Physical and Sexual Assault at Hip Hop Physical and Sexual Assault at Hip Hop Versus Electronic Dance Music Night Club Versus Electronic Dance Music Night Club

Events: Examining the Drugs/Crime Events: Examining the Drugs/Crime Connection*Connection*

Tammy L. Anderson, Ph.D.Tammy L. Anderson, Ph.D.Associate ProfessorAssociate Professor

Department of Sociology and Criminal JusticeDepartment of Sociology and Criminal JusticeUniversity of DelawareUniversity of Delaware

ABSTRACTABSTRACT

Currently, the electronic dance music (EDM) and hip-hop (HH) nightclub scenes Currently, the electronic dance music (EDM) and hip-hop (HH) nightclub scenes function as a major source of entertainment and leisure activity to a large number of function as a major source of entertainment and leisure activity to a large number of

young adults. However, the people who support these scenes have been linked to young adults. However, the people who support these scenes have been linked to alcohol and illegal drug abuse, as well as various criminal behaviors, including alcohol and illegal drug abuse, as well as various criminal behaviors, including

physical and sexual assault. The link between alcohol, drugs and violence at physical and sexual assault. The link between alcohol, drugs and violence at nightclubs has received little scholarly attention. This study aims to fill that void by nightclubs has received little scholarly attention. This study aims to fill that void by

examining how a club event’s environment (e.g., vibe, social organization), along with examining how a club event’s environment (e.g., vibe, social organization), along with individual motives and traits, impacts the relationship between alcohol, drugs, and individual motives and traits, impacts the relationship between alcohol, drugs, and sexual and physical assault in nightclub settings. Comparisons are made between sexual and physical assault in nightclub settings. Comparisons are made between

diverse types of club events (e.g., HH, EDM, commercial, and underground) diverse types of club events (e.g., HH, EDM, commercial, and underground) Examining the ADC link in nightclub settings has the potential to expand theory and Examining the ADC link in nightclub settings has the potential to expand theory and policy about the link to contemporary settings and populations that have not been policy about the link to contemporary settings and populations that have not been

previously accounted for.previously accounted for.*Project funded by NIJ Grant No. 2004-IJ-CX-0040, with additional support from the University of *Project funded by NIJ Grant No. 2004-IJ-CX-0040, with additional support from the University of Delaware Delaware

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

What are the patterns of drug and alcohol use to participants at What are the patterns of drug and alcohol use to participants at hip hop and electronic dance music events?hip hop and electronic dance music events?

What are the patterns of physical and sexual assault among What are the patterns of physical and sexual assault among participants by type of event?participants by type of event?

What is the relationship between alcohol, drugs, physical and What is the relationship between alcohol, drugs, physical and sexual assault offending and victimization? sexual assault offending and victimization?

What is the explanatory role of individual and environmental What is the explanatory role of individual and environmental factors?factors?

How do extant theories fare in explaining the ADC + V link How do extant theories fare in explaining the ADC + V link among the diverse groups of participants in both types of among the diverse groups of participants in both types of nightclub events? nightclub events?

What are the policy implications?What are the policy implications?

Theoretical Framework / ContributionTheoretical Framework / Contribution

Goldstein’s Tripartite ModelGoldstein’s Tripartite Model

Common Cause ModelCommon Cause Model

Toward a combined micro and macro explanation : Toward a combined micro and macro explanation : theorizing context and individuals.theorizing context and individuals.

Policy SignificancePolicy Significance

Prevention of crime and victimization via education of general Prevention of crime and victimization via education of general public.public.

Reduction of health related problems related to club-related Reduction of health related problems related to club-related crime and victimization.crime and victimization.

Enhance law enforcement’s effectiveness with night-time leisure Enhance law enforcement’s effectiveness with night-time leisure industry.industry.

Theoretical discoveries inform new cj interventions and policies.Theoretical discoveries inform new cj interventions and policies.

Assistance of leisure industry in reducing risks in its business.Assistance of leisure industry in reducing risks in its business.

Safeguarding tourism in metropolitan areas.Safeguarding tourism in metropolitan areas.

Project MethodologyProject Methodology

Multi-faceted ethnographic approachMulti-faceted ethnographic approach

In-depth interviews with 51 diverse (race, gender, scene) clubbersIn-depth interviews with 51 diverse (race, gender, scene) clubbers

Follow-up (2 and 6 months) e-mail surveys Follow-up (2 and 6 months) e-mail surveys

Direct observation of 33 club events Direct observation of 33 club events

Data analysis using grounded theoryData analysis using grounded theory

Utility of qualitative methods for anti-crime and Utility of qualitative methods for anti-crime and victimization victimization

research and policyresearch and policy

Detailed information about when, how, and why crime and Detailed information about when, how, and why crime and victimization happen according to the people who experience victimization happen according to the people who experience them (via in-depth interviews), with opportunity to witness them (via in-depth interviews), with opportunity to witness events and cross-check accounts first hand (via direct events and cross-check accounts first hand (via direct observation). observation).

Ability to document the web of social relationships leading to Ability to document the web of social relationships leading to drugs, crime, and victimization from people using open-ended drugs, crime, and victimization from people using open-ended long interview. long interview.

Ability to discover additional environmental or contextual risk Ability to discover additional environmental or contextual risk factors for crime and victimization that people might not factors for crime and victimization that people might not consider or convey in surveys. Discovery of information in this consider or convey in surveys. Discovery of information in this manner will permit improved quantitative survey methodologies manner will permit improved quantitative survey methodologies for more comprehensive studies in the future.for more comprehensive studies in the future.

Richer and more effective interventions, ability to impact Richer and more effective interventions, ability to impact causes and processes. Also assists discovery of crime and causes and processes. Also assists discovery of crime and victimization and ideas for interventions and policies better victimization and ideas for interventions and policies better suited to victims and offenders. suited to victims and offenders.

Table 1. Respondent Race and Sex Breakdown (Total).Table 1. Respondent Race and Sex Breakdown (Total). __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__Sex /Race Sex /Race WhiteWhite Black Black Asian Asian Hispanic Hispanic Total #Total #__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__

MaleMale 99 1010 4 4 3 3 26 26

FemaleFemale 77 11 11 6 6 1 1 2525_________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________

Total #Total # 1616 2121 10 10 4 4 5151__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__

Table 2. Social Class Indicators by Race and Sex Table 2. Social Class Indicators by Race and Sex (Total).(Total).

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Educational AttainmentEducational Attainment

Race / SexRace / Sex Mean Age Mean Inc.* High School Some College Mean Age Mean Inc.* High School Some College B.A./M.A.***B.A./M.A.***

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

White MaleWhite Male 26.626.6 $27,000$27,000 3 3 55 1 1

White FemaleWhite Female 25.225.2 $26,520$26,520 2 2 33 2 2

Black Male Black Male 2626 $29,000$29,000 2 2 55 2 2

Black FemaleBlack Female 22.222.2 $25,860**$25,860** 2 2 55 5 5

Asian MaleAsian Male 28.528.5 $55,900$55,900 1 1 22 1 1

Asian FemaleAsian Female 25.425.4 $34,500$34,500 2 2 11 3 3

Hisp. MaleHisp. Male 26.326.3 $35,250$35,250 2 2 11 . .

Hisp. FemaleHisp. Female 2525 $4,800$4,800 1 1 .. . .____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TotalsTotals 25.325.3 $36,820$36,820 15 15 22 22 14 14____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

** Income data is annual, and was provided for 45 of the 50 respondents. Six respondents were unemployed and not Income data is annual, and was provided for 45 of the 50 respondents. Six respondents were unemployed and not earning an income at the time of the interview. The mean figures do not include data for those six. earning an income at the time of the interview. The mean figures do not include data for those six.

** ** The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is excluded, the mean income for this category drops to $18,600. excluded, the mean income for this category drops to $18,600.

*** *** One respondent had a graduate degree - a black female with a Master’s in computer science. Four others were pursuing One respondent had a graduate degree - a black female with a Master’s in computer science. Four others were pursuing advanced degrees - 2 Asian females, 1 black female, and 1 white male.advanced degrees - 2 Asian females, 1 black female, and 1 white male.

Table 3. Hip-Hop Respondent Demographic and Social Table 3. Hip-Hop Respondent Demographic and Social Class Indicators.Class Indicators.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Educational AttainmentEducational Attainment

Race / SexRace / Sex # # Mean Age Mean Inc. High School Some College Mean Age Mean Inc. High School Some College B.A./M.A.B.A./M.A.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

White MaleWhite Male 3 3 26.326.3 $23,000$23,000 1 1 22 . .

White FemaleWhite Female 2 2 28.528.5 $38,000$38,000 . . 11 1 1

Black Male Black Male 7 7 2626 $28,000$28,000 1 1 44 2 2

Black FemaleBlack Female 9 9 23.723.7 $26,830*$26,830* . . 44 5 5

Asian MaleAsian Male 2 2 26.526.5 $60,000**$60,000** 1 1 .. 1 1

Asian FemaleAsian Female 5 5 25.425.4 $34,500$34,500 1 1 11 3 3

Hisp. MaleHisp. Male 1 1 2929 $50,000$50,000 . . 11 . .

Hisp. FemaleHisp. Female 1 1 2525 $4,800$4,800 1 1 .. . .____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TotalsTotals 30 30 26.326.3 $33,140$33,140 5 5 13 13 12 12____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

** The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is excluded, The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is excluded, the mean income for this category drops to $18,400. the mean income for this category drops to $18,400.

** ** Mean income for the Asian male category is based on data from one respondent only.Mean income for the Asian male category is based on data from one respondent only.

Table 4. EDM Respondent Demographic and Social Table 4. EDM Respondent Demographic and Social Class Indicators.Class Indicators.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Educational AttainmentEducational Attainment

Race / SexRace / Sex # # Mean Age Mean Inc. High School Some College Mean Age Mean Inc. High School Some College B.A./M.A.B.A./M.A.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

White MaleWhite Male 6 6 26.826.8 $29,600$29,600 2 2 33 1 1

White FemaleWhite Female 5 5 2424 $23,650$23,650 2 2 22 1 1

Black Male Black Male 3 3 26.726.7 $32,500$32,500 1 1 22 . .

Black FemaleBlack Female 2 2 19.519.5 $20,000*$20,000* 1 1 11 . .

Asian MaleAsian Male 1 1 29.529.5 $57,500$57,500 . . 22 . .

Asian FemaleAsian Female 1 1 2525 $24,000$24,000 1 1 .. . .

Hisp. MaleHisp. Male 2 2 2424 $20,500**$20,500** 1 1 11 . .____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TotalsTotals 21 21 2525 $29,700$29,700 8 8 11 11 2 2____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

** Mean income for the black female category is based on data for one respondent only. Mean income for the black female category is based on data for one respondent only.

** ** Mean income for the Hispanic male category is based on data for one respondent only.Mean income for the Hispanic male category is based on data for one respondent only.

Table 5. Direct Observation of Events by Type.Table 5. Direct Observation of Events by Type. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______

Event TypeEvent Type Commercial Commercial1 1 HHHH2 2 Commercial EDM Commercial EDM33 Underground Underground44 HH HH Underground EDM Underground EDM Mash-upsMash-ups55

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WeekliesWeeklies66 6 6 11 5 5 11 . .MonthliesMonthlies77 2 2 11 4 4 33 2 2Superstar One-offsSuperstar One-offs9 9 2 2 33 . . 11

2 2______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______

TotalsTotals 10 10 55 9 9 5 5 4 4______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______

[1][1] Commercial refers to large events at clubs that replicate and appeal to mainstream music interests, styles, and forms Commercial refers to large events at clubs that replicate and appeal to mainstream music interests, styles, and forms and are marketed to as many clubbers as possible. These parties are primarily focused on profit, not any musical genre and are marketed to as many clubbers as possible. These parties are primarily focused on profit, not any musical genre or scene. or scene.

[2][2] HH = Hip Hop.HH = Hip Hop.[3][3] EDM = Electronic Dance Music (techno, house, trance, break beat, drum and bass, etc.).EDM = Electronic Dance Music (techno, house, trance, break beat, drum and bass, etc.).[4][4] Underground refers to smaller parties held at smaller clubs for those loyal to or interested in music that is not Underground refers to smaller parties held at smaller clubs for those loyal to or interested in music that is not

commercially available or played in conventional outlets.commercially available or played in conventional outlets.[5][5] Mash-ups are a new music scene developing around a DJ mixing together vastly different genres of music (reggae, HH, Mash-ups are a new music scene developing around a DJ mixing together vastly different genres of music (reggae, HH,

pop, house, rock) to a slower, groove-friendly beat. pop, house, rock) to a slower, groove-friendly beat. [6][6] Weeklies are named parties held on a particular day every week, usually from 9pm until 2am. They tend to draw Weeklies are named parties held on a particular day every week, usually from 9pm until 2am. They tend to draw

smaller crowds and are heavily populated by scene insiders and/or enthusiasts.smaller crowds and are heavily populated by scene insiders and/or enthusiasts.[7][7] Monthlies are named parties held once a month–usually on a weekend and from 9pm until 2-3am. They tend to draw Monthlies are named parties held once a month–usually on a weekend and from 9pm until 2-3am. They tend to draw

slightly larger crowds, have more status, and are populated by scene enthusiasts and some “outsiders.”slightly larger crowds, have more status, and are populated by scene enthusiasts and some “outsiders.”[8][8] Superstar one-offs are one-time events that often obtain special permits to run past normal bar hours. They feature a Superstar one-offs are one-time events that often obtain special permits to run past normal bar hours. They feature a

superstar DJ or DJs and are typically held at large clubs to accommodate large crowds that are very diverse. superstar DJ or DJs and are typically held at large clubs to accommodate large crowds that are very diverse.

Types of Physical Assault Committed and Types of Physical Assault Committed and ExperiencedExperienced

by HH and EDM Respondents by HH and EDM Respondents

Most common is minor physical assault (e.g., fights with Most common is minor physical assault (e.g., fights with

punching, kicking) among male clubbers stemming from punching, kicking) among male clubbers stemming from hyper-masculinity, power/reputation disputes, possession hyper-masculinity, power/reputation disputes, possession of females. Most often at more commercial parties). Some of females. Most often at more commercial parties). Some minor injuries for staff and clubber. Other forms include minor injuries for staff and clubber. Other forms include males ‘roughing up’ females, i.e., pushing women or males ‘roughing up’ females, i.e., pushing women or pinning them up against walls, or females in fights over pinning them up against walls, or females in fights over males.males.

Major assault (stabbings, gunshot wounds, trauma with Major assault (stabbings, gunshot wounds, trauma with objects-beer bottles) and weapons offenses leading to objects-beer bottles) and weapons offenses leading to serious injury, mostly of club staff but also of male serious injury, mostly of club staff but also of male clubbers. clubbers.

Types of Sexual Assault Committed and Types of Sexual Assault Committed and Experienced byExperienced by

HH and EDM Respondents HH and EDM Respondents

Verbal assault and sexual harassment- of females by males.Verbal assault and sexual harassment- of females by males.

Minor sexual assault – Groping, pinching, of females’ genitals Minor sexual assault – Groping, pinching, of females’ genitals by males extremely common. A “cost” of clubbing- not by males extremely common. A “cost” of clubbing- not defined as a sexual assault.defined as a sexual assault.

Attempted sexual assault via spiked drinks- most commonly Attempted sexual assault via spiked drinks- most commonly reported by females, perceived perpetrator is male.reported by females, perceived perpetrator is male.

Stalking of women by men, both inside and outside the club.Stalking of women by men, both inside and outside the club.

Drug and Alcohol Use Frequency by Drug and Alcohol Use Frequency by Respondents by Scene*Respondents by Scene*

EDM Scene: EDM Scene:

Present use:Present use: Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly)Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly) Marijuana (Most, daily to weekly)**Marijuana (Most, daily to weekly)** Cocaine (Few, weekly to semi-monthly)****Cocaine (Few, weekly to semi-monthly)**** Pres. Narc (Few, monthly to bi-monthly)Pres. Narc (Few, monthly to bi-monthly) Ecstasy (Few, bi-monthly to annually)Ecstasy (Few, bi-monthly to annually)

* * A total of 26 respondent transcripts were coded, 13 in each scene. Use patterns represent only those 26.A total of 26 respondent transcripts were coded, 13 in each scene. Use patterns represent only those 26.

**** There were 8 reported daily/weekly, and 2 monthly marijuana users in the EDM scene. Of the 3 who did not use, 2 were former self-There were 8 reported daily/weekly, and 2 monthly marijuana users in the EDM scene. Of the 3 who did not use, 2 were former self-confirmed poly-substance addicts, the other was a former daily user. All of these 3 were male.confirmed poly-substance addicts, the other was a former daily user. All of these 3 were male.

*** *** There were 7 reported daily/weekly, and 1 monthly marijuana user in the HH scene. Of the 5 who did not use, 4 were female, the There were 7 reported daily/weekly, and 1 monthly marijuana user in the HH scene. Of the 5 who did not use, 4 were female, the other was a male former daily user who had recently quit.other was a male former daily user who had recently quit.

******** Current cocaine use in the EDM scene was reported by 3 respondents, 2 female, one male.Current cocaine use in the EDM scene was reported by 3 respondents, 2 female, one male.

Hip-Hop Scene:Hip-Hop Scene:Present use: Present use: Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly)Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly) Marijuana (Most, daily to Marijuana (Most, daily to

weekly)***weekly)*** Pres. Narc (Few, bi-monthly Pres. Narc (Few, bi-monthly

to annually)to annually) Ecstasy (Few, annually)Ecstasy (Few, annually)

Drug and Alcohol Use by Respondents by Drug and Alcohol Use by Respondents by SceneScene

By far, alcohol and marijuana were the most commonly abused By far, alcohol and marijuana were the most commonly abused substances in both HH and EDM scenes. substances in both HH and EDM scenes.

Several respondents in both scenes reported daily marijuana use, Several respondents in both scenes reported daily marijuana use, some using multiple times a day. Most marijuana use happened some using multiple times a day. Most marijuana use happened outside of night-clubs, but some took place inside. outside of night-clubs, but some took place inside.

When queried on the number and type of drinks consumed, many When queried on the number and type of drinks consumed, many reported exceeding binge-drinking levels at night clubs. Binge-reported exceeding binge-drinking levels at night clubs. Binge-drinking consumption was slightly more common in the HH drinking consumption was slightly more common in the HH scene.scene.

Thus far, cocaine found only among EDM respondents, is used for Thus far, cocaine found only among EDM respondents, is used for psychopharmacologic properties, but it is also a status symbol for psychopharmacologic properties, but it is also a status symbol for certain sub-scenes.certain sub-scenes.

Prescription narcotic use reported to largely take place outside of Prescription narcotic use reported to largely take place outside of clubs. It is often the result of drug diversion.clubs. It is often the result of drug diversion.

Alcohol-related Crime and VictimizationAlcohol-related Crime and Victimization Alcohol is a social lubricant that is important at events where the Alcohol is a social lubricant that is important at events where the

vibe is a commercial one about hooking up and getting loaded.vibe is a commercial one about hooking up and getting loaded.

Most crime and victimization experiences were related to the Most crime and victimization experiences were related to the consumption of alcohol, in both the psychopharmacologic way consumption of alcohol, in both the psychopharmacologic way and in new ways consistent with the common cause paradigm.and in new ways consistent with the common cause paradigm.

Fighting:Fighting: Most of the male respondents in both the EDM and HH Most of the male respondents in both the EDM and HH scenes reported that alcohol consumption was often a precursor scenes reported that alcohol consumption was often a precursor to verbal and physical confrontations.to verbal and physical confrontations.

Sexual Harassment:Sexual Harassment: Most females reported that encounters of Most females reported that encounters of verbal confrontations and sexual harassment were perpetrated by verbal confrontations and sexual harassment were perpetrated by males under the influence of alcohol. males under the influence of alcohol.

Verbal Harassment:Verbal Harassment: Females’ rejection of male sexual advances Females’ rejection of male sexual advances often resulted in more forceful attempts (‘roughing up’) at often resulted in more forceful attempts (‘roughing up’) at intimate behavior, or verbal assaults and harassment. intimate behavior, or verbal assaults and harassment.

Drug-related Crime and VictimizationDrug-related Crime and Victimization

Unlike alcohol, marijuana use was not reported to be a factor in Unlike alcohol, marijuana use was not reported to be a factor in victimization reports. Conversely, marijuana was reported to inhibit victimization reports. Conversely, marijuana was reported to inhibit victimization and criminal experiences, due to its victimization and criminal experiences, due to its psychopharmacologic properties.psychopharmacologic properties.

Most other drugs (cocaine, pills, ecstasy, etc.) were not used Most other drugs (cocaine, pills, ecstasy, etc.) were not used frequently enough to be implicated in recent victimization frequently enough to be implicated in recent victimization experiences. experiences.

However, many reported curtailing or having altogether quit use of However, many reported curtailing or having altogether quit use of “harder” drugs due to prior negative interpersonal, legal, and in some “harder” drugs due to prior negative interpersonal, legal, and in some cases, victimization experiences.cases, victimization experiences.

Assault attempts:Assault attempts: There were numerous reports by females of male There were numerous reports by females of male club attendees attempting to spike their drinks, as part of a perceived club attendees attempting to spike their drinks, as part of a perceived attempt to commit sexual assault.attempt to commit sexual assault.

Predatory behavior:Predatory behavior: There were also reports of males loitering outside There were also reports of males loitering outside of night-clubs after events had ended, attempting to take sexual of night-clubs after events had ended, attempting to take sexual advantage of intoxicated women.advantage of intoxicated women.

Social Context or Macro-Level Risk Factors for Social Context or Macro-Level Risk Factors for

Alcohol and Drug-Related Physical AssaultAlcohol and Drug-Related Physical Assault

Vibe of the party is an important factor that shapes Vibe of the party is an important factor that shapes behaviors and consequences.behaviors and consequences.

Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also produce risk. produce risk.

Club Capacity and Crowding.Club Capacity and Crowding.

Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of operation. operation.

Drink specials, alcohol as social lubricant.Drink specials, alcohol as social lubricant.

Social Context Factors for Alcohol and Social Context Factors for Alcohol and Drug-related Sexual AssaultDrug-related Sexual Assault

Vibe of the party (gendered gaze) is an important factor Vibe of the party (gendered gaze) is an important factor that shapes behaviors and consequences.that shapes behaviors and consequences.

Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also produce risk. produce risk.

Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of operation (preference to serve women 1st). operation (preference to serve women 1st).

Drink specials, over-consumption of alcohol.Drink specials, over-consumption of alcohol.

Drug Discounts for women. Drug Discounts for women.

Theoretical ContributionsTheoretical Contributions

Contextual Facilitators - vibe and social organization - as Contextual Facilitators - vibe and social organization - as contribution to Goldstein.contribution to Goldstein.

Toward a new framework linking individual/motivational and Toward a new framework linking individual/motivational and environmental/contextual factors-environmental/contextual factors-

Contextual factors: opportunity. Contextual factors: opportunity. social and physical organization.social and physical organization. specific redefinition of crime and victimization.specific redefinition of crime and victimization.

Contextual factors: motivations. Contextual factors: motivations. Individual behaviors influenced by the club event’s vibe and social Individual behaviors influenced by the club event’s vibe and social

organization.organization. Different types of clubbers have different motives- scene insiders Different types of clubbers have different motives- scene insiders

versus outsiders.versus outsiders.

Context-specific and individual gender identities and norms.Context-specific and individual gender identities and norms.

Policy ImplicationsPolicy Implications

Clubbing environments are great facilitators of positive and negative behaviors, Clubbing environments are great facilitators of positive and negative behaviors, thus altering them is an important intervention point. This study illustrates how thus altering them is an important intervention point. This study illustrates how important environmental factors are in shaping individual identity and behavior important environmental factors are in shaping individual identity and behavior well into adulthood. Even if people are only temporarily in such environments, well into adulthood. Even if people are only temporarily in such environments, they are subjected to powerful forces.they are subjected to powerful forces.

Club Owners (screen employees backgrounds and work activities, improved staff Club Owners (screen employees backgrounds and work activities, improved staff deployment, security authoritarian style with low machismo, increase weapons deployment, security authoritarian style with low machismo, increase weapons checks, reduce offerings of drink specials, tone down sexual vibe of events, checks, reduce offerings of drink specials, tone down sexual vibe of events, bathroom staff).bathroom staff).

Club security are a critically important factor in vibe of event and prevalence of Club security are a critically important factor in vibe of event and prevalence of crime and victimization. Must have respect of clubbers and control of venue. crime and victimization. Must have respect of clubbers and control of venue. Authoritative not authoritarian. Not hyper-masculine acting but a confident Authoritative not authoritarian. Not hyper-masculine acting but a confident presence is a plus.presence is a plus.

Local law enforcement- continue policing/patrolling large venue exterior through Local law enforcement- continue policing/patrolling large venue exterior through the end of the event, including secluded areas. Collaborative relationships with the end of the event, including secluded areas. Collaborative relationships with club owners, staff, and private security.club owners, staff, and private security.

Educational- Add “clubbing dangers and risks” links to Federal webpages and Educational- Add “clubbing dangers and risks” links to Federal webpages and partner with local event promotional groups for the same. Dissemination of partner with local event promotional groups for the same. Dissemination of dangers and risks in clubbing. Follow some of London’s model.dangers and risks in clubbing. Follow some of London’s model.

Future ResearchFuture Research

Recommend full-scale study of the incidence and Recommend full-scale study of the incidence and prevalence of physical and sexual assault in nightclubs, prevalence of physical and sexual assault in nightclubs, including that emanating from contacts made within including that emanating from contacts made within (require a longitudinal quantitative design).(require a longitudinal quantitative design).

Recommend combining qualitative component in to further Recommend combining qualitative component in to further develop theoretical, explanatory model of micro/macro develop theoretical, explanatory model of micro/macro factors. One result would be a model that could later be factors. One result would be a model that could later be tested via a quantitative survey approach for additional tested via a quantitative survey approach for additional validity, reliability, and utility. validity, reliability, and utility.

Recommend investigation into social, economic, and health Recommend investigation into social, economic, and health (mental and physical) consequences emanating from (mental and physical) consequences emanating from physical and sexual assault in nightclubs: female victims as physical and sexual assault in nightclubs: female victims as well as business impact.well as business impact.