosphate deposits? (Hamilton, Columbia, Baker, Union,

Bradford, Clay, Alachua, Putnam, Marion, Lake, Seminole, Orange, Lafayette,

Suwannee, Gilchrist, Levy, Citrus, Sumter, Hernando, Polk, Hillsborough, Manatee,

Hardee, Sarasota and DeSoto)

b. Name a big machine that digs up the phosphate. (dragline)

c. What is phosphate used for? (fertilizer and animal feed)

d. What other material is produced in large quantities during phosphate fertilizer

manufacture? (phosphogypsum)

3. Distribute to each student the handout Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate. Ask the students to read the

handout and perform a “partners check” cooperative learning strategy for answering the

questions.

Analysis/Conclusion:

Answers to questions will be discussed orally in class.

Extension:

1. Give each group a Steps in Mining worksheet and discuss the steps in mining of phosphate.

2. Then distribute the worksheet without the steps and have the groups complete the ten- step

process in their own words.

Teacher Notes:

Make copies of the pre-test

Make copies of the Florida map (1 per group)

Make copies of the handout Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate (1 per student)

Make copies of the questions for the handout Florida’s Wealth: Phosphate (1 per group)

Make copies of the Steps in Phosphate Mining diagram—with and without the steps (1 per group)



Name ____________________________________________ Date ___________

Pre/Post Test

1. In what kinds of activities does the FIPR Institute engage?

a. Lobbying the legislature

b. Making state laws and policies

c. Regulating companies

d. Scientific research and education

e. All of the above

2. Phosphate is used in the human body to __________________.

a. hold DNA together with phosphate bonds

b. provide energy to carry out all cell functions

c. strengthen bones and teeth

d. all of the above

e. none of the above

3. What is the role of the soil when growing plants?

a. To act as a medium for plant growth

b. To provide nutrients for the plant

c. To hold and release water

d. All of the above

e. None of the above

4. The steps of the mining process before beneficiation, in chronological order, are:

a. Survey land, clear vegetation, strip overburden, mine phosphate.

b. Strip overburden, clear vegetation, mine phosphate, survey land.

c. Survey land, strip overburden, clear vegetation, mine phosphate.

d. Clear vegetation, survey land, strip overburden, mine phosphate.


5. The most comprehensive definition of reclamation is: __________________.

a. restoring to original habitat

b. making the land useful again

c. replanting native species

d. controlling exotic species

e. removing invasive species

6. Which simple machines are involved in mining of phosphate?

a. Inclined plane

b. Lever

c. Pulley

d. All of the above




7. How do phosphate mining and processing impact the economy?

a. Mining contributes to the tax base

b. Mining provides jobs locally

c. Exporting product improves the balance of trade

d. All of the above


8. What percentage of phosphate fertilizer used in the United States originates from Florida

mines?

a. 20%

b. 50%

c. 70%

d. 100%


9. Phosphogypsum stacks and clay settling ponds are landforms resulting from industrial

activity. Which statement is true of both landforms?

a. Both contain a manufactured co-product

b. Both are on land that can be reused after several years

c. Both are monitored for environmental impacts

d. All of the above


10. A _________ plant species occurs naturally in a particular region, state, ecosystem, and


a. non-native

b. exotic

c. invasive

d. native




Pre/Post Test Answers

1. In what kinds of activities does the FIPR Institute engage?

d. Scientific research and education

2. Phosphate is used in the human body to __________________.

a. hold DNA together with phosphate bonds

b. provide energy to carry out all cell functions

c. strengthen bones and teeth

d. all of the above

3. What is the role of the soil when growing plants?

a. To act as a medium for plant growth

b. To provide nutrients for the plant

c. To hold and release water

d. All of the above

4. The steps of the mining process before beneficiation, in chronological order, are:

a. Survey land, clear vegetation, strip overburden, mine phosphate.

5. The most comprehensive definition of reclamation is: __________________.

b. making the land useful again

6. Which simple machines are involved in mining of phosphate?

a. Inclined plane

b. Lever

c. Pulley

d. All of the above

7. How do phosphate mining and processing impact the economy?

a. Mining contributes to the tax base

b. Mining provides jobs locally

c. Exporting product improves the balance of trade

d. All of the above

8. What percentage of phosphate fertilizer used in the United States originates from Florida

mines?

c. 70%

9. Phosphogypsum stacks and clay settling ponds are landforms resulting from industrial

activity. Which statement is true of both landforms?

c. Both are monitored for environmental impacts

10. A _________ plant species occurs naturally in a particular region, state, ecosystem, and


d. native



Florida's Wealth: Phosphate

Florida's production of phosphate accounts for more than 70 percent of the nation’s rock supply

and about 20 percent of the world’s fertilizer supply of this important nutrient. Florida's

phosphate is used to produce fertilizer and animal-feed supplements. Phosphate is also used in

other household products that we use every day, such as detergents, insecticides, iron alloys,

water softeners, and toothpaste.

Phosphate has been the most profitable mineral resource in Florida's history. Within 10 years of

its discovery near Dunnellon in the 1880s, phosphate was being exported to foreign countries. In

2008, the industry employs more than 4,500 people. For every one job in a phosphate company,

there are five more jobs in supporting industries. The phosphate industry also pays the state

millions of' dollars in severance taxes. This money is used by the state to buy conservation land,

restore old phosphate mining sites, and conduct research.

Phosphate rock was formed approximately 15 million years ago during the late Miocene Epoch.

The mineral phosphorus was present in the ocean water that covered the Floridian Plateau. In

the most widely accepted theory of how it was formed, cold water bearing phosphorus-rich

material flowed toward the surface as a result of upwelling ocean currents. Tiny marine animals,

such as plankton, thrived on this new food source. When these animals died out, their remains

further enriched the layer of organic material on the ocean floor by releasing a PO4 (phosphate)

ion. As a result of low oxygen conditions, this organic material underwent a chemical reaction

and the PO4 (phosphate) ion precipitated out to form francolite, a phosphate mineral. When the

ocean receded, the phosphorus settled and mixed with sand and clay. Today this mixture varies

in thickness from 12 to 15 feet and is covered by overburden, or a layer of sand.

Animal fossils are often found where phosphate is mined. Bone Valley is the name commonly

given to the area in central Florida where the largest deposits of fossils are found.

In Florida phosphate deposits, the sandy overburden is 15 to 30 feet deep. This overlying

material must be removed before the matrix of phosphate, clay, and sand can be removed. The

phosphate occurs as pebbles and small, sand-sized particles that are bound to the sand by very

fine clays. Beneath the phosphate is limestone that is sometimes covered by a thin layer of clay.

Mining phosphate is a complex operation. Once the mineral deposits have been found, the

quality of the ore must be established. A sample of the ore is analyzed and the amount of

phosphate that can be recovered is determined. If the deposit is a valuable one, soil

scientists and engineers prepare site plans. Site plans include provisions for water, drainage,

road and rail transportation, electric power, waste disposal, and land restoration. These plans are

reviewed by government officials before mining permits are granted.

After the plans are approved, huge machines called draglines remove the overburden and set it

aside to be used later for reclamation. The dragline operators then dig out the matrix and dump it

into a pit where high-pressure water guns are used to create a slurry that is 35-40% solids. The

slurry is then pumped through pipes to a beneficiation plant.



This is where the phosphate rock is separated from the sand and clay. The first step is to separate

the pebble sized phosphate from the finer particles. Generally, the slurry that comes from the

mine site is fed into a flume, which uses water and gravity to break-up large clumps of matrix.

Next, the trommel screen captures the largest-sized phosphate and filters the smaller rock

through the screen. Phosphate pebbles recovered from the washers are sent to bins where they

are stored according to grade (quality) and sent to the chemical processing plant to be converted

into the soluble form needed to make fertilizer. Smaller particles, which are called feed, are sent

to hydrocyclones to remove the slime (phosphatic clay).

After screening and washing, the feed goes to a storage bin and the clay is sent to a clay settling

pond. When the feed leaves the storage bin, it heads into the flotation plant where it is fed

through a hydrocyclone that takes away most of the water. Fatty acid, fuel oil and a pH adjuster

are then added to the feed, enabling the sand-sized phosphate to be floated to the top on bubbles

while the sand sinks. This is known as rougher flotation. Because some residual sand floats up

with the phosphate this concentrate is sent to a scrubber where sulfuric acid is added to remove

the fatty acid and fuel oil from the phosphate particles. The resulting acid-scrubbed rougher

concentrate goes to the cleaner flotation step where amines are added. In the cleaner flotation

step, the process is reversed and the remaining sand is floated away from the phosphate. Sand

tailings separated in both the rougher and cleaner flotation steps are sent to the mine site to be

used in reclamation.

Phosphate that has been recovered in the beneficiation process is loaded onto trains and sent to a

chemical processing plant. At the chemical processing plant, phosphate rock is ground to a

uniform size and reacted with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid used to make fertilizer

and a co-product, calcium sulfate. This co-product of phosphate chemical processing, also

known as phosphogypsum, is stacked in huge piles because it is slightly radioactive and its uses

are regulated by the EPA. The phosphoric acid is combined with ammonia to make small pellets

or granules known as diammonium phosphate (DAP) or mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP).

Later the granules may be blended with other nutrients such as potassium and magnesium and

sold to commercial retailers. Farmers will then spread it where it is needed on fields to help

crops grow.

The phosphate industry recycles over 90% of the water it uses in all of its processes. Mined land

must be reclaimed and reclamation begins immediately after the dragline is finished in an area.

The phosphate industry continues the job of converting mined-out areas into a variety of land

uses such as agricultural, wildlife and residential communities.

Geologists and industry experts predict that Florida has enough phosphate reserves to continue

the current rate of mining for more than 30 years. With improvements in technology, mining can

perhaps continue even longer.



Names: _______________________________

Florida's Wealth: Phosphate—Questions

1. Name some uses of phosphate.

2. How long ago was phosphate rock formed?

3. How did Bone Valley get its name?

4. What materials make up the phosphate matrix?

5. Why is phosphate so important to Florida's wealth?

6. What are some of the things that must be included in a site plan for phosphate mining?

7. What happens to the matrix after it has been mined out of the ground?

8. What happens to the phosphate after it has been recovered in the beneficiation process?

9. Why is the co‐product phosphogypsum not currently being used?

10. After mining, what does the phosphate company do with the land?



Florida's Wealth: Phosphate—Answers

1. Name some uses of phosphate.

Florida's phosphate is used to produce fertilizer and animal‐feed supplements and other

household products that we use every day, such as detergents, insecticides, iron alloys,

water softeners, and toothpaste.

2. How long ago was phosphate rock formed?

Phosphate rock was formed approximately 15 million years ago during the late Miocene

Epoch.

3. How did Bone Valley get its name?

Animal fossils are often found where phosphate is mined, and central Florida is where the

largest deposits of fossils are found.

4. What materials make up the phosphate matrix?

Phosphate, clay and sand.

5. Why is phosphate so important to Florida's wealth?

The industry employs more than 4,500 people. For every one job in a phosphate company,

there are five more jobs in supporting industries. The phosphate industry pays the state

millions of dollars in severance taxes. This money is used by the state to buy conservation

land, restore old phosphate mining sites, and conduct research.

6. What are some of the things that must be included in a site plan for phosphate mining?

Site plans must include provisions for water, drainage, road and rail transportation,

electric power, waste disposal, and land restoration.

7. What happens to the matrix after it has been mined out of the ground?

The matrix is dumped into a pit where high‐pressure water guns are used to create slurry

that is 35‐40% solids. The slurry is then pumped through pipes to a beneficiation plant

where the phosphate rock is separated from the sand and clay.

8. What happens to the phosphate after it has been recovered in the beneficiation process?

It is loaded onto trains and sent to a chemical processing plant. At the chemical processing

plant, phosphate rock is ground to a uniform size and reacted with sulfuric acid to produce

phosphoric acid used to make fertilizer and a co-product, calcium sulfate.

9. Why is the co‐product phosphogypsum not currently being used?

The phosphogypsum is slightly radioactive and its uses are regulated by the EPA.

10. After mining, what does the phosphate company do with the land?

Reclamation begins immediately after the dragline is finished in an area. The phosphate

industry continues the job of converting mined-out areas into a variety of land uses such as

agricultural, wildlife and residential communities.



Lesson 2: Mining Economics: Cookie Mining


Introduction:

The phosphate industry contributes much to the state economically, not only in terms of jobs. In

1998, $63 million was collected from sales, property, and other taxes and fees. The Florida

phosphate industry also spent nearly $1,293,050,578 in 1998 for equipment and supplies.

Activity:

Students will participate in an interesting mining simulation designed to illustrate the basic

economics of mining including values, cost, profit and loss calculations based upon mining chocolate

chips out of chocolate chip cookies with specialized mining equipment. The students will gain an

appreciation for some of the costs involved in the phosphate mining business and how the

decisions made can affect their profit.

Estimated Time:

One—60-90 minute class

Grade Level:

10-12

Standards:

SC.912.L.17.11 SC.912.L.17.12 SC.912.L.17.18 SC.912.L.17.1

SC.912.L.17.20

Objectives:

The students will… 1. Simulate the evaluation and decision making process that affects profit. 2. Students will calculate whether their decisions led their company to produce a profit or go

into debt. 3. Students will appreciate the substantial reduction in profits due to the cost of reclaiming the

land and restoring it to a diversified habitat.

Vocabulary:

profit

loss

reclamation

Materials: 3 different brands of chocolate chip cookies with different amounts of chips in each

Flat and round toothpicks

Large paper clips

Cookie Mining instructions

Cookie Mining worksheet

Grid paper (1 per student)



Procedure: 1. Each student will receive a blank sheet of graph paper, Cookie Mining instructions, and a

Cookie Mining worksheet. Students are to decide on a name for their mine and include it on

line 1 of the Cookie Mining worksheet.

2. Tell the students that they will each begin with a budget of $19.00, which is to cover the cost

of the mine site (cookie), tools (toothpick and/or paperclip) and the time used for mining.

3. Each student will need to decide on a cookie that represents the mine site at a cost of $3.00,

$5.00, or $7.00 depending on the “phosphate deposit” (chocolate chips).

4. Then they must decide on which two tools they would like to use (students are not allowed to

touch the cookie with their hands during mining): flat toothpick ($2.00), round toothpick

($4.00), or a paperclip ($6.00). Note: As students decide on which cookie and tools they

would like to purchase, they need to keep in mind that mining costs $1.00 per minute (5

minutes maximum) and must also come from the $19.00 allowance.

5. After the students have made their decisions, they are to visit the “mine acquisition” and

“tool” stations to make their purchases.

6. Students are then to return to their seats and record the items obtained on the Cookie Mining

worksheet on lines 2 and 3 respectively and total the cost on line 4.

7. The students will then place their cookie anywhere in the middle of the graph sheet and trace

a circle around it.

8. To determine how many minutes each student may mine they will need to complete line 5 on

the Cooking Mining worksheet.

9. Explain to the students that the object of this activity is to use the tools to mine out the

chocolate chips; which represents the phosphate. They will be paid $5.00 per whole

chocolate chip mined, and assessed $1.00 for each square that was disturbed while mining.

At this time, students are no longer allowed to touch the cookie with their hands.

10. The teacher will start the timer and the students will begin removing the “phosphate”

(chocolate chips). The chocolate chips are to be placed to the side on the graph paper.

11. The teacher will call out the number of minutes mined until the maximum of 5 minutes has

been reached, then all students must stop. It will be up to each individual student to stop

mining at their allowed time according to the number of minutes available on line 5 of the

Cookie Mining worksheet. If a student breaks one of their tools while mining, he/she must

purchase another one and record the item or items on line 7 of the Cookie Mining worksheet

(the time for purchasing a new tool is not deducted from their mining time).

12. Students are to record their mining time on line 6 and multiply by $1.00 to get the total cost

of time spent mining for phosphate.

13. After the cookie has been mined and the time recorded, allow students one minute to use

their tools to “contour” the property, placing as many of the crumbs as possible back into the

circled area. No fingers or hands allowed and the students may not stack the crumbs any

higher than the original height of the cookie.

14. The students will draw another circle around the “contoured” cookie and count each square,

counting partial squares as a full square to determine how much land is to be reclaimed.

Record that number on the worksheet, line 9, and multiply it by $1.00 for reclamation costs.

15. Count the chips mined and multiply by $5.00 and record on line 10.

16. The students are then to calculate the profit or loss of mining for phosphate on line 11 of the

Cookie Mining worksheet.



17. Have students discuss the reason for the profit or loss in mining the phosphate. What did

they do differently than another classmate who took a loss? Who made the most profit and

why?


This material presents several opportunities to relate to the various subject areas in the curriculum.

1. The need for accurate mathematical computation for success in business enterprises.

2. The general formula for profit making in business.

3. Reasons corporations might try to avoid environmental restoration.

Teacher Notes:

Buy 3 packages of different kinds of chocolate chip cookies per classroom of 35 students.

Make copies of the Cookie Mining instructions.

Make copies of the Cooking Mining worksheet.

Make copies of the grid paper.



Cookie Mining Instructions

Adapted from the Nevada Mining Association—Educational Resources

The object of this activity is to use the tools to mine out the chocolate chips, which represent the

phosphate found in the matrix of phosphate, sand, and clay. You will be paid $3.00 per whole

chocolate chip mined and assessed $1.00 for each square that was disturbed while mining.

Procedure:

1. Record the name of your mine on line 1 of the Cookie Mining worksheet.

2. You will begin with a budget of $19.00, which is to cover the cost of the mine site (cookie), tools

(toothpick and/or paper clip) and the time used for mining.

3. You will need to decide on which cookie you would like to purchase, depending on the quality of

the “phosphate deposit” (chocolate chips) and which two tools you would like to use. You will

need to keep in mind that mining costs $1.00 per minute (5 minutes maximum) and must also

come from your $19.00 budget.

4. After you have made your decision, visit the “mine acquisition” and “tool” stations to make your

purchases.

5. Return to your seat and record the items obtained on the Cookie Mining worksheet on lines 2 and

3 respectively and total the cost on line 4.

6. Then place your cookie anywhere in the middle of the graph sheet and trace a circle around it.

7. To determine how many minutes you may mine, complete line 5 on the Cooking Mining

worksheet. At this time, you are no longer allowed to touch the cookie with your hands.

8. The teacher will start the timer and you will begin removing the “phosphate” (chocolate chips.)

The chocolate chips are to be placed to the side on the graph paper.

9. The teacher will call out the number of minutes mined until the maximum of 5 minutes has been

reached, then everyone must stop mining. It will be up to each individual student to stop mining

at their allowed time according to the number of minutes available on line 5 of the Cookie Mining

worksheet. If you break one of your tools while mining, you must purchase another one and

record the item or items on line 7 of the Cookie Mining worksheet. You are not able to deduct

the time used to purchase the new tool.

10. Record your mining time on line 6 and multiply by $1.00 to get the total cost of time spent

mining for phosphate.

11. After everyone has recorded their time, you will be allowed one minute to use your tools to

“contour” the land, placing as many of the crumbs back into the circled area. No fingers or hands

allowed and you may not stack the crumbs any higher than the original height of the cookie.

12. Draw another circle around the “contoured” cookie and count each square, counting partial

squares as a full square to determine how much land must be reclaimed. Record that number on

the worksheet, line 9, and multiply it by $1.00 for reclamation costs.

13. Count the chips mined and multiply by $5.00 and record on line 10.

14. To calculate the profit or loss of mining for phosphate, complete the information on line 11 of the

Cookie Mining worksheet.



Lesson 3: Understanding Requirements of Site Reclamation Project


Introduction:

The purpose of the lesson is for students to experience the act of reclamation in an applied

setting while learning about Florida communities in the process.

This lesson outlines the requirements for the students to conduct a real-life reclamation project.

Each of the subsequent lessons details a required component to complete the reclamation project.

Activity: Students work in small groups to complete a study of a natural site that has been disturbed by

man’s activities and restore it to a specific habitat. The group must keep detailed records,

including pictures and complete activities in a prescribed way so that they can report their results

to the rest of the class.

Estimated Time:

3 week project

Grade Level:

10-12

Standards:

LA.1112.1.7.3 LA.1112.4.2.1 LA.1112.5.2.4 LA.1112.5.2.

SC.912.L.15.5 SC.912.N.1.1 SC.912.N.1.7 SS.912.G.1.2

Objectives:

The student will…

1. Locate a natural site that has been disturbed by man’s activities and secure permission to

study and reclaim the property.

2. Complete the reclamation work and all required field tests on the site.

3. Write a highly structured report detailing their restoration activities in a prescribed way.

4. Work collaboratively with a partner to complete the assignment.

Vocabulary:

profit reclamation loss

FIPR Institute contouring scrub habitat

monoculture ecosystem matrix

slurry percolation estuary

retention slash pine wetlands

overburden beneficiation dragline

sulfuric acid coastal strand gypsum

habitat network mesic hammock xeric hammock

hydric hammock mangrove swamp



Materials: Checklist for Site Reclamation Project worksheet

Disposable cameras for each student group

Project Timeline worksheet

Habitat Restoration Project permission slip (on school letterhead)

Florida Biological Communities sheet

Habitat Restoration Project Plan worksheet

Photograph Reference List worksheet

Blank Calendar of Events worksheet

Group’s Project Grade Report sheet

Procedure:

1. The teacher will explain to students that they will be working in groups to locate, assess, and

reclaim land that has been disturbed in some way by man. The land may be public or

privately owned but it must be clearly adversely impacted by human activity in some way.

They are to secure permission to study it and to do the necessary reclamation. They will then

turn in a highly structured report detailing their activities in a prescribed way.

2. Give each student a copy of the Checklist for Site Reclamation, Project Timeline, and a blank

calendar. Have students follow along with the Project Timeline and include due dates. They can

then transfer the assignments to the calendar. The calendar is for the students to use to keep track

of when assignments are due and group project dates.

3. Reemphasize that each group must submit a report with each of the elements from the checklist

and that each member in the group will receive the same grade unless there is some legitimate

reason for some members to receive a lower mark such as excessive absences, or lack of effort.

4. Various parts of the report must be completed according to a specific timetable also provided in

the lesson.

5. The teacher will place students in work groups keeping in mind that they will have to be

responsible to one another to perform aspects of the project, meet deadlines, and bring

materials when they are needed.

6. Distribute the remaining handout materials for the project and ask the students to bring them in

each day to class.

7. Direct their attention to the due dates for each phase of the project. Most discussion generated by

the input above will involve procedural issues, such as what kind of sites would qualify, how

grading will be determined, when the project is due, etc.


Students’ understanding of the various elements of the project will be assessed by periodic inspection

of the various elements as they are completed and by the quality of each final project when it is

turned in.

Teacher Notes:

Make copies of worksheets (1 per group)

Place students in work groups keeping in mind that they will have to be responsible to one

another to perform aspects of the project, meet deadlines, and bring materials when they are

needed. Take the time to form groups that will allow for maximum success for all participants.



Checklist for Site Reclamation Project

Table of Contents

Group’s Pre-tests

Permission Form to Analyze Site - signed

Map of Lakeland or another area with site identified

Photo - "Before" shot of disturbed site

Photo - Drawing the site map

Photo - Collecting soil samples

Site map - showing dimensions, directions, and locations of where soil samples were taken

Photo - Analyzing soil samples in lab

Soil Lab and Analysis sheet

Handout on Florida Habitats

Notes on native and exotic plant species

Typed paper - Analysis of Site

Restoration Plan/Donor Site Permission form - signed

Photo - “Before” restoration

Photo - removing exotic plants on project site

Photo - grading the land

Photo - collecting plants from donor site

Photo - planting native plants on project site

Photo - "After" shot of restored site

Typed Analysis of Project paper

Group’s Post-tests

Group's Grade Sheets



Group’s Project Grade Report

Group Member Names Pre-Test Post-Test Project Grade



Project Timeline

Due Date Assignment

-Permission form to analyze site – DUE

-Mark address and location of site on map

-Florida Communities handout

-Learn native and exotic plants

-Make site map of project site

-Each member of the group collects 2 cups of soil from the project

site (remove large pieces of debris and set out to dry)

-Take photo of site showing habitat disturbance

-Mark on site map where soil samples were collected

-Dry soil samples from project site – DUE

-Analyze soil samples

-% sand, silt, and clay

-name of soil from soil triangle

-percolation rate

-water retention

-Photo of student analyzing soil samples

-Restoration Essay – DUE – (typed, 1” margins, double spaced)

Include:

-soil characteristics

-topography of land map

-Florida community identified

-Best plants suited for site:

-groundcover

-shrubs

-trees

-wildlife

-Make restoration plan for project site

-Donor site permission form – DUE

-Restoration plan permission form – DUE

-Restoration photos

-removal of exotic plant species

-grading of land

-collection of native plants from donor site

-replanting on project site

-Cameras – DUE

-Make a site map of project site after restoration



Final Report – DUE – (typed, 1” margins, double spaced)

Include:

-summary of your project

-what you anticipate to be the long-term benefits to your site

-what you learned from the project

-problems you encountered

-what you would do differently

Project notebooks - DUE Must include:

-Typed Table of Contents

-Photo page order

-Photos arranged and labeled on a photo page

-Calendar of Events

-Project Timeline

-Site maps before and after restoration

-Map of area where site is located

-Soil Lab and Analysis sheet

-Permission slips

-Restoration Essay

-Pre-tests and Post-tests

-Final Report

-Project Grade Sheet

-Plan presentation

-Projects presented to class



Photo Reference List

1. “Before” picture of the restoration site.

2. Students drawing the topographic map of the site.

3. Students collecting soil samples from the project site.

4. Students analyzing soil samples in the lab.

5. Students removing exotic plants from the site.

6. Students grading the land.

7. Students collecting plants from the donor site.

8. Students planting native plants on the project site.

9. “After” picture of restored project site.



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Lesson 4: Florida Plants


Introduction:

Florida native plants are those plants that evolved naturally in Florida habitats. Plant communities are

associations of species adapted to similar soil, moisture, and weather conditions. Each native

plant is a member of a community that includes other plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Native plants provide choice food and shelter for wildlife. An exotic or non-native plant is a

species that is living outside of its native distribution range. It has been introduced into the area

either deliberately, or accidentally. In Florida, two examples of exotic plants are cogongrass and

Brazilian pepper. Cogongrass was brought into the United States from Asia and Brazilian

pepper was brought in as an ornamental for landscaping. Both of these species are very prolific,

able to utilize a wide variety of habitat types, and severely out-compete native plants for ground

space, water, light, and nutrients.

Students become familiar with the process of identifying various plants found in common

Florida biological communities. Further classifying the plants as “native” or “exotic” species

helps assess the condition and disturbance level of an area.

Activity: Students will work together in small groups to identify native and exotic plants found in common

Florida biological communities.

Estimated Time:


Grade Level: 10-12

Standards:

SC.912.L.17.1 SC.912.L.17.8 SC.912.L.17.9

Objectives:

The student will…

1. Identify native plants by key features.

2. Identify exotic plants by key features.

Vocabulary:

native

exotic

(non-)ornamental

Materials:

Major Land-based Florida Biological Communities

Samples of Florida plants listed within this lesson plan (or substitute plants from your local

geographic area/habitat types).



Procedure: 1. Group together several plants from the suggested lists within this lesson plan (or other plants

from your local geographic area/habitat types). Include a mixture of both native and exotic

plants. Ideally, plant material should include leaves, stems, roots and any flowering

parts/seed heads. This aids identification by key features.

2. Show students each plant, pointing out key identification features, whether it is native or

exotic, and to which biological community it belongs.

3. Allow students time to look at each plant and get familiar with its key features. Urge

students to draw key features and keep organized notes on each plant type to use in later

identification efforts.

4. Have students take turns quizzing one another to identify each plant.


Have students collect 5 non-ornamental plants and correctly identify them and the community to

which they belong.

Teacher Notes:

Copy Major Land-based Florida Biological Communities

It is advisable to have a prior familiarity with the plant species before presenting them to the students.

Reclamation efforts on phosphate lands require extensive amounts of maintenance to keep exotics (or

invasive) species out of planted native plant areas. Plant species identification is of utmost importance

in order to prescribe the best management practices for reclamation site maintenance.

Suggested native species include:

sea grape sea ox-eye sand pine saw palmetto salt grass lichen

longleaf pine turkey oak wiregrass live oak cedar magnolia

holly hickory slash pine cordgrass blackrush gallberry

fetterbush sawgrass sweet gum popash pickerelweed cattail

spikerush bulrush blackgum red maple buttonbush bald cypress

pond cypress willow wax myrtle red bay yucca

Suggested exotic species include:

cogongrass Brazilian pepper melaleuca torpedograss

Caesar’s weed air potato/yam natalgrass Peruvian primrose willow

NOTE: Please ensure that all portions of the exotic plant materials used for this lesson are properly

disposed of in a manner that will ensure that they will not spread. Also, check with your local

horticulture extension office to determine if a permit is required for the possession and/or transport of

any of the exotic species.

For the purpose of identifying rare or hard-to-collect species, pictures are available at:

http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/

http://www.floridayards.org/fyplants/index.php

http://www.fleppc.org/list/List-WW-F09-final.pdf

http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/



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Lesson 5: Phosphate Land Reclamation


Introduction:

Reclaimed lands are used for many purposes. Mary Holland Park in Bartow is an example of

reclaimed land used as a public park. Reclaimed land use includes golf courses, housing

developments, office complexes, cattle grazing rangeland, citrus groves, and wildlife habitat

areas.

The value of reclaimed land as wildlife habitat cannot be over-emphasized. As growth and

development have reduced the amount of wildlife habitat elsewhere, reclaimed land provides a

much-needed refuge for all kinds of bird and animal life. The many lakes found on reclaimed

lands offer waterfowl places for feeding and resting during their migrations, and also support

high resident populations of birds. Careful planning of reclamation projects has also allowed for

the creation of wildlife corridors, which connect animal movement pathways between reclaimed

and unmined areas.

Reclamation is not instantaneous. It takes time for trees to grow into a forest and for wildlife to

return to use the site. Therefore, it takes time to know if reclamation efforts are successful.

Success can be defined in many ways, depending on what the goal of the reclamation was,

whether it was the creation of wildlife habitat, citrus groves, recreation spaces, or a variety of

other land uses.

The Florida Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute (FIPR Institute) coordinates research

that continues to seek answers to reclamation questions such as why a certain animal may not

have returned to a reclamation site and what can be done to solve the problem. Is it because the

habitat is not yet suitable or because the animals have had insufficient time to recolonize?

Structured data collection from research projects helps find the answers.

The goal of the FIPR Institute’s Reclamation Research Program is to continuously improve

reclamation techniques and, especially, to improve the ability to restore the hydrologic and

ecological functionality of reclaimed lands to better mimic natural environments.

One of the reasons Florida’s legislators founded the FIPR Institute was to broaden the

reclamation knowledge base and come up with new techniques to reclaim the land, be it a mine

site or a clay settling area.

Activity: Students will read Reclamation Strategy and Stages and Concepts of Planned Reclamation, then

answer questions that pertain to the material about reclamation. Then they will synthesize

information on land reclamation techniques to develop a mock plan for reclaiming a hypothetical

piece of property. Students will review the phosphate mining process and explore the different

habitats that can be formed when reclaiming mined land.



Estimated Time:

Two—90-minute classes

Grade Level:

10-12

Standards:

LA.1112.1.7.3 LA.1112.5.2.4

SC.912.L.17.11 SC.912.L.17.12 SC.912.L.17.13 SC.912.L.17.15

SC.912.L.17.17 SC.912.N.1.7 SS.912.G.1.2

Objectives:

The student will…

1. Read nonfiction text independently for factual information.

2. Work cooperatively in groups in an assigned role and contribute to a group project.

3. Share information orally with the class.

4. Answer an open-ended question in class discussion/brainstorming session.

5. Synthesize previously discussed information.

6. Formulate a logical reclamation plan, make a schematic drawing to represent that plan, and

track changes to that plan over time.

Vocabulary:

scrub habitat monoculture ecosystem

matrix habitat network contouring

growth plan water table

Materials: Reclamation Strategies and Stages handout, 1 per student

Concepts of Planned Reclamation handout, 1 per student

Reclamation Strategies and Stages and Concepts of Planned Reclamation questions, 1 per group

4 foot length of white butcher paper, 1 per group

Post Mine Site Parameters page, 1 per group

Crayons, markers and pencils (for drawing)

Procedure:

Day 1

1. Distribute the worksheets Reclamation Strategies and Stages and Concepts of Planned

Reclamation to each student and allow them 15-20 minutes to read.

2. In cooperative learning groups of 4, the students will answer questions about what they have

read. Each group will consist of a recorder, encourager, taskmaster and a reader who reads

each question.

3. Choose a person from each group to share the answer to a particular question with the class.

Day 2

1. Start off with the question “For what purpose can phosphate mined land be reclaimed?”

Allow brainstorming and open-ended responses for a few minutes.



2. Inform the class that they will be given the opportunity to be part of a role-playing activity.

They will each be a reclamation biologist and must submit their reclamation plan to the

company’s reclamation manager. Hand out the Post Mine Site Parameters page and discuss

limitations of the site.

3. Explain at the beginning of the activity that there is no one right answer for what the final

plan should look like. Students should use the information read on Day 1 to help them

formulate their plan. The process of decision-making and critical thinking is the important

outcome of the activity. The outlying features adjacent to the 100 acre plot of interest may or

may not influence the students’ plans. For example, created reclaimed wetlands should occur

in the lowest contoured areas of the plot and may be adjacent to the existing wetland area on

the southern border, but not necessarily.

4. Within the cooperative learning groups, have students describe a type of reclaimed land that

could be created, based on the provided information on the Post Mine Site Parameters page,

and its characteristics, i.e. wetland, lowland, flooded for a couple of months a year,

characterized by: red maple, sweet gum, pickerel weed, etc.

5. Each group gets a 4-foot-long strip of white butcher paper for drawing their reclaimed site.

6. As a group, they decide how they will reclaim the land, how they will contour it, and the

kinds of plants they will plant, and incorporate these decisions into their drawing.

7. The students should draw their reclamation plan as a plan view (as seen from above), but also

include side view cross-sections where appropriate to indicate elevation or vertical tree

growth.

8. They should include a 5-,10- and 20-year growth plan.

9. They will have access to plant books for reference and a list of plants that are found in each

type of habitat.

10. At the end of the planning session, groups will present their plan to the class, and explain

their reasoning behind the plan details.


1. Answers to questions will be reviewed orally in class.

2. Each group will present their reclamation plan, show the group drawing, explain what habitats

are included in their plan, and what plants will grow in each.

3. The teacher will assess accuracy as the students make their presentations.

Teacher Notes:

Make copies of Reclamation Strategies and Stages and Concepts of Planned Reclamation

Make copies of Reclamation Strategies and Stages and Concepts of Planned Reclamation questions,

1 set per group

Make a copy of the answers to the questions

Make copies of Post Mine Site Parameters page, 1 per group



Reclamation Strategies and Stages

To access the phosphate matrix (ore), giant draglines dig 25 to 50 feet into the earth in areas of

central Florida. This strip mining alters the land surface, often causing deep, linear mine cuts.

The land disturbance does not last forever. Reclamation, remediating the mining effects, is a

regular and planned part of the mining process.

The reclamation process begins before the phosphate matrix is ever removed from the ground.

Pre-planning is required to return the site as usable for a designated purpose after it has been

mined. This process, called reclamation, is not always an easy task and has required the

development of many innovative techniques. Improving reclamation techniques is an ongoing

focus of research at the Florida Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute (FIPR Institute).

In the early years of phosphate mining, most mined-out areas were simply left unreclaimed.

Flooded mining cuts crossed the landscape, separated from one another by heaps of earth called

spoil piles. The resulting landscape looked quite alien, and the term “moonscape” was coined to

describe the newly mined areas. Over time, nature worked to help heal the land through natural

revegetation and wildlife recruitment. Some of these places became favorite places for human

recreational activities, especially fishing.

As society became more concerned about preserving the quality of the environment and

communities expanded closer to phosphate mining and processing areas, the phosphate industry

came under increasing pressure to return the landscape to a condition more similar to Florida

topography than “moonscape.” Biologists pressed for increased regulations to protect certain

ecologically sensitive areas from being mined at all, and called for more extensive reclamation of

many other areas.

The Mining Reclamation Act of 1975 required all areas mined after July 1, 1975 to be reclaimed

by the mining companies. The Act also levied a severance tax on each ton of phosphate rock

mined that helps fund the reclamation of areas mined prior to the effective date in 1975, most of

which are now in private ownership. The severance tax also helps pay for purchasing and

preserving environmentally sensitive lands through the State of Florida's Conservation and

Recreational Lands (CARL) Program.

Before the first dragline bucket of earth is dug, the phosphate mining company must conduct a

detailed study of the land to identify soil types, plants and animals, water resources, and potential

archaeological sites. This study helps generate a reclamation plan that is submitted to the Florida

Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) and other local, state and federal agencies for

approval. Only upon final approval is a permit issued and mining can begin. As soon as mining

is completed, the reclamation process begins.

Mining engineers work closely with environmental specialists to plan the coordination of mining

and reclamation. Some of these specialists are trained in the earth sciences, such as geology and

hydrology, while others have training in the life sciences including biology, botany, and ecology.

Civil engineers and computer specialists help plan the mining activities with reclamation in mind

from the start. Following mining activities, company specialists and regulatory authorities

oversee the reclamation process and monitor the progress of the reclaimed lands.



“Reclamation Strategies and Stages” Questions

1. How deep do draglines generally have to dig in order to reach the phosphate matrix?

2. What law required that all areas mined for phosphate be later reclaimed by the mining

companies? When was that law enacted?

3. What kind of taxes also help pay for reclamation of phosphate mined land?

4. Who are some of the specialized personnel who work with mining companies to develop

their reclamation plans?

5. For what purposes can phosphate reclaimed lands be used?

6. What are some of the ways reclaimed land is used as wildlife habitat?

7. What does FIPR stand for? What types of reclamation research does this organization do?



“Reclamation Strategies and Stages” Answers

1. How deep do draglines generally have to dig in order to reach the phosphate matrix?

25-50 feet

2. What law required that all areas mined for phosphate be later reclaimed by the mining

companies? When was that law enacted?

The Mining Reclamation Act of 1975. It was enacted July, 1, 1975.

3. What kind of taxes also help pay for reclamation of phosphate mined land?

Phosphate severance taxes.

4. Who are some of the specialized personnel who work with mining companies to develop

their reclamation plans?

Geologists, biologists, botanists, ecologists, civil engineers, and computer specialists.

5. For what purposes can phosphate reclaimed lands be used?

Parks, golf courses, housing developments, office complexes, cattle grazing, and citrus

groves, wildlife habitat, natural areas, lakes, agricultural lands.

6. What are some of the ways reclaimed land is used as wildlife habitat?

As a refuge for all kinds of wildlife, as a resting and feeding place for birds during their

migrations, and as part of a system of wildlife corridors that allow animals to roam

among reclaimed and unmined areas.

7. What does FIPR stand for? What types of reclamation research does this organization do?

Florida Industrial and Phosphate Research Institute. Research is done to improve

reclamation techniques, to try to determine why a plant or animal hasn’t returned to a

reclamation site, and to improve the ability of reclaimed lands to better mimic natural

environments



Concepts of Planned Reclamation

Biologists planning how to reclaim formerly mined land must consider:

The goal for the property in the future, according to the mine permit;

Which plants are best for this habitat and this site; and

The most desirable tree density per acre.

Reclamation biologists prefer to plant native trees, grasses, and shrubs, which adapt well to

water, sunlight, and soil conditions within a specific Florida habitat type, and which thrive with

little or no maintenance. Plants native to Florida tolerate high winds and both heavy rainfall and

dry periods. Some have evolved to thrive in sandy soil with little clay content. Though some

native vines exhibit “invasive” characteristics, out-competing other species and taking over a

habitat, and though oak trees and cabbage palms are considered “invasive” when they become

established beyond their native habitats, most native plants coexist with other species.

In deciding which natives to plant, reclamation biologists base their decisions on what they want

the land to look like and on characteristics of the habitat and of plant species. For example, tree

species A, B, and C are native to Florida; at maturity all three provide significant leaf canopy,

offering shade that retards the growth of invasive/exotic plants. But Species A grows more

successfully in a true wetland environment, so it can be ruled out for a scrub plot. Species C is

especially vulnerable to a bark-eating pest. Therefore, reclamation specialists may find that

Species B is the best choice for a particular habitat.

Site planners are guided by a site’s hydrology, which dictates the quantity of rainfall and

groundwater that is likely to be available to plants. Some species of pine trees thrive in habitats

that balance moisture with dryness, and some species of oaks thrive with less water than pines.

Cypress trees are native to wetlands and root in water. Plantings are designed as a wildlife

resource, generally, but are not planned to accommodate specific native animal species. Prior to

mining, biologists may remove gopher tortoises from a site, and relocate them to a new,

undisturbed habitat. After mining has concluded, experts may move the animals to formerly

mined property (or other available areas that are not heavily traveled). Biologists seek a habitat

that can sustain the animals and that has no gopher tortoise community already established

onsite.

Biodiversity keeps a habitat healthy. Planting a variety of species is important, since different

plants offer food and shelter to different native animals. Biodiversity also helps to ensure a

healthy continuity of vegetation. Certain plants are more vulnerable to specific types of damage,

and it is wise to ensure that not all plants on the property suffer death, disease, or other damage

at the same time.

A key task in reclamation is control of invasive species. Invasives are fast-growing plants that

take over a habitat. Many invasives are also exotics, plants from elsewhere in the United States

or the world. In Florida, ecologists define exotics as imports that established themselves in the

state in or after 1513, when European explorers first came to the peninsula. Biologists speak in

terms of interference with plant growth. Part of interference is the process called resource

competition, the struggle between native and invasive plants for available sunlight, nutrients



(provided by soil and water), and physical space. In this contest, invasives have an advantage,

since they may lack insect enemies or susceptibility to disease and environmental stresses that

keep native plants in check. When invasives replace native plants, a habitat’s land animals may

seek food and shelter elsewhere or die, and fish may be driven out. At times, even native plants

are considered nuisance species because they grow rapidly where they are not wanted. In

wetlands, for example, grapevine and hemp vine can make it difficult for young trees to grow.

Cattail and primrose willow, other natives, are also considered nuisance species. Usually,

however, it is the invasives/exotics that pose the most challenges in habitat reclamation.

In Florida, cogongrass is an especially fast-growing invasive-exotic plant. This Asian import is

not a food source for native wildlife, and the mature plant is spurned by domestic cattle.

Cogongrass spreads its seeds in the wind and also sends out shoots and roots from rhizomes

(underground stems). Reclamation specialists devote considerable attention to cogongrass

control. They mow it or conduct controlled burns in seasons of the year that research shows will

be most effective. Burning eliminates dead plant matter and prompts new growth, rendering the

plant more able to uptake chemicals. After burning, biologists apply herbicide. Other

troublesome exotics include melaleuca, Brazilian pepper, air yam (or air potato), and Chinese

tallow.

Both tree density and the number of trees of each species may be specified in the reclamation

plan. One guideline in Florida is to plant one tree every seven to ten feet. Density is stated in

terms of a given area: trees planted 7 feet apart would amount to 889 trees per acre; trees planted

10 feet apart would amount to 436 trees per acre. A minimum standard is to plant 400 trees per

acre in a wetland and 200 trees per acre in uplands.

If planners planted trees just a few feet apart, a plot would be impossible to mow. Without

mowing, biologists must rely on controlled burns to fight invasive species, and every controlled

burn carries with it the risk of losing some plantings to fire. Trees that are not crowded together

may be less vulnerable to damage from fire and disease. Also, certain plants need more access to

sunlight than dense shade allows. But greater tree density offers a distinct advantage. Research

shows that when trees are planted close together, shade from an intersecting foliage canopy that

develops as the trees mature will provide some control of invasive plants in the understory.

This natural succession fostered by enlarging canopies (and shaded areas) enables biologists to

rely less on herbicides, thereby cutting labor costs and reducing use of chemicals in the habitat.

Biologists constantly weigh the options, case by case.

When figuring density, reclamation planners must consider the size (including the canopy size)

of mature trees.

Because young trees are vulnerable (perhaps one pine seedling in four will die), reclamation

specialists may plant as many as 800 trees per acre, double the acceptable minimum standard.

Three factors govern density: tree mortality; the reclamation plan (what the company promised

to do before it was allowed to mine); and how the land will eventually be used. A reclamation

plan specifies that there must be a certain density of plantings before the land can ultimately be

released from mandatory reclamation (the review process). When trees die or lose limbs,

companies do not usually clear out debris; instead, damaged limbs and trees and snags (dead



trees) remain, providing homes and hiding places for animals, and also decomposing and

enriching the soil.

Each reclamation parcel is designed for a particular use. Examples are pastureland, a park, a golf

course, home sites, or commercial properties. Intended use indicates which species of trees and

how many trees will be planted. On land planned for a golf course or other open space,

reclamation biologists will probably limit plantings to expensive, hardy oaks with broad roots

and canopies. Note that reclamation biologists work within a time frame specified by the

reclamation plan. In the long term, half of all trees can be expected to die over a span of 10 to 20

years. Note also that no matter what destiny planners have selected for a plot, after a mining

company has completed reclamation and sold the land, the new purchaser may do what he/she

wishes with the acreage.

In deciding whether to set out more mature plantings at the outset of reclamation, experts weigh

the cost of each tree against the head start on growth that more mature trees offer. Costs vary,

year to year, vendor to vendor, and depend on the number of plants a company purchases. A

seedling bare root pine or oak tree may cost around twenty-five cents to plant (including

labor). More expensive is a tubeling, which includes soil with the root, and extends a foot above

the root ball. Pine tubelings cost thirty-five to forty cents to plant; oak tubelings, fifty cents.

Sack trees, one-gallon trees with deeper roots, cost $1.75 to $2.00 apiece. More expensive still

are three-gallon and five-gallon trees; planting a tree from a 6” pot may cost $2 to $3. Though

tubelings, sack trees, or transplants from pots have a growth advantage over seedlings, they cost

more. Also, a tree that has been confined in a pot may exhibit a distorted root system.

Biologists use several techniques to discourage the growth of invasive plants. They may rely on

allelopathy (occasionally spelled alleopathy), the ability of certain plants to produce compounds

that inhibit the growth of other plants. Some living plants and decomposing plants produce

phytotoxic compounds (or allelochemicals) that inhibit the growth of neighboring plants. For

example, black walnut (Juglans nigra) is toxic to many plants within the tree’s root zone, 60 feet

from the mature tree’s trunk. Wax myrtle is allelopathic to cogongrass but also retards the

growth of certain tree species, so reclamation planners must weigh the benefits of fighting an

invasive against the risk of damaging desirable species. Even non-allelopathic plants provide

protection as cover crops that retard erosion. Cover crops ensure that the water that runs off a

property contains less sediment and fewer types of pollutants. During the lifespan of a cover

crop, before it is harvested or herbicided and removed, a cover crop may significantly reduce the

number of invasive plants in a habitat.

Other means of discouraging invasives include laying a mulch layer of pine bark or other

material over the ground to hold in soil moisture and control weeds; mowing, the primary non-

chemical means of weed control; and a controlled burn, followed by spraying with herbicides

from backpacks and/or tanks rear-mounted on tractors or all-terrain vehicles.

On reclamation plots, grass comes first, trees later. After formerly mined land is graded and

contoured, reclamation biologists cover the bare mineral soil with grass (seeded or sod) that is

fertilized and watered. Sometimes annual and perennial grasses are planted together, with a

faster-growing variety claiming turf that an invasive might otherwise occupy. Grass ground



cover combats wind and water erosional forces and keeps soil intact until planting. Tree planting

begins when there is enough rain for seedlings to become established. If a stream runs through a

property, it is desirable to plant trees by the watercourse, to prevent the banks from eroding.

Trees also provide shelter to animals seeking access to the stream.

Because trees are usually not watered onsite, the timing of planting is crucial. The best times of

year to plant trees in Florida are in December and January, after the end of the rainy season,

when there is still adequate soil moisture but less evapotranspiration (transfer of moisture from

plants and from streams), and in July, August, and September, after the rainy season is

underway. (The worst time to plant is in March, April, and May, when warm temperatures have

returned but rains may not have begun.)

During reclamation, parcels of land may be leased for cattle pasture. These leases are a source

of revenue. Ranchers plant pasture grasses, wait until they are well established, and then bring in

cattle. (Once cattle disturb the turf, cogongrass may invade a pasture, so planners usually wait

until plantings are well established before letting cows onto the land.)

An important part of reclamation in Florida is planning for wetlands. A wetland is land where

soil is saturated with water for at least part of the year, as in a seepage area. A wetland may be

periodically or even permanently covered by shallow water. Wetland plants have adapted to

grow in wet soil. Wetlands are found near streams, rivers, coastal waters, and lakes. We now

know that wetlands fill key ecological functions--storing flood waters, trapping sediments and

helping purify water, providing habitat for wildlife, and recharging ground water. For this

reason, agencies of the state, federal, and local government and biologists who work for mining

companies pay close attention to wetland habitats.

Some properties being reclaimed contain ephemeral wetlands, areas that are underwater only

for a short time, after especially extensive rainfall. These areas may dry up after the rainy

season. When planning how to manage a property, reclamation biologists consider the land as it

exists for most of the year.

In Florida, many true wetlands have been mined for phosphate. Mining changes the quantity and

flow of surface water, and this change in hydrology has a major impact on rivers. In its rules for

wetlands, the State of Florida does allow mining companies to trade off certain properties or

projects under company control in exchange for the right to operate in these environmentally

sensitive areas. This practice is called mitigation (from Latin, meaning to make something less

severe, intense, or painful). To mitigate environmental damage to a wetland, mining companies

are expected to re-establish a wetland where it was before, or to establish a new wetland where

none existed before, or to preserve important wetland resources forevermore. Before companies

are allowed to mine in wetlands, they must promise to provide replacement habitat for animals,

such as wildlife corridors adjacent to major river systems.

Some parcels of land start out wet and dry out over time. Long-term reclamation projects make

usable land out of clay settling areas (also called clay settling ponds), sites on a mining

company’s property where clay is deposited after the beneficiation process has separated

phosphate and sand from the clay. Companies contain this material behind an earthen dike and



monitor it. Over the years, as water evaporates, the clay consolidates, first forming a surface

crust over pudding-like material below, later drying more completely. Research shows that clay

settling areas can eventually be used as pastureland or for growing agricultural row crops.

Prior to the 1975 legislation that mandated post-mining reclamation in Florida, some land that

had been mined for phosphate was “naturally reclaimed.” On “naturally reclaimed” land, all

plants, both native and exotic species, are “volunteers.” Animals visit, and invasive plants soon

take hold. Terrain may be uneven, featuring pits that have filled with rainwater. On such

properties, it is easy to picture the “moonscape” surface that mining created.

Planned reclamation is different. Reclamation experts apply research, foresight, and years of

maintenance in order to carry out a mining company’s legal responsibility to make the land

available for a specific use after mining has ended. Planned reclamation considers the

economics of resale, recycling land for other commercial uses, or the donation of land to

government entities for public use as parks or recreation areas. Reclamation specialists are

interested in both aesthetics and ecology. They employ habitat-appropriate methods to make the

land look and function at least somewhat as it did before mining took place. Nature centers,

upscale residential areas, and even the 10-acre campus of the Florida Industrial and Phosphate

Research Institute (FIPR Institute) have been established on reclaimed land.



“Concepts of Planned Reclamation” Questions

1. What are three things a reclamation biologist must keep in mind when making plans to

reclaim a specific piece of mined land?

2. Why are native plants and trees preferred when reclaiming mined phosphate land?

3. Why is biodiversity important?

4. What is an invasive species? An exotic species?

5. What is a nuisance species? What are some examples of native nuisance species in Florida?

6. How do reclamation specialists control the growth of cogongrass?

7. What are some other troublesome exotic species in Florida?

8. What is one guideline in Florida for tree density? What is the minimum standard for trees

planted in wetlands and uplands?

9. What percentage of planted trees are expected to die within 10-20 years?

10. What is allelopathy?



11. Besides allelopathy, what are some other techniques to discourage the growth of invasive

plants?

12. When reclaiming a parcel of land, what is planted first?

13. When is the best time of year to plant trees in Florida? When is the worst time?

14. What are some of the ecological functions that wetlands fulfill?

15. What is an ephemeral wetland?

16. Explain the term “wetland mitigation.” How does a mining company do this?

17. What is a clay settling area?

18. What are some uses for reclaimed clay settling areas?

19. What is meant by the term “naturally reclaimed”?

20. What are some factors considered during planned reclamation?



“Concepts of Planned Reclamation” Answers

1. What are three things a reclamation biologist must keep in mind when making plans to reclaim a

specific piece of mined land?

The goal for the property in the future, which plants are best for this habitat, and the most

desirable tree density per acre.

2. Why are native plants and trees preferred when reclaiming mined phosphate land?

Native species adapt well to water, sunlight, and soil conditions and require little

maintenance. They also tolerate high winds and can grow through both heavy rainfall and

dry periods.

3. Why is biodiversity important?

It keeps a habitat healthy by offering a variety of food and shelter to different animals. It

also helps ensure that some type of vegetation will always be growing on the land.

4. What is an invasive species? An exotic species?

An invasive species is fast-growing and takes over a habitat. An exotic species is one that

was imported into Florida from elsewhere in the U.S. or the world.

5. What is a nuisance species? What are some examples of native nuisance species in Florida?

One that grows rapidly where it is not wanted. Grapevine, hemp vine, cattail, and

primrose willow.

6. How do reclamation specialists control the growth of cogongrass?

By mowing, or by controlled burns in certain seasons of the year, followed by herbicides.

7. What are some other troublesome exotic species in Florida?

Melaleuca, Brazilian pepper, air yam, and Chinese tallow.

8. What is one guideline in Florida for tree density? What is the minimum standard for trees

planted in wetlands and uplands?

Plant one tree every seven to ten feet. A minimum standard is 400 trees per acre in

wetlands and 200 trees per acre in uplands.

9. What percentage of planted trees are expected to die within 10-20 years?

50%

10. What is allelopathy?

The ability of certain plants to produce compounds that inhibit the growth of other plants.

11. Besides allelopathy, what are some other techniques to discourage the growth of invasive plants?

The use of cover crops, mulch, mowing, controlled burns, and herbicide spraying.

12. When reclaiming a parcel of land, what is planted first?

Grass (by seed or sod).



13. When is the best time of year to plant trees in Florida? When is the worst time?

December, January, July, August and September are the best months to plant trees.

March, April, and May are the worst months to plant trees.

14. What are some of the ecological functions that wetlands fulfill?

Storing flood waters, trapping sediments, helping purify water, providing habitat for

wildlife, and recharging groundwater.

15. What is an ephemeral wetland?

One that is underwater for only a short time each year during heavy rainfall.

16. Explain the term “wetland mitigation.” How does a mining company do this?

Wetland mitigation is the process of trading properties under the control of mining

companies to the State of Florida for the right to operate in environmentally sensitive areas.

Depending upon the property involved, a wetland must either be re-established where it

was before, a new wetland must be established, or the company must promise to preserve

important wetland resources forever.

17. What is a clay settling area?

A place on the property of a mining company where waste clay is deposited after being

separated from the phosphate and sand.

18. What are some uses for reclaimed clay settling areas?

Pastureland, agriculture.

19. What is meant by the term “naturally reclaimed”?

Mined land that was left to Mother Nature to reclaim, with no planning or special

manmade activity.

20. What are some factors considered during planned reclamation?

The economics of the property’s resale, recycling land for other commercial uses, or the

donation of land to government entities for public use as parks and recreation areas.



Post Mine Site Parameters

Directions:

Given the parameters listed below, decide as a group what will be the ultimate use of your mined

property, how the land will be recontoured, and which plant species will be planted. On the

piece of white butcher paper, draw the initial step of your reclamation plan. Drawings should be

made in plan view (as seen from above) with side view cross-sections (as seen laterally) where

appropriate to indicate land surface contours and tree heights. Make sure you note on your

drawing how this site will progress and mature 5, 10, and 20 years into the growth plan. Based

on your reclamation plan background reading, you decide the influence of each adjacent feature.

Be sure to indicate your reasoning in your final presentation.

The mined site to be reclaimed is 100 acres.

To the south of the property is a natural wetland.

The spoil piles to be used for re-contouring the mine cuts are on the east side of the property.

There is a clay settling area to the southeast of the property.

The farmland to the west of the property is currently used for cattle grazing.

Mine cut pit

Mine cut pit

Filled mine cut

Spoil pile

Spoil pile

Spoil pile

Clay Settling Pond

Side view cross section



Lesson 6: Soil Analysis


Introduction:

Soil is the top layer of the earth's crust in which plants can grow if water and temperature are

adequate, the minimum nutrients are available, and toxic substances are low in concentration.

Florida soil developed from weathered rock from the erosion of the Appalachian Mountains.

The majority of weathered minerals include quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, calcite, and

gypsum.

Soil texture is determined by the size of the dominant particles in the soil sample. The units are

measured in millimeters. This scale was defined by the USDA. Soils will be a percentage of

sand, silt, loam or clay with the total of all the soil types equaling 100% on the USDA soil

texture triangle. The state of Florida is comprised of a wide variety of soils and landscapes.

These include the red, loamy soils of the upper Florida Panhandle; the poorly drained, sandy

soils of the flatwoods; the peat soils of the northern Everglades; and the shallow, limerock-

influenced soils of extreme south Florida.

Soil affects the wildlife community in many ways before, during, and after mining and

reclamation. This activity offers students a detailed look at soil in a specific site they will be

studying to learn about its texture, percolation, and retention rate.

Activity: Students will perform a soil analysis from their selected reclamation site. They will follow all

procedures on the Soil Texture Test worksheet and record their results and analysis to include in a

final report.

Estimated Time:


Grade Level:

10-12

Standards:

LA.1112.4.2.1 SC.912.N.1.1 SC.912.N.1.7

Objectives:

The student will…

1. Complete a soil sample and soil texture analysis on the chosen natural site.

2. Follow directions on the lab sheet to complete the soil texture analysis.

3. Interpret the results of their test to correctly identify the soil texture of their soil.

4. Follow directions on the lab sheet to complete the soil percolation rate test.

5. Interpret the results of their test to correctly identify the percolation rate of their soil.

6. Write a lab report that describes their soil from the results of the soil texture and percolation

tests.



Vocabulary:

percolation

retention

Materials:

Soil Texture Test worksheet

Soil Sample Analysis worksheet

Percolation Rate Lab worksheet

Soil Triangle Instructions worksheet

Soil Triangle diagram worksheet

Styrofoam cups

Cotton balls

100 mL of tap water per group

Plastic stands for each group

3—50 mL separation tubes per group

1—1 mL pipette per group

Calculator for each group

Soil dispersing reagent*

*Caution—The soil-dispersing reagent is a 2% sodium pyrophosphate solution. It is very

irritating to the skin.

Procedure:

1. Have each student bring in a two-cup sample from their chosen reclamation site.

2. Distribute to each student the Soil Texture Test, Soil Sample Analysis, Percolation Rate Lab,

Soil Triangle Instructions and Soil Triangle diagram worksheets.

3. The students will follow the instructions for performing the soil analysis test and percolation

lab on their soil samples.

4. During step 8 of the Soil Texture test they can work on the percolation lab. Students will

need to be careful of the time, the soil test is very time-sensitive and times must be precise.

5. Remind students that the worksheets that they completed are part of the reclamation project

notebook.


Students perform a soil analysis.

1. What are the effects of different soils on building and construction activities in Florida?

2. How do different percolation rates affect land use?

3. What are sinkholes and what causes them?

4. How do soils affect the wildlife in a community?

Teacher Notes:

Students must be told to have their soil samples with them in class on this day.

Have lab materials ready for students to use.

Make copies of the lab sheets



Soil Texture Test

Materials needed for each student:

Soil Sample Tap Water

3 – 50ml. Separation Tubes Soil Dispersing Reagent

1 – 1ml. Pipette Calculator

1 – Tube Stand

Warning – The soil-dispersing reagent is an irritant to the skin. If this solution is spilled on

the skin, flush with water and then wash with soap. Use carefully!

Make sure you time this activity correctly. The accuracy of this lab is dependent on the proper

amount of time to allow the particles to settle.

Procedure:

1. Mark one tube with the letter “A”, second tube with the letter “B”, and the third tube with the

letter “C”.

2. Add soil to tube “A” to the level of the line marked 15. Tap the bottom of the tube gently on

the table to make sure the soil is packed and to eliminate any air pockets. Add more soil if

necessary.

3. Add 1 ml. of the dispersing reagent to the soil in tube “A”.

4. Add tap water to the level of line 45.

5. Place a cap on the tube and shake for 2 minutes. Make sure all of the soil has been mixed

with the water.

6. Remove the cap and place the tube in the stand for 30 seconds.

7. After the 30 seconds is up, pour the liquid solution from tube “A” into tube “B”. Be careful

not to pour out any soil. Place them both back into the stand.

8. Allow tube “B” to stand for 30 minutes undisturbed. The students may work on the

Percolation Rate Lab at this time.

9. After the 30 minutes is up, pour the solution from tube “B” into tube “C”.

10. Read the number beside the line at the top of the soil level in tubes “A” and “B”. Record

them on the chart below under (A1) and (B1).

Tube “A”

(Sand)

Tube “B”

(Silt)

Tube “C”

(Clay)

Soil Level (A1) __________ (B1) ___________ (C1) ___________

Percentage (A2) __________ (B2) ___________ (C2) ___________

Type of Soil

The mineral particles in tube “A” are sand. They are the largest and heaviest particles; therefore,

they settle out first. The particles in tube “B” are silt. Since they are lighter than sand, they take

longer to settle out. The particles remaining in the final tube, “C”, are clay. Clay particles swell



when placed in water, and they tend to remain mixed with the water so this tube is not an

accurate indication in the amount of clay in the sample. The amount of clay is more accurately

determined by mathematical calculation.

11. To calculate the amount of clay in your sample, add the amount of sand and silt and subtract

the total from 15. Record this on the chart under (C1).

12. Calculate the percentage of sand in your soil sample and record on the chart. Divide the

amount of sand (A1) by 15 and multiply by 100. Record in (A2),

13. Calculate the percentage of silt in your soil sample and record on the chart. Divide the

amount of silt (B1) by 15 and multiply by 100. Record in (B2).

14. Calculate the percentage of clay in your soil sample and record on the chart. Divide the

amount of clay (C1) by 15 and multiply by 100.

15. To check and make sure your calculations are correct, add the percentages of sand (A2), silt

(B2), and clay (C2). The total should equal 100%.

16. Use the USDA Soil Triangle to determine the name of your soil type. Record the name on

the bottom of the chart.

Percolation Rate Lab

Materials for each student:

Soil sample (dry)

Styrofoam cup

Cotton ball

Beaker with volume measurements on the side

Tap water

100 ml graduated cylinder

Procedure:

1. Use a pencil or pen to make a 1-cm diameter hole in the center of the bottom of the

Styrofoam cup. Place a small piece of cotton over the hole. Put some of the dry soil sample

into the cup. Gently pack down the soil, forming a layer that is 2 inches thick. Make sure

there are no spaces between the edge of the soil and the cup.

2. Fill the graduated cylinder with tap water up to the 100 ml mark.

3. Hold the Styrofoam cup over the beaker. Gently pour the water from the graduated cylinder

into the Styrofoam cup. Record the amount of time it takes for the first drop of water to

come through the hole (D1). Record the volume of water that has collected in the beaker

after 5 minutes (E1).



Soil Sample Analysis

Soil Texture

(A2)_______ % Sand

(B2)_______ % Silt Soil Texture _______________________

(C2)_______ % Clay (from Soil Texture Triangle)

Soil Percolation – The ability of water to pass through your soil

2 inches soil

100 ml. water

(D1)________ Percolation rate of your soil

(How many seconds before you saw the first drop of water)

________ Inches soil/second

(This is determined by dividing the inches of soil by the percolation rate)

Water Retention – The ability of your soil to hold water

After 5 minutes (E1) _____ ml. of water percolated through your soil

_____ ml. of water retained in the soil

_____ ml. retained in soil ÷ 100 ml. poured = ____ % water retention

ANALYSIS - Based on my soil’s:

Texture _________________________

Percolation rate _________ in./sec.

Water retention ________ %

And based on my site’s topography ______________________________

My habitat is ______________________________________________

And will support the following plant species:

Trees _______________________________________________

Shrubs______________________________________________

Ground cover__________________________________________



Soil Triangle Instructions

Use the Soil Texture Triangle to determine what type of soil your group has. Look over the soil

triangle to familiarize yourself with it. The bottom line represents the percentages of sand. The

slanting left line represents the percentages for clay and the right slanting line represents the

percentages for silt.

1. Transfer your percentages of sand, silt, and clay from the “Soil Composition worksheet.

Sand_______% Silt_______% Clay_______%

2. Take your percentage for sand and find it on the sand line (bottom line). From this point,

draw a line upwards and to the left through the triangle. (This line should be parallel to the

right slanting line.) This line marks your percentage amount of sand.

3. Next, take your percentage amount for silt and find it on the silt line (the right slanting line).

From your percentage on the line, draw a line slanting downward and to the left, through the

triangle. This represents your percentage amount for silt. (The sand line and the silt line

should cross over one another).

4. Now take your percentage for clay and find it on the clay line (the left slanting line). Draw a

line from your percentage point directly across the triangle (horizontally). Once you have

drawn this line, all three lines should intersect at the same point.

5. Draw a circle around the intersection of the three lines. It will fall within one of the soil

types on the grid. This is the type of soil that your group has.

The type of soil we have is:_____________________________________



Lesson 7: Culminating Activities


Introduction:

A final report is prepared and presented by reclamation biologists to their supervisors at a

phosphate mining company to summarize the results of the efforts after completing a reclamation

project. From a final report of their own data, students will gain an appreciation of the effort

required to maintain a natural balance in ecosystems.

Activity: Students will produce written reports using the data collected while restoring their chosen sites.

Estimated Time:

One week

Grade Level:

10-12

Standards:

LA.1112.5.2.2 LA.1112.5.2.4 LA.1112.5.2.5

SC.912.N.1.1 SS.912.G.1.2

Objectives:

The student will…

1. Write a reflective report that describes specific learning and attitudes they developed.

2. Report anticipated benefits of the planned restoration project to the class.

3. Give an oral presentation about their restoration project.

4. Understand the benefits of reclamation.

5. Appreciate the importance and effort required to maintain natural balance in ecosystems.

Materials:

Students will gather together the worksheets and reports that were required to complete the unit.

Procedure:

1. Students will use the information gathered during their Restoration Project Lesson 3 to

prepare a written report.

2. The report must include:

a summary of the project

what you anticipate to be the long-term benefits to your site

what you learned from the project

the problems you encountered

what you would do differently

3. Notebooks are due and should include the information on the Project Timeline and checklist.

4. Students will be given the opportunity to present their projects and to discuss effective



practices and suggested refinements. They also are required to reflect upon what they learned

and what attitudes they developed during the project.

5. Students will take a Post-test to evaluate what they have learned about phosphate mining and

reclamation.


Were the students happy with the decisions that they made in restoring the site and did they find

easier and better ways to complete the project if asked to restore another site?



Materials

3 types of chocolate cookies with different amounts of chips

Flat toothpicks

Round toothpicks

Large Paper clips

Butcher paper

Markers

Crayons

Drawing pencils

Disposable cameras for each student group

Samples of different native and exotic Florida plants

Soil dispersing reagent

Styrofoam cups

Cotton balls

100 mL separation tubes per group

Plastic stands for each group

3 - 50 mL separation tubes per group

1 – 1 mL pipette per group

Calculators

phosphate mining and reclamation -...

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