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Physics in Canada The Bulletin of the Canadian Association of Physicists Volume 21, No. 4 Summer 196 ç Eté

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1662 J

Phvsics in Canada The Bulletin of the Canadian Association oj Physicists

Bulletin de l'Association canadienne des physiciens

La Physique au Canada Vol. 21, No. 4 , Summer 196^

CORPORATE M E M B E R S H I P 4

A L O U E T T E I AND II, by Frank P. Davies 5

A B O U T THE COVER 14

P R O J E C T EPIC, par Paul Lorrain 15

THE BIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH II, by R. W. Jackson 19

N E W S 32

CANADIAN PHYSICISTS 3 6

P R E - U N I V E R S I T Y SCIENCE EDUCATION A N D THE OTTAWA SECTION,

by W. G. Henry, E. P. Hincks, and L. R. McNarry 37

IN M Y O P I N I O N , by "Capius" 4 0

BOOKS 44

EDITOR: A. Vallance Jones, EDITORIAL BOARD: D. V. Cormack, A. Kavadas, H. N. Rundle, T. P. Pepper, G. G. Shepherd. EDITORIAL ADDRESS: Dept. of Physics, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask.

ADVERTISING AND SUBSCRIPTIONS: University of Toronto Press, Front Campus, Toronto.

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CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP

The constitution of the Association provides for the enrollment of Corporate Members. Corporate Membership is open to all corporations, firms, institutions or individuals who wish to contribute to the Educa-tional Trust Fund of the Association. This fund is being put to good use in furthering the educational activities of the Association—in particular the C.A.P. Secondary School Prize examination which has been operating with such success. Arrangements for corporate member-ship should be made by contacting Dr. R. H. Hay, Aluminum Company of Canada, Kingston, Ontario.

The following is a list of our corporate members at the time of going to press:

D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.;

POLYMER CORP. LTD., SARNIA;

THE STEEL COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD., HAMILTON;

DOMINION FOUNDRY AND STEEL;

DEHAVILLAND AIRCRAFT;

DOMINION ELECTROHOME;

CANADIAN WESTINGHOUSE;

R.C.A. VICTOR CO. LTD.;

BRITISH-AMERICAN OIL CO. LTD.;

NORTHERN ELECTRIC CO. LTD.;

COMPUTING DEVICES OF CANADA;

ALLAN CRAWFORD ASSOCIATES LTD.;

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LTD.;

ABREX SPECIALTY COATINGS LTD., OAKVILLE

DEADLINE DATES FOR PHYSICS IN CANADA

The deadline dates for the submission of material for publication in Physics in Canada are as follows: Autumn—August 20; Winter— November 5; Spring—January 7; Summer—April 1. The Editor would be pleased to publish articles of general interest describing interesting developments or progress in physics.

Alouette I and II

FRANK T. DAVIES

ON 16 AUGUST 1962 a RCAF Cosmopolitan flew to Pacific Missile Range, California with two complete flight models of Alouette I and twenty-one DRTE engineers who helped integrate one of these models into a Thor-Agena/B Rocket combination. This was not only the first Canadian satellite but the first NASA launch from the Pacific Range and the first time this particular launch combination was used. After the first launch attempt—cancelled within two minutes of "go"—the second was successful after an 11-hour count-down two nights later on September 29, 1962. Alouette I is still transmitting data efficiently at the time of writing and has done so longer than any other satellite yet launched.

The primary experiment is a sounder measuring the earth's iono-sphere from above while 170 ground stations around the earth measure the bottom third of the ionosphere from below. Alouette is monitored by 13 U.S., U.K., and Canadian stations. Data received on magnetic tape is processed at DRTE where the processing centre and control centre were constructed at the same time as the two Alouette models and three Canadian monitor stations during 1960-62. Two other DRTE experiments measure galactic noise and VLF signals while a N.R.C. experiment measures particles of several energy ranges.

The years 1 9 6 2 ^ are near the end of the present sunspot cycle. Because the next four to five years are expected to cover the sharp rise to maximum of the next sunspot cycle, during which the earth's iono-sphere increases its maximum electron density four times and rises in height, NASA suggested Canada should construct and control four more satellites for launch by NASA during 1965-1969, the primary purpose being to measure the topside ionosphere. This offer was accepted by the Canadian government, naming DRTE as design authority with in-structions to utilize Canadian industry in construction as much as pos-sible. This is now being done in co-operation with RCA Victor, de Havilland Aircraft, and Computing Devices of Canada. Sinclair Ltd. Toronto are retained as antenna design consultants. The first of this series, now built at DRTE, will be called Alouette II and is due for

6 PHYSICS IN CANADA

launch next fall. The others are to be built at RCA Victor and called ISIS-A, B, and C. [ISIS = International Satellite for Ionospheric Studies].

A second important reason for continuing measurements in the near earth space during the next several years is the existence of the artificial radiation belt created by the high altitude nuclear explosion of July 1962. Alouette and other measurements indicate that this belt, lying below the Van Allen Belts, will dissipate to normal background in about ten or eleven years from its inception. The international treaty signed after the high altitude nuclear tests of U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. bars further tests of this kind. Hence the present artificial radiation belt may be the only one ever available for scientific measurement.

The main value of Alouette I and subsequent "topside sounder" satellites lies in their capacity to measure electron densities in depth through the upper two-thirds of the ionosphere while ground stations are limited to measuring the lower third because their radar pulses con-tinue to travel outward into space once they have penetrated to the height of the maximum density of the ionosphere, generally located at about 300 km. height. An example of an Alouette I ionogram is shown in Fig. 1. Alouette I is actually in the ionosphere at 1000 km. height, although the electron densities are generally much lower at this level than in the denser ionosphere below. Alouette II will be placed in an elliptical orbit in order to be above the rising denser ionosphere for part of each orbit as the sunspot cycle increases. Alouette I is in a circular near-polar orbit at 1000 km. Alouette II will be in the same near-polar plane but between a perigree of 500 km. and apogee of about 300 km.

0 -£

«U 4 0 0 — | U» c 0 01

8 0 0 -c 01 _

| 1 2 0 0 -Q-<

S a t e l l i t e H e i g h t - - - 1 0 2 3 Km T

Ext raord inary Wave T r a c e

i — r

Ordinary Wave T r a c e " , Ear th Return

J I I I I I I '1 I I L 0 . 5 2.5 4 . 5 6 .5 8 . 5

F r e q u e n c y (Mc/s)

I I Oct. 1 9 6 2 , - 1 4 4 5 GMT. ( 8 I 8 W , 3 4 ° N )

FIGURE 1

10.5

ALOUETTE I AND II 7

To supplement the data of Alouette II, NASA is constructing a smaller satellite to measure several electrical phenomena by probes at the satellite level. This satellite, called Direct Measurement Explorer -A or DME-A will be launched in the same rocket as Alouette II and in an orbit only very slightly displaced to avoid collision. When in orbit this satellite will be given a name such as EXPLORER XXVI. The task set for launch by the same propulsion combination (Thor-Agena B) as for Alouette I is very exacting. Alouette II after being spun to some 165 r.p.m. will be ejected somewhere over Madagascar at perigee height at some five feet per second from the Agena. A few seconds later in a very slight change of direction, DME-A will be ejected at four feet per second. The object is to keep DME-A and Alouette II within 1000 miles of each other during the first two months in orbit so that the measurements made may be more nearly under the same time and space conditions.

Alouette II is based on the structure of the spare Alouette I spacecraft but there have been many changes made. The longer sounder antenna is a 240-foot dipole instead of 150 feet. This will allow the sounding frequency to be lower at the lower frequency end of each sweep. The solar cells are n-on-p type instead of p-on-n in order to provide greater resistance than in Alouette I to deterioration by bombardment from electrons and protons in the artificial and Van Allen radiation belts. The power provided for the sounder and telemetry is some three times that available in Alouette I. The bandwidth of the VLF receiver is greatly extended and attitude sensors are increased in number and accuracy. The N.R.C. particle experiments are repeated and a Langmuir probe added. The latter not only allows of a very useful comparison with identical probes on DME-A but facilitates an additional experiment to determine the magnitude and intensity of the plasma sheath around a long antenna.

The Langmuir probe measures the satellite potential induced by its motion, as a conductor, in the earth's magnetic field. This potential is proportional to the product of the satellite velocity and the strength of the magnetic field at the satellite. The potentials induced in the long sounding antenna of Alouette II may be as high as 25 volts and cause a current to be drawn from the surrounding plasma. Since electrons have much higher mobility than ions the area of antenna needed to collect them in order to balance the ion current flow is quite small. Thus it is possible to have one tip of an antenna at space potential collecting electrons while the rest of the antenna attracts ions and may, together with the satellite reach as high a negative potential as —25 volts. This condition will be modified on Alouette II and subsequent

8 PHYSICS IN CANADA

satellites, by capacitative coupling of the long dipole antennae to the spacecraft electronic system. The plasma sheath should then decrease on one side of the satellite to near the space condition. Comparison of identical Langmuir probes on Alouette II and DME-A should then show how correct are our assumptions. It is important in manned spacecraft to know exactly what problems may occur in transmission and reception of signals at the spacecraft under widely varying conditions of its plasma sheath. An extreme condition occurs on re-entry into the denser part of the earth's atmosphere, at the very time when uninterrupted communi-cations are most essential.

This aspect of the plasma problem is one of many at present little understood phenomena of the satellite environment. At the lower end of the H F band there are several discrete frequencies at which electro-magnetic energy is stored in the ionospheric plasma immediately sur-rounding the satellite. These frequencies show as "spikes" on ionograms. Some of these are multiples of the electron gyro-frequency in the plasma which depends on the strength of the earth's magnetic field at the same location. Knowledge of these frequencies yields a measure of the earth's magnetic field at satellite height—1000 km.

Other spikes allow of measures of the electron density but the antenna-sheath uncertainty makes it difficult to know whether these measures may be considerably different from conditions in undisturbed space. The changes in Alouette II antenna length, the addition of a Langmuir probe, the probes on DME-A, and the fact that lower sweep-frequencies can be propagated while the satellite is above 1000 km. height, should provide adequate data to understand the physical processes involved in these electrical phenomena.

1000 1.2 Mc/s

6 0 N 5 0 ° N 4 0 ° N 3 0 ° N 2 0 ° N 1 0 ° N 7 8 ° W

EQUATOR- 1

1 0 ° S 2 0 ° S 3 0 ° S 4 0 ° S 63° W

MAGNETIC EQUATOR

GEOGRAPHIC LATITUDE 2 4 OCT. 1962; 2318 Hrs. GMT FIGURE 2

ALOUETTE I AND II 9

Alouette I ionograms gave the cross section of the ionosphere shown in Fig. 2 from the Arctic to Antarctic particularly over North and South America where monitor stations are concentrated in longitudes near 75°W. Three latitude zones of particular interest in practical H F com-munications, and also in the theories of energy interaction with incoming particles and radiation from outside the earth, are the equatorial and polar zones. Of special interest to Canada is the northern polar zone which, in the ionosphere over Eastern Canada, extends much further south geographically than anywhere else in the northern hemisphere. In Eastern Canada geographic latitude is ten degrees further south than the equivalent magnetic latitude because of the displacement of the magnetic pole towards Canada.

Marked features of the N-S cross section of the ionosphere near longi-tude 75 °W are the very pronounced troughs or decreases in the maxi-mum electron density in narrow belts in a magnetic E-W direction centred approximately on the magnetic poles. This trough in the north-ern hemisphere moves from an average position of 73 °N. Magnetic latitude at 14 hours (LMT) southward to 56°N. Magnetic latitude at local midnight, then northward to 60°N. Magnetic latitude at 07 (LMT). The southerly limit varies with the degree of magnetic activity and can extend south to 46°N. Magnetic latitude at times of high mag-netic activity. This trough is closely linked with phenomena in the mag-netosphere which are carried down magnetic field lines.

High energy particles trapped in the artificial and Van Allen radiation belts lose most of their energy in the horns of these belts which allow particle penetration deeper into the ionosphere. Alouette I was launched some two months after the formation of the "Starfish" artificial radia-tion belt due to the U.S. high altitude nuclear test and just before the two Russian high altitude nuclear tests of October 1962. The timing was in some respects fortunate because measurements by Alouette and other spacecraft whose orbits intersect the artificial radiation belt, have shown that the radiation due to the October tests dissipated within a few months whereas that due to the earlier test persists and will probably not decrease to background level until 1972 or 1973.

The main cause for this great difference in dissipation rate is that the July explosion occurred in low magnetic latitude and those of October in much higher magnetic latitudes. Much of the energy of the latter was dissipated through the horns of the outer Van Allen belt and more especially in the particle sink over the South Atlantic. This is linked with the well-known magnetic anomaly of the South Atlantic which results in particles from the southern horns of the radiation belt pene-trating more deeply still into the ionosphere than is the case in the

1 0 PHYSICS IN CANADA

northern hemisphere or anywhere else in the southern hemisphere. Reliability of performance of Alouette I has justified the policy of

under-rating components and of exhaustive test at each stage of develop-ment and construction. As an additional precaution, considerable redun-dancy has been added to the power, command and telemetry systems and to parts of the ionospheric sounder. At the time of writing there has been no need to use either of the spare batteries, the spare pulse amplifier for the sounder, or either of the spare telemetry transmitters. No electronic tubes were used with the exception of those in the N.R.C. Geiger counters. The only failures in components in two years have been:

(i) One silicon junction particle detector worn out, as expected. (ii) One transistor in a redundant part of telemetry fails to operate

1 % of the time when Alouette I is in the colder orbits. (iii) One battery, a spare, shows some degradation of internal resis-

tance but is still capable of substantially full operation. As the electronics systems of Alouette I included 820 transistors, 1530 diodes, 6480 solar cells, and 4560 other components, the reliability of design, test and construction have been amply demonstrated.

Passive temperature control in orbit has been achieved well within desired temperature limits internally and on the solar cell sectors of the outer shell. Several methods of doing this were combined viz. loose thermal coupling of conducting members, a radiation barrier and insula-tion between inner and outer shells, and careful division of sectors of the outer shell between absorptive and emissive surfaces. Internal pay-load temperatures were kept between + 5 ° and + 3 5 ° C., line voltages to ± 5 % , and temperatures on the outer shell solar-cell sectors between — 15° C. and -{-11° C. The temperatures at head and tail of the outer shell varied much more from — 17°C. to + 8 0 ° C., but these did not affect the critical components. In each case maximum temperatures occurred in orbits of 100% sunshine and minima in the 66% (mini-mum) sun orbits.

No satellite can continue electrical operation for long without using the sun's energy via solar cells mounted on its outer surface. In the case of Alouette I, 6480 p / n solar cells cover a fair part of the surface in a symmetrical distribution. NASA prediction of the decay in efficiency of these cells due to bombardment by particles in the radiation belts proved remarkably accurate. Relative to its value at launch, the power available from the solar cells has been reduced to 58% ( ± 3 ) after one year in orbit and to 54% ( ± 3 ) after 23£ years. Solar energy input at launch averaged 18 watts in a full sun orbit and 12 watts in a minimum sun orbit. As power input decreased the number of hours of electrical opera-

ALOUETTE I AND II 11

tion of Alouette I was decreased from eight to the present five hours per day. Current from the solar cells is used directly when the experi-ments are operating during their scheduled ten minutes at each "trigger-on" monitor station, and also to charge the bank of nickel-cadmium storage batteries.

A large proportion of the deterioration in cell efficiency is due to electron bombardment in the artificial radiation belt and the remainder to proton bombardment in the lower Van Allen belt. Because Alouette II orbit will pass through higher intensity levels in both belts, exposure to bombardment is likely to be as much as four times that experienced by Alouette I. For this reason the solar cells in Alouette II have been changed to n / p type from the original p / n type because the former are much more resistant to radiation damage.

Galactic or cosmic radio noise measurements were made on frequen-cies higher than one megacycle by monitoring the noise received by the sweep-frequency sounder. Long enduring noise storms as well as those associated with solar flare emissions were recorded at frequencies as low as 1.5 Mc/s corresponding to sources as distant from the sun as seven to ten solar radii. Galactic noise background is expressed generally in terms of apparent brightness temperature. This is well known from ground radio astronomy at frequencies greater than 5 Mc/s. The parti-cular value of such measures in Alouette I is in the range 1 to 5 Mc/s because these frequencies are absorbed in the earth's ionosphere. It was found that all regions of the galaxy have a spectral index of about 1.9 in this low frequency range i.e. the brightness temperature of the galaxy is given by T <x A.1 9 where X = wave length of the frequency between 1 and 5 Mc/s. The effective antenna aperture of Alouette I in this fre-quency range is very broad, about 100°, so the resolution is quite low and therefore does not permit of measurement of localized areas in the galaxy. It will be possible in Alouette II to measure galactic noise at lower frequencies than 1 Mc/s during the higher half of its elliptical orbit because transmission at low frequencies will be more efficient and suffer less interference from plasma phenomena.

An unexpected result of the V L F measurements was a systematic variation with latitude of noise bands in the range 2 Kc/s to 10 Kc/s. "Whistlers" are well known phenomena of VLF transmissions which originate in lightning flashes near the ground and become dispersed in frequency in passage through the ionosphere. Analysis of whistlers re-corded in Alouette I indicates a marked diurnal variation in the ionic constitution of the atmosphere below 1000 kms. height at Ottawa lati-tudes. At noon the dominant ion is atomic oxygen with a smaller amount of helium whereas at midnight there is a substantial quantity of hydrogen


ions below 1,000 kms. The polar atmosphere at local midnight at 1000 kms. height appears to have an ionic composition of about 60% atomic oxygen while at noon it is 95% atomic oxygen.

Particle experiments show that in the outer radiation zone (Van Allen belt) the intensity of low energy ( ~ 4 0 Kev) electrons always increases with increasing magnetic activity whereas the intensity of high energy ( > 3 . 9 Mev) electrons sometimes decreases, sometimes increases, and on occasion is unchanged.

For some time after launch the VLF and sounder experiments were operated at different times because of mutual interference. This will be substantially decreased in the design of Alouette II. More recently it has been discovered that simultaneous operation of these two experiments turns out to provide an equivalent to a type of ion probe. In this case VLF spectrograms indicate the lower hybrid resonance frequency of the plasma near the satellite. This depends on the electron density (which is obtained from ionograms), the gyrofrequency, and the harmonic mean of the masses of the ions in the plasma. Thus a calculation can be made of the effective ion mass. Computation of scale heights from ionograms with knowledge of the ion mass allows assessment of the ion tempera-ture at satellite height.

The rate of spin of Alouette decreased from 1.4 r.p.m. after the extru-sion of antennae in orbit to 0.2 r.p.m. by December 1964. This decay was more rapid than expected and is due to the four long antennae producing a slightly non-rigid structure. The spin axis changed slowly in declination towards the equator and back to zenith nine times during the first year in orbit while the right ascension each time changed through some five hours. We were surprised at this as also in the rapid decay of spin rate. The explanation of the changes in orientation of the spin axis seems to lie in a gravity gradient coupling along the long antennae when the spin axis is not in the orbit plane or parallel to the orbit vector, both of which are stable configurations. There is a differ-ence in acceleration due to gravity on the dipoles producing a torque under other conditions. Any situation of stability is gradually changed by the planned prograde rotation of the orbit plane which results con-sequently in a spin precession.

A real puzzle has been presented in the discovery that temperatures at the head and tail of the satellite reversed several times since February 9, 1964. There are three theories which may explain this, one being a real tumbling of the satellite. We do not however know the answer to this puzzle and hope we shall learn more about the secondary motions of the spin axis from the additional sensors on Alouette II.

Although the sounder, VLF and galactic noise experiments continue

ALOUETTE I AND II 1 3

to give useful data, the particle data, due to the very slow spin rate, have recently become very difficult to interpret. It is intended to start Alouette II spinning at a rate of between 2 and 3 r.p.m. to decrease the risk of losing sensor information. In addition the number and accuracy of sensors are being increased in Alouette II.

Ear th

A g e n a B

/ A l o u e t t e H

FIGURE 3

Launch of Alouette II from Pacific Missile Range is scheduled for the fall of 1965. Fig. 3 shows an artist's conception of Alouette II just before ejection into final orbit. We hope and rather expect Alouette I to be operating usefully when her sister goes aloft and with luck perhaps both Canadian satellites as well as DME-A, will operate in a comple-mentary fashion for a substantial overlap period. Results of research on Alouette I data are contained in more than seventy papers and reports which should be referred to for more complete and accurate informa-tion. It is not unreasonable to state that the scientific value of Alouette I


dur ing the pas t two years is at least equal t o that of the world ground

ne twork of ionospheric stations, number ing about 170.

Alouet te I statistics as of January 29 , 1965 are as follows:

Orbi t s comple ted 11,647

Solar cell power 5 4 ± 3 % of that at launch

N u m b e r of C o m m a n d s answered 30 ,565

Spin rate 0 .14 r .p .m. compared with 1.4 r .p.m. at launch.

ABOUT THE COVER

The cover design this year is derived from the spiral ridge pattern of the recently completed University of Manitoba cyclotron. The blueprints and the basic suggestions for the design were supplied by Dr. K. G. Standing. In view of the cover it is appropriate that an article on the cyclotron has been promised for a later issue this year.

On peut aussi remarquer que nous avons changé la couverture pour la rendre complètement bilingue et pour souligner le fait que notre association veut représenter tout les physiciens canadiennes.

Project Epic

PAUL LORRAIN

Directeur, Département de Physique, Université de Montréal

J E PROPOSE, mesdames et messieurs, que nous réfléchissions ensemble, durant les prochaines dix ou quinze minutes, sur le rôle des Universités canadiennes dans la recherche scientifique au Canada. Ce rôle est assez facile à définir. Ce qui est moins facile, c'est de trouver comment les Universités canadiennes pourront le remplir pleinement. C'est donc sur-tout cet aspect de la question qui devra retenir notre attention.

Vu le peu de temps dont je dispose, je me bornerai à esquisser quel-ques idées qui pourront par la suite servir de base à la discussion.

Je tiens à souligner tout de suite que j'exprimerai des idées person-nelles que mes collègues des autres Universités canadiennes, ou même de l'Université de Montréal ne partagent pas nécessairement.

The purpose of a University is two-fold: it must train men and it must generate new knowledge. This is the double rôle Universities must play in the Canadian Research and Development programs. These two func-tions cannot be dissociated and I shall be thinking of both throughout this talk.

Now the training of men is vital to the national economy. Research and development depend first of all on brains, secondly on buildings and equipment. In recent years the cost of buildings and equipment has been soaring at such a rate that our thinking is more and more centred on the hardware. Let us not forget that the basic ingredient of R and D is still brains. An instrument may have cost a hundred thousand dollars, but its true value is probably negative if it is not run by a properly qualified person.

The pattern of growth of the population of scientists in Canada is an unhappy one indeed. I quote from the recently published OECD report

Texte présenté au Troisième symposium sur les communications de l'Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers à l'occasion d'un forum sur "Le rôle de l'Etat, des Universités et de l'Industrie dans les programmes canadiens de re-cherche scientifique et technique" tenu à Montréal le 25 septembre 1964.


on The Organization of Scientific Research in Canada: "During the decade 1950 to 1 9 6 0 . . . the net contribution made by immigration to the number of scientists and engineers has been comparable to the con-tribution made by graduation from the Universities. During the decade 1950 to 1960, the net immigration of chemists into the country was almost exactly equal to the number graduated from the Universities, and during the same period the contribution from net immigration of engi-neers was approximately a third that from the Universities. Notwith-standing this net contribution from immigration, the loss of scientists and engineers to the United States will increase in the future, while immigration of scientists and engineers into the country may be expected only to maintain itself or even decline".

The only solution is to accelerate the production of engineers and scientists in Canadian Universities. Unless that is done Canadian Uni-versities will be unable to play their essential part in our Research and Development programs. Let us examine together how the training of men—and the generation of new knowledge—can be accelerated within Canadian Universities.

I have been associated with a number of Universities in the United States, in France, and in Canada. It is my feeling that although the overall picture of scientific research and training in Canadian Univer-sities is promising, it is by no means what it should be.

The basic trouble with research in the Canadian Universities is that it has been going on for a long time. It has never had a really fresh start. In this changing world, you have a good chance of being dead wrong if you are doing the same thing you were doing ten, or even just a few years ago. As we all know, the most time-honoured traditions can be lethal.

Three major changes have occurred in scientific research since the nineteen thirties. First, scientific research is not limited any more to University laboratories. In fact, most of it is now done in Government and Industrial laboratories. Secondly, the "do it yourself" approach has given way to the principle of the division of labour; the physicist can now devote most of his efforts to Physics, instead of to glass-blowing or soldering. Thirdly, scientific research is now highly competitive and the time factor is essential to any project. What is a crucial problem today might well be a trivial one a year from now. The isolated re-searcher working part time is simply not competitive.

Of course many University laboratories are dynamic and productive but I feel that, on the whole, Universities have not completely adapted themselves to these three facts.

Canadian Universities must therefore launch a broad program aimed

PROJECT EPIC 1 7

at increasing the rates of growth of their research projects and of their output of scientists and engineers. Such a program can be summarized under the code word EPIC.

E is for EXPAND. The rate of expansion of the graduate student enrol-ment in Canadian Universities over the last six years has been 17 per cent for the Physical sciences and 20 per cent for Engineering. These must be increased to 20 and 25 per cent or more.

This will require more staff and also more funds. The problem of recruiting the extra staff will be the major one and

Universities should first make a critical appraisal of the working condi-tions of engineers and scientists within their own establishments. The problem of the balance between teaching and research should be examined closely. This balance is not easy, and one of the two occupa-tions is liable to degenerate into a hobby. One solution might be to reduce teaching loads in science and engineering faculties to the level of those which are common in the medical faculties, but this would require much more staff.

University scientists even have to balance three different activities: teaching, research, and administration, with the third item gaining con-tinually in importance because of the increasing effort required to obtain larger and larger research grants, and also because of the rapid increase in student enrolment. Ancillary staff is badly needed to increase the efficiency of University scientists and engineers. It is also high time that the traditionally low standards of technical equipment and services be shelved. In fact, because of the part-time nature of University research, University laboratories should be provided with more technical help, and more data processing equipment than industrial or government laboratories, instead of less.

The funds available for research in the Universities must be increased radically. This was well shown in the report of the Spinks Committee which was published recently by the National Research Council.

There should also be a greater variety of sources of funds. In parti-cular, the Provinces should have the means to finance a large share of University research.

P is for PLAN. Years ago the expenditures on research were so modest that extensive planning was economically unwarranted. The situation has changed and, in the face of soaring costs and increasing competition, a minimum of planning has become essential.

We first need more planning at the level of the University Depart-ments. The example not to follow is Stephen Leacock's character who mounted a horse for the first time and promptly "took off in all direc-tions". No Department of any reasonable size can cover all of Physics,


or even all of Nuclear Physics, or even all of nuclear reactions, or even all of low-energy nuclear reactions, or e v e n . . . etc.

We also need more planning at the level of the Universities and we must think in terms of national objectives.

Planning, however, can be dangerous for to plan means to select, and therefore to eliminate. To quote just one example, solid state physics was an interesting academic exercise only 20 years ago. It could easily have been planned right out of the picture. Planning must therefore involve a minimum of built-in flexibility.

I is for INTEGRATION. Although Industry, Government, and the Uni-versity play fundamentally different rôles in society, their rôles are com-plementary. They must interlock. We need much closer contacts in all three directions.

There are remarkably few contacts between the engineers and scien-tists in the Universities and those in the Government laboratories such as those of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited at Chalk River or those of the National Research Council in Ottawa. The same applies to Uni-versities and Industry. Of course the activity in the Universities must not be limited to the needs of existing industry, no more than the aim of Industry should be limited to the improvement of existing products. But contacts are necessary. The Universities must forever keep the national economy in mind. They must also cultivate a respect for applied science in their faculties of pure science.

C is for CO-OPERATE. We need more co-operation within the Uni-versity science and engineering departments, within the Universities, and between the Universities. We need more co-operation, again because of soaring costs and increasing competition. Within the Departments we must think anew our concept of academic freedom, and plan in terms of groups of greater than critical size, not in terms of individuals. At the level of the Universities we must keep in mind that the subdivision of knowledge into Faculties and Departments is nothing more than a con-venient administrative procedure. It is both artificial and anachronistic. At the national level, Universities must join their efforts and plan regional and even national laboratories.

Voilà esquissé en peu de mots un programme fort vaste qui per-mettrait aux Universités canadiennes de vraiment remplir le rôle qui leur est dévolu dans la recherche scientifique et technique au Canada. Nous devons tous sentir l'urgence de la situation; il n'y a aucun temps à perdre.

Mais, au juste, où se situent les responsabilités? L'Etat doit bien fournir des fonds, mais ceci ne forme que la moitié de l'un des quatre points proposés. Tout le reste est la responsabilité des Universités.

The Biology of Industrial Research Part I I—A Prescription for Canada

R. w . JACKSON

"When the object is to raise the permanent condition of a people, small means do not merely produce small effects; they produce no effect at all."

—John Stuart Mill

IF ONE WERE TO PLAY GOD, and set about to design a living organism, in this case a strongly competitive scientific-technological-industrial organism, one's first thought might be that the research activity should go on throughout, even in the smallest company. "Every citizen a scien-tist" might indeed make for an amazing society but, even far in the future, I wonder if it would be a realistic one, or the most efficient. If one thinks a second time, and perhaps if one takes notes from an Old Hand, one realizes that the greatest efficiency of a total organism has usually been obtained by concentrating various vital functions in highly specialized parts.

In the case of the research activity, certainly a first quantization sets in at the level of the individual human being. It is difficult to do effective research with less than one scientist, and this sets immediately a lower limit on the size of a research operation, at about $20,000 to $40,000 per year, implying that many smaller companies can afford no research of their own at all.

A second quantum step appears at a much higher level, the level of the human group, and here, at 10 to 20 times the size, the research operation begins to "catch fire", to rise in intellectual temperature, to improve its capture probabilities for stimulating ideas (from inside and out) , and generally to become greatly more effective. Thus, for highest efficiency of the total organism, the research activity is bound to be concentrated in organs or nodules of greater than some certain size, let us say 10 to 100 individuals, sometimes more.

In Part I of this paper I discussed the reasons for this "critical size" phenomenon. In this Part, I shall take the matter of critical size as accepted and shall be concerned with the ways in which research entities


of such size can exist in Canada , and the condit ions which mus t be satisfied if they are to be well-connected par ts of a total organism, lively and well-motivated, ra ther than existing as isolated organs artificially kept alive in bottles.

When I had come around in my own thinking, and from my own experience, to deciding that there was something special, and necessary in the modern world, about the large laboratory, I thought I would try to count the number of large laboratories on the North American continent, to see where we in Canada stood.

My resources for gathering information were limited, and so my figures are not entirely complete or up to date, but I think they give a reasonably true picture. For university research institutes and industrial research laboratories in the U.S. I used two sources:

Directory of University Research Bureaus and Institutes, Gale Research Co., Detroit, 1961 Industrial Research Laboratories of the United States, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council Publication 844 (1960), Washington, D.C. The data are therefore about five years old. Whether growth in Canada has

since kept pace with U.S. growth is anybody's guess. Since that time in the U.S. there have been established the very large NASA laboratories in Washington (over 1000 professionals) and Houston, a new Bell Telephone laboratory in Illinois, and so on. However, phase lags in the information cannot be avoided in comparisons based on surveys.

RESEARCH a DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES OF NORTH AMERICA ( LAAGER THAN 1 0 0 PROFESSIONAL S T A F F )

FIGURE 2

BIOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH 2 1

The above sources listed staff by numbers of professionals, without distinguish-ing between Ph.D.'s or B.Sc.'s, and I made no attempt to discriminate between physicists, chemists, mechanical engineers, etc. The "industrial laboratories" in-clude everything from the Bell Telephone Laboratories at Murray Hill, N.J., to the Chattanooga Cake Co., whose research staff was reported to consist of a Director of Research and one technician, doing research on biscuits and marsh-mallow pies. I tried to be as broadminded as the National Academy of Sciences when counting research laboratories in Canada.

As a measure of size, I set an arbitrary figure of 100 professional staff, and recorded the name and location of all laboratories larger than that. Figure 2 shows them plotted on a map. It is notable how most of them are clustered around the main centres, New York, Long Island, Philadelphia, Boston, Washing-ton, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, San Francisco.

There were 24 university institutes in the U.S. of that size or greater, 4 of them with over 1000 professional staff; there were over 316 industrial laboratories, 15 of them of size over 1000. I was not able to obtain much information on U.S. Government laboratories, but I estimate roughly 30 to 50 research establishments of the designated size or larger.

In Canada I counted 8 industrial laboratories of 100 or more professional staff (being liberal in interpretation) and four or five government laboratories. There are no university institutes of that size, and no laboratories at all with greater than 1,000 professional staff.

W h a t d o the survey results mean? Before making too m u c h of them, one should take note that C a n a d a

is no t really m u c h different in research concentrat ions f r o m great areas of the U.S. such as M o n t a n a , N o r t h and South Dako ta , Minnesota , Nebraska , Kansas , Wyoming, Arkansas , Mississippi, Colorado , Ver -mont , Maine , and so on. O u r total annual ou tput of Ph .D. ' s per capi ta in all fields, according to one survey ( 1 4 ) , falls between Arkansas and N e w Mexico and, even at that low level, the supply seems to exceed the demand , to judge f r o m the continuing emigrat ion*. It is a picture that may not coincide with the image many Canad ians have of them-selves, but it is unfor tunate ly true.

A second look at the m a p will show that the research barrenness of C a n a d a is more than simply a regional effect. Compar i son by populat ion concentra t ions , region by region, would show this most accurately, bu t it is illustrative enough to note h o w 3 laborator ies in the Toron to -Hami l ton region look across L a k e Onta r io at 8 or 10 in Niagara Falls, Buffalo, and Rochester , and 4 0 or m o r e in the region of Lake St. Clair and L a k e Erie .

I t is u p to Canad ians to choose the kind of fu ture they want and, having chosen, to set in mot ion suitable action at the level of nat ional policy.

T o see wha t tha t action should be, consider again our biological

•There is said to be a very high demand for research physicists in Canada, but it is hard to take such statements seriously as long as the salaries offered are 25% to 50% below U.S. figures.


model of the structure of the scientific-industrial society we must aim for. It is a living organism, a network of coupled neural circuits, polarized along an axis which has basic scientific research at one end and industrial technology and products at the other.

At the pole of basic research, in university and government labora-tories, we are not as well off as some people seem to think. The survey shows a notable lack of research institutions of the size that can truly generate the noôtic temperature and the scale of activity that modern competitive research, particularly industrially-oriented research, calls for. While many university researchers, in the attempt to reach a reasonable working level, have brought in contracts from the U.S. to a creditable extent, they have made no real departure, except in an occasional iso-lated instance*, from the traditional pattern of academic research; re-search is carried on by a few professors (part-time hobbyists), each with his private special topic, on which he is assisted by one to five graduate students (inexperienced transient help). With the flow of infor-mation rising like a spring flood, the professors, particularly those with "normal" teaching loads, are more part-time than ever and/or more out of touch than ever. Yet because they subject their understanding constantly to the discipline of teaching, and because they are constantly stimulated by the questing minds of the graduate students, they are uniquely favoured by their environment for generating new ideas that could stimulate far more research than they themselves could carry out. Unfortunately, under the traditional patterns, and with meagre support, that creative potential goes substantially to waste. They are able only to turn out people with degrees, with irrelevant knowledge, fit only to teach more of the same.

The government laboratories, meanwhile, have done just well enough for themselves, at least to judge from the statistics, which show that the national expenditure on government in-house research, as related to Gross National Product, compares reasonably with other countries. Somehow, however, the government laboratories do not seem to have been as effective as they might have been in relation to industry. I blame this partly on fragmentation of effort, partly on excessive absorptive elements (violating two of the conditions for the chain reaction), partly on policy, and partly on weak motivation. The latter has been, to a great extent, the result of weak communication with the industrial pole, which is not surprising, since any component of research at the indus-trial pole has been practically absent. The government researchers have contented themselves with distributing paper, but the writers of the OEDC pamphlet (10) have recognized the inadequacy of that approach:

•For example, McGill's Project Harp.


"In general, scientific communication has to date been interpreted as no more than a matter of making scientific information available. Yet there is a long step between this and genuine communication."

Communication has not been helped either by locating the government laboratories in such places as Ottawa, Valcartier, Chalk River, White-shell, well away from industrial centres.

J. A. Morton (15) recently discussed the experience of Bell Telephone Labora-tories over the years in organizing matters so that new ideas would flow as effi-ciently as possible from basic research to development to manufacturing. They have found that natural barriers to communication occur at organizational divi-sions, and at geographical separations. In a large organization these divisions and separations are inevitable, but wherever possible they should not be allowed to coincide. To have barriers on top of barriers makes communication too difficult altogether.

"At every interface—between applied research and design-development for instance, or between basic research and applied—the motivation shifts, but the language is the same," Morton remarks. "You'll find many Ph.D.'s in applied research as well as in basic . . . they have similar backgrounds . . . the main differ-ence is in motivation—a difference in what they want to do with their education and understanding. What this says . . . is that the old-fashioned idea, held by some, that you have all your bright people in research and all your drones in engineer-ing, has got to go."

We should realize, with some chagrin, how mistaken and "old-fashioned" have been some of the notions which have pervaded Cana-dian thinking until now—for example: all Research and Development in government laboratories, all manufacturing in industry; or all basic research in universities, all applied research in industry, and so on. In our urge to divide our thinking into neat compartments we destroy communication.

There is one philosophy of research which has always been appro-priate to government laboratories. That is, to pursue just enough research in various fields that the government scientists keep in touch with what is happening in the world of science and thus can act as knowledgeable advisers when needed. Government business can include purchasing of technical equipment, setting up standards, deciding on defence policy, contracting for research and development, and so on, all of it requiring qualified advisory personnel. Except for occasional instances, research in N.R.C. and D.R.B. (quite properly, perhaps) has not gone beyond that philosophy.

It is not greatly different from the policy of most Canadian universi-ties up to now who, feeling that they cannot possibly compete in fields of scientific research of interest to industry, deliberately seek out topics which they are pretty sure will not be worked on by industrial labora-tories, so that they can work at a more leisurely (part-time) pace and still have the pleasure of original discovery and scientific credit.

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T h e laboratories I advocate as necessary would deliberately plunge into a popu la r topic because it is popular (which is generally because it is of potent ial impor tance to indus t ry) .

The research population at the industrial pole in Canada is extremely weak (16) and, as I remarked before, this is in large measure due to a lack of feeding from Government over the years. But it has also another cause, which becomes obvious if you examine the list of the few Canadian industries that have research and/or development laboratories of appreciable size (over 100 professional staff) :

Canadair Montreal, Que. Canadian Industries Ltd. McMasterville, Que. Canadian General Electric Toronto, Ont. Canadian Marconi Montreal, Que. Canadian Westinghouse Hamilton, Ont. De Havilland Toronto, Ont. Northern Electric Ottawa, Ont. RCA Victor Montreal, Que.

Every company listed, with the exception of one or possibly two (definitions become subtle), is a subsidiary of a corporation centered in another country. Practically every one of them was set up to manufacture the parent's products for the Canadian market, in most cases because of tariff barriers discouraging direct importation. Arguments rage far and wide just now on whether this pattern is inevitable in the modern world, whether the tariffs generate secondary manu-facturing which otherwise would not have been located in Canada at all, and so on. However, for present purposes the important point to note is that the incentive for research, particularly for research to generate new products, is inclined to be weak in those companies, to put it mildly. Some research they must have, to conquer the communication problem of bringing the new products and techno-logies from the parent laboratories across the interface into the Canadian manu-facturing plant, but the kind of radical and full-scale research that generates original new products strikes them as a dubious proposition, with deleterious effects on the balance sheet. That is the situation among almost all the industries in Canada large enough that they might be able to support a research operation of "going" size.

Should we hope, by various assistances and incentives, to change their habits and their terms of reference, or should we give them up and concentrate on the next generation many years from now? Or might it be that the alternatives are not mutually exclusive?

W e can visualize that the truly enlightened international corpora t ion of the fu tu re will encourage any of its branches anywhere in the world to win its way by its own talents f r o m the status of a child of parents to tha t of a b ro ther among brothers . W e can also visualize that , out of truly new ideas and talents, will grow large internat ional corporat ions of the fu tu re which have C a n a d a as their central point and origin. Bu t t o m a k e these things h a p p e n will no t be easy, or cheap.

M a n y of us feel tha t somehow, if only our best young brains could be kep t in Canada , the condit ions would change automat ica l ly—some-h o w the brilliant young m e n would m a k e things change, and we would see our aims accomplished. Bu t we cannot chain them here. W e know why they leave: higher pay, bet ter working condit ions and, perhaps mos t impor tant , the excitement of interchanging ideas with great concentra-


trations of talent in "big-time" research. It is that higher noôtic tem-perature which draws scientists from all over the world like moths to the light.

What do we offer in Canada?—havens for isolated two's and three's of those who aren't up to the big-time—those who haven't the ability or the drive? If that is all we are prepared to do, we deserve the kind of research we are going to get. Do we offer higher pay to draw the better scientists in spite of the less attractive facilities and conditions? No, by a strange logic, we offer less pay, considerably less.

I suppose it is mostly the industries I am thinking of in terms of salary inducement, because some Canadian universities have over the past 4 or 5 years improved their scales to become fairly competitive with American universities and, in fact, are drawing people back. It is to the industries that we look to counter the attractions held out by Bell Laboratories, General Electric, RCA, and so on. But, as I pointed out, the industries in Canada, being mostly subsidiaries, are not yet con-vinced that they need scientists that badly.

What do you suppose would convince them that they need and want top-quality scientific staff?

One can suggest at least the following: (1) profitable Canadian busi-ness that they could not get without such staff. (2) assistance to research on such attractive terms to the parent corporation that the parent would move an appreciable part of its research to the subsidiary, in effect setting up a branch laboratory on Canadian soil (as I have indicated, a strictly local approach to research, under present terms of existence, does not make much economic sense to a corporation with large central laboratories); while not quite the result that some rather starry-eyed idealists would hope for, it would be a considerable improvement over present practice. (3) The removal of all protective tariffs. A program of gradual conversion to a free-trading economy would force each com-pany to build itself into a technically skilled and self-sufficient plant manufacturing for North American or world markets; either that or fold under.

Those are all worthwhile measures which should do much to build up technical population at the industrial pole. If we can assume those curative steps to be taken, the way is clear to consider what I believe is the key to the solution of the remaining problems. The remaining problems, as I see them, are the building of research organizations of adequately large size in the shortest possible time, their motivation to long-range industrial-technological output, and the close communication that will tie university, government, and industrial research laboratories into lively, related, functioning parts of a total national organism.


The key to the situation is the Research Institute, modelled on such American laboratories with applied orientation as the Stanford Research Institute (1000 professional staff), the Lincoln Laboratory of MIT (600), the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins (740), the Armour Research Foundation (780), the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (900) , and others. These laboratories characteristically have a large intensive effort in applied research, geographically and organizationally coupled to a strong core of basic scientific research, possessing the important features I have outlined.

The first question everyone will ask is, what would be different from another or a larger N.R.C.?—wouldn't any such institute simply be another government laboratory?

Certainly there are hazards to be avoided if the new child is not to fall heir to all the old diseases. A study of how the American institutes are financed and managed should provide some hints as to how to go about it. But if due attention is given to at least the following elements, I believe there would be noticeable differences, differences which could be all-important to the effectiveness of the institution in the national fabric: Let each institute have a definite area of interest, with a mandate to pursue that interest, at a competitive pace, in a framework of long-range technological application, i.e., as a large industrial research labora-tory would. To ensure geographical coupling, let it be located in an area where there is a large concentration of interested industries and educa-tional institutions. Further to ensure communication, let there be coup-ling by exchange, whereby the members of staff are encouraged to spend some allowed fraction of their time as consultants to industry and/or as part time staff at nearby universities and technical institutes. There are risks, certainly, but it is doubtful whether the results can be obtained any other way.

There are some similarities in the above proposal to the suggestions of several people, including J. B. Warren of U.B.C. (17), and J. H. Chapman of D.R.B. (18) for Canadian institutes of technology, modelled on the Massachusetts Insti-tute of Technology. All these proposals recognize the present weak relationships of Canadian universities to industrial technology. The chief difference is that I would emphasize the full-time research laboratory as the most essential element in the cure and, in fact, the easiest to get under way first. Later, perhaps, a new educational institution could grow around it.

A well known British physicist who emigrated to M.I.T. not long ago has become convinced of the desirability of such laboratories on university campuses, and recommends them as a cure for some of the ills of British research (19).

The idea of the research institute as the most practical first step is similar to the plan being followed in two or three areas of the U.S., and particularly by the Graduate Research Center of the Southwest, being built up under the direction of L. V. Berkner, former president of Brookhaven, and main guiding hand behind the International Geophysical Year. Berkner's philosophy is (20): "It's very doubtful that a newly emerging undergraduate institution can find the strength to build a graduate school in less than a century or two; we don't have time. . . .


We're starting very much like LaJolla, with the development of a series of units we call laboratories. Our emphasis is not yet on graduate education at all. We are still collecting together some very skilled research talent. The basis for any graduate education is the assembly of high talent in basic research. Our first students will be post-doctoral fellows. . . ."

Berkner's eventual aim is to breed Ph.D.'s for, as he says, "It's quite clear that these growing cities [of the Southwest] have a problem of developing their indus-trial capacities to meet the challenge of this new flow of population [to areas without heavy industrialization]. And it's quite clear that they must do this, not in terms of conventional industry but in terms of the new industries growing out of the new technology. And for this . . . they require very large numbers of people who control knowledge at its outer limits." He goes on to remark, " . . . remember that in 1950 a Ph.D., essentially, was needed only for teaching. I would doubt that in 1950 more than 100 Ph.D.'s were employed in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Now it's 800 . . . . One finds it in every city—in order to remain competitive, in order to retain the capacity to innovate, business finds it essential to employ large numbers of people trained to the boundaries of knowledge."

But his intention is that his institute will maintain very close relationships with industry in the region. "The best way to kill a good idea is to patent it inside a nonprofit institution... transition from science to industry is a most difficult problem, and . . . some interrelationship is essential if transition is to be effective."

Whatever the precise form the regional institutes would take, it does not require much imagination to see the tremendous changes they would make to the milieu of Canadian industrial research. They would be the sparkplugs or powerhouses of new scientific and industrial growth on Canadian soil. Industries would be encouraged to acquire research staff by the example of top-quality research close at hand; they would see that they would stand to gain greatly from liaison with a volume of research and advanced technology which they could never support in their own laboratories. And they would find it easier to find high quality staff: in the first place there would be thus established a pool of talent in Canada, and in the second place a scientist would not find himself isolated from the research community by joining a small company. Small entrepreneurial "growth" companies would feel the difference the most, because only within such a technological network—only as part of a living science-industry organism—can they hope to continue evolv-ing efficiently enough to survive world competition.

There are bound to be some people who suggest that such institutes should be set up and paid for by industry associations. I am afraid such people are dreamers, dreaming of another day long past, or perhaps of another country. In the Canadian situation, such institutes, on the scale I have suggested as necessary, can only be established on a basis of large, long-term investment of public funds, aiming at the eventual export of Canadian products and engineering, mostly from a generation of industries not yet founded.

Of course, where public funds enter, so do politics. And we must be careful that we are not led by politics into trying to force patterns which violate nature. The new organisms which we started would then have


no vitality. The organic nature of the science-industry complex suggests that it can only properly come to life and express itself in areas of high concentration of industries, research centres, educational institutions, and population generally.

In fact the map of Figure 2 reveals, not surprisingly, the same patterns which have been noted by Kerr (21) and Nevins (22) to apply to the distribution of academic excellence. "Observers of higher education can now foresee the inexor-able emergence of an entirely new landscape. It will no longer show us a nation dotted by high academic peaks with lesser hills between; it will be a landscape dominated by mountain ranges", (Nevins). "The highest peaks of the future will rise from the highest plateaus . . . One such plateau runs from Boston to Washing-ton. At the universities and laboratories along this range are found 46% of the members of the National Academy of Sciences. A second range with its peaks runs along the California coast... . The California mountain range has 36% of the (American) Nobel laureates in science and 20% of the members of the National Academy of Sciences. The Big Ten and Chicago constitute a third range of academic peaks . . ." (Kerr).

The existence of those massive plateaus suggests that in Canada we cannot expect, at least for some decades, to match the altitude of excel-lence and power of some institutions, which are like Himalayan peaks to the whole world. But, if we try to place ourselves appropriately in context, we should expect to develop large graduate research centres, and industrial research centres, in two or three or four of the most populated regions of Canada. We should not expect an M.I.T. to be possible in the middle of the prairies, or in Yukon or Labrador. Nor should every small university expect to turn out Ph.D.'s.

Presuming that the essential arguments presented above have been accepted, it is time for warnings and admonitions.

There is a danger that we Canadians, in our excessive self-conscious-ness, caution, and concern for planning of what we do, will interfere excessively with the processes of natural growth. We always imagine that we can do better than the U.S. does, for example, if we plan things more carefully. But we must remember we are dealing with something like a biological organism.

Trees grow by the tips of the leaves and the tips of the roots feeling their own way, helped along by nourishment from a rich soil. The gardener can choose where to plant the seed, and can water it and fertilize it, but he would be ridiculous if he thought he could plan every leaf and branch in advance, or should wait to plant the seed until he had done so. What is needed most immediately in Canada, without waiting for a detailed master plan (which nobody knows how to draw), is generous feeding of every bit of good scientific work in the country, in the hope that some of the promising shoots will grow. Later, if the growth shows any signs of being over-luxuriant, it can be pruned and


shaped. A t the moment , we should be grateful fo r whatever strengths we have left , in whatever fields.

I am not advocating this as quite the way to go about it, but suppose one were to say to every scientist in Canada, "Whatever equipment or assistance you honestly need to get along faster and more efficiently with your research, get it, and send the bill to me." At the end of two years, what do you suppose that bill would be—$10 million? even $50 million? Compare that with the 1.5% of G.N.P. or $600 million per year on the average that Canada has not been spending on R and D for the last 10 years!

I am in entire agreement with the need for wise choice of Canadian scientific programs, as recommended by L. E. Howlett in his thoughtful essay (23)—where large sums of money are involved—but I do not regard the above amount, as an emergency measure over the whole of Canadian science, as a large sum. Mean-while, the long range thinking can proceed.

A b o v e all, let it no t be said of us, "Noth ing is ever done until every one is convinced tha t it ought to be done, and has been convinced for so long that it is n o w t ime to do something else." T h e same m a n ( 2 4 ) also epi tomized the at t i tude as "Noth ing should ever be done for the first t ime."

T o sum up, I have the temeri ty (having no formal qualifications as a t ree doctor , o r even as a biologist) to offer the following prescript ion for action to get real growth unde r way of new science and industry in C a n a d a : ( 1 ) liberal use of fertilizer everywhere, start ing immediately, ( 2 ) a grand tree-planting ceremony, in the f o r m of the inaugurat ion of new research institutes, say in 1967, to launch C a n a d a into a new phase of growth through the next 100 years of her history. W h a t Centennial projec t could one conceive, tha t would have greater significance for C a n a d a ' s fu tu re? 14. Myers, D. M. and Noakes, F. "The Crisis in Industrial Research in Canada".

Engineering Institute of Canada 1963 Annual Meeting, Paper 63-RES 3. 15. Morton, J. A. "From Research to Technology". International Science and

Techonology, May 1964, pp. 82-92. 16. Jackson, R. W. "The Number of Physicists in Canadian Industry". Physics

in Canada 19 pp. 31-39, Summer 1963. 17. Warren, J. B. "A Canadian Institute of Technology for a Centennial Project".

Physics in Canada 19 38^10, Winter 1963. 18. Chapman, J. H. Letter. MacLean's Magazine, February 8, 1964. "A Plan for

Graduate Education and Research in Science". Physics in Canada 20: 3, 28-30, Summer 1964.

19. Smith, R. A. "The University and the Research Institute". Nature 202, 529, 9 May 1964.

20. Berkner, L. V. "Doctorates for Texas" (interview). International Science & Technology, pp. 46-50, February 1963.

21. Kerr, Clark. "The Uses of the University". Harvard University Press 1963, p. 91.

22. Nevins, Allan. "The State Universities & Democracy". University of Illinois Press 1962, p. 144.

23. Howlett, L. E. "Whither Canadian Physics?" Physics in Canada 20 pp. 15-27, Winter 1964.

24. Cornford, F. M. Quoted by Kerr, above, p. 97.

News

WESTERN REGIONAL NUCLEAR PHYSICS CONFERENCE

THE FIRST WESTERN REGIONAL NUCLEAR PHYSICS CONFERENCE Was h e l d

at the University of Manitoba, March 4 and 5. There were 28 partici-pants from outside Manitoba with large representations from Saskatche-wan and Alberta and a smaller one from British Columbia. Twenty-one papers were presented including invited papers by Garth Jones (U.B.C.) and Derek Paul (Toronto).

The next meeting in this series will be held the first week in March 1966 at the University of Alberta.

B . G . HOGG

DIVISION OF MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PHYSICS

The annual meeting of the division was held in Toronto on February 26 and 27 in conjunction with the Canadian Association of Radiologists. A symposium on Radiation Biology, organized by the division, was well attended by both physicists and radiologists. The following program was presented:

Dr. Robert H. Haynes (Donner Laboratory, University of California) "Inactivation and recovery of cells after treatment with radiation or radiomimetic drugs." Dr. Robert Bruce (Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto) "Radiobiological studies of transplanted murine lymphoma cells." Dr. Warren K. Sinclair (Argonne National Laboratory, University of Chicago) "Mammalian cell radiobiology and radiotherapy." The other sessions, held at that time, heard papers on topics in radio-

biology, radiological physics, nuclear medicine and molecular biology. The meeting elected the following officers of the division for 1965-

66; W. R. Inch, chairman, R. J. Horsley, vice-chairman, R. A. Beique, past-chairman, C. Garrett, councillor, and N. Aspin, secretary-treasurer. Dr. Rene Beique was elected to represent the division at the first meet-ing of the International Organization for Medical Physics at Harrogate, England in September.

NEWS 3 3

The membership of the division continues to grow, increasing from 49 to 79 during 1964-1965.

NORMAN A S P I N

PHYSICIST JOINS SCIENCE SECRETARIAT

Dr. Rennie Whitehead has been appointed a Deputy Director of the Canadian Government Scientific Secretariat in Ottawa under the Direc-torship of Dr. Frank Forward. Dr. Whitehead leaves the R.C.A. Re-search Lab. at which he has been Director of Research since the lab. was established in 1955. He therefore brings to his new post consider-able industrial scientific experience. In 1961 he was invited to serve on the Royal Commission on Government Organization (Glassco Com-mission) and spent most of that year on a survey of scientific and industrial research activities of the Canadian Government. C.A.P. con-gratulates both the Secretariat and Dr. Whitehead.

INDUSTRIAL PHYSICS NEWSLETTER

Dr. R. W. Jackson, Chairman of C.A.P.'s Committee on Industrial Physics has initiated an Industrial Newsletter which he has sent to two-three-dozen representatives of Physics in Canadian Industry.

" . . . It is part of a larger effort by C.A.P. to discuss the present state of Physics in Canada, and to channel informed opinions from profes-sional physicists to the National level where we hope it might help to guide Government policy in an intelligent direction as it affects our special field.. . . "

"We hope that this letter may start a conversation, and thus begin to act as a clearing house of information of interest to physicists in indus t ry . . . . "

Dr. Jackson will welcome suggestions for names to receive and parti-cipate in the Newsletter.

NITRIC OXIDE SEEDING IN THE E-REGION BY C . A . R . D . E .

Atomic oxygen profiles in the E-Region have been attained by C.A.R.D.E. scientists from releasing nitric oxide gas at two latitudes, two seasons and two times a day. The method does provide results— one indication for example is that the reaction process in the atmosphere is not the same one studied in the laboratory.


CLOUD PHYSICS CONFERENCE IN TOKYO

The following three physicists will be attending the International Con-ference on Cloud Physics to be held May 24 to June 1 in Tokyo:

Professor Rowland List. Physics Department, University of Toronto.

Professor W. Hitschfeld. Meteorological Department, University of McGill.

Dr. J. M. Maybank. University of Saskatchewan and Saskatchewan Research Council.

FIRST CANADIAN CONFERENCE ON MICROMETEOROLOGY

The First Canadian Conference on Micrometeorology will take place in Toronto April 12-14, 1965. The sponsor is the Meteorological Sub-committee of the National Research Council Associate Committee on Geodesy and Geophysics.

The following three distinguished micrometeorologists from the United States and England have accepted invitations to attend:

Professor H. Panofsky, Department of Meteorology, Pennsylvania State University, author of the recent book, "The Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence."

Dr. F. Pasquill, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, England, author of the recent book "Atmospheric Diffusion."

Professor G. Gill, Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, University of Michigan, a widely recognized authority on micro-meteorological instruments.

A feature of interest will be an evening meeting of the Toronto Centre of the Royal Meteorological Society at which there will be a symposium, "The Climate of Cities", arranged by Mr. M. K. Thomas, of the Cana-dian Meteorological Branch.

In order that a complete picture of current Canadian Micrometeoro-logical Research can be found in one volume all presentations, including review papers, will be published later in the proceedings of the con-ference.

An apprehension of one correspondent is given below: "Although the main emphasis in micrometeorology is on situations which can be treated mathematically from a fundamental theoretical basis with fair precision, I assume that consideration will also be given to problem-oriented investigations where the complexity of terrain en-forces starting from a rather empirical basis." The planning committee

NEWS 3 5

wishes to emphasize that this assumption is correct. One of the aims of the Conference is to seek to close the gap between those who deal with mathematical and physical models over "infinite planes" and those who must take measurements and provide meaningful answers for our typically rugged Canadian landscape.

R . E . M U N N

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Division of Pure Physics ( Ottawa )

requires a PHYSICIST for its Space Research Programme

DUTIES: To carry out research in the field of cosmic rays, particle physics and the properties of radiation and matter in the interplanetary space surrounding the earth. The successful candidate will be expected to become a member of a group working in the above general field using rocket and satellite techniques for direct measurements in nearby space. QUALIFICATIONS: Ph.D. degree or its equivalent in upper atmosphere physics, geo-physics, or nuclear physics is essential. Experience in this field is desirable but not essential. SALARY: Will be commensurate with education and experience. Apply giving complete details of education and experience to the Employment Officer, National Research Council, Ottawa 7, Canada.

Canadian Physicists

AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO . . . . Joining the staff as Assistant Professor is MORDECHAY SCHLESTINGER who obtained his Ph.D. from Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1963. He has been working in thermo luminescence for the past two years at the University of Pittsburgh as a NASA postdoctoral fellow . . . . MR . F. J. MORGAN, MR . D. J. M C E W E N and MR . N. A. DOUGHTY have completed all the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. They will be awarded the Ph.D. degree at the Spring Convocation. Dr. Morgan is now at the Culhum Laboratory, Abington, England as an N.R.C. postdoctoral fellow . . . . Dr. McEwan has returned to DRB in Ottawa . . . . Dr. Doughty is now at University College, London.

A t t h e UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO . . . . D R . H . J. SMITH w a s a p -

pointed assistant professor in October 1964. Dr. Smith was previously with Ferranti-Packard in Toronto, where he worked on superconducting memory cells. He is presently working on superconducting tunnelling.

At R.C.A. RESEARCH LABS, MONTREAL . . . . D R . M . P . BACHYNSKI has been appointed Director of Research, succeeding D R . J. R. WHITE-HEAD who becomes a Deputy Director of the Canadian Government Scientific Secretariat in Ottawa (See News). Dr. Bachynski, who, during the past 10 years at R.C.A., has conducted research in microwave and plasma physics with special application to space research, and who in 1963 received the David Sarnoff Award for Individual Achievement in Engineering, will now direct the staff of over 20 at the 18,000 sq. ft. R.C.A. Laboratory.

A t t h e ONTARIO RESEARCH FOUNDATION . . . . D R . B . W . SCHU-MACHER, Director of the Physics Section, will spend May, June, July at the Institute of Technology, Aachen, Germany, as Visiting Professor, and will give lectures in vacuum engineering and electron beam probes.

A t t h e UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO . . . . D R . A . D . MISENER h a s r e -

signed as Director of the Ontario Research Foundation to return to the University of Toronto as Professor of Physics and Associate Director of the Great Lakes Institute.

Pre-University Science Education and the Ottawa Section

W. G. HENRY, E. P. HINCKS AND L. R. MCNARRY

IN NOVEMBER 1960 a Joint Committee was established by the University of Toronto and the Toronto Board of Education to discuss educational problems in Ontario. A subcommittee on Science was formed with representatives from the schools and the university. Financial support was provided by the Atkinson Charitable Foundation. A report, not flattering, on the state of pre-university science teaching was submitted to the Joint Committee in November 1961 (1962, Design for Learning, University of Toronto Press, Toronto). Possibly the strongest condem-nation of the Ontario science curriculum in the report is contained in the following quotation, "If the content of the course is restricted so that time is provided for consideration of important principles, and topics are chosen in such a way as to form a coherent system, the average student would be greatly assisted in attaining an understanding of science which is practically denied him at present". Some of us, particularly those with children in school, have arrived at opinions in general agreement with this statement and others expressed by the science subcommittee. But what fraction of the total number of scientists is dissatisfied with science teaching in elementary and secondary schools or would be if informed? Is it large enough to merit the attention of the C.A.P. and other professional societies to the problems of curriculum and teacher training? In what way might the C.A.P. be of assistance? This article is a report on a meeting, supported by the members of the C.A.P. in the Ottawa area, at which an attempt was made to answer some of these questions.

The response to the questionnaire which was sent out in February 1964 as a preliminary to the meeting gives an indication of the interest of the local members in the subject of science education. From the 150 members who were polled over 60 replies were received and of these more than 90% supported the proposed meeting.

A dinner meeting and a panel discussion were held in Ottawa on April 14th, 1964 with Dr. John Hart as chairman, Dr. D. G. Ivey as


main speaker and Dr. J. S. Fraser and Dr. Lewis Salter (Professor of Physics, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Md., and Visiting Scientist at the National Research Council, Ottawa), as the other panel members.

Dr. Hart stated the terms of reference. The speakers were to concern themselves with science teaching, the problems, the solution, and the position of the scientist with respect to these. Was the situation critical? Should the physicists act as a group? Could effective communication be developed between the scientist and the teacher?

Some of the points made by Dr. Ivey were : (i) There is confusion between the meaning of science and the mean-

ing of technology. (ii) The position of the model relative to reality is not treated care-

fully. (iii) The approximate and tentative character of the man-made so-

called laws of nature is not sufficiently emphasized. (iv) It is not desirable to use the mystery of science approach in

teaching but rather to rely on the intrinsic interest of the subject itself.

(v) Elementary school science is very important and a good case for specialists can be made. The science teacher needs a background beyond what he is teaching.

(vi) It is stimulating to potential scientists and in keeping with the underlying honesty of science to admit ignorance in those areas when science is ignorant.

(vii) Scientists are not asking that more time be spent on science but rather that the time be used effectively. This does not mean more facts and more technology but a greater emphasis on principles.

(viii) The horizontal and vertical integration of courses could be much improved.

(ix) There is little excuse for errors in textbooks. (x) There is a need for scientists to take part both in curriculum

development and textbook writing. Dr. Ivey spoke highly of the P.S.S.C. course and underscored the

necessity for teacher training in order to ensure its successful use. Just what the public image of a scientist should be and just what his

position in society should be are more contentious. Certainly there is general agreement with Dr. Ivey that he should not be held omnipotent. On the other hand there are many who feel that the scientist and his approach are not sufficiently in evidence in the daily life of the com-munity.

Dr. Ivey also contended that if the right thing is done for people in high school who are not going on to study science, then automatically

PRE-UNIVERSITY SCIENCE EDUCATION 3 9

the right thing is done for those who are. Here is a serious question for discussion since the acceptance of this belief has great implications.

On the subject of the Ontario Department of Education, Dr. Ivey made two points. It is true that university staff set the grade XIII exami-nations but they are so much under the thumb of the Department that they in fact have little influence. It is true that some texts are now written by university staff but the curriculum and hence the content is dictated by the Department.

What could a group of physicists do? Here Dr. Ivey was not too encouraging. He felt that if the P.S.S.C. course were adopted in Ontario, then the group might write to the Minister of Education indicating the need for a change in the style of examination away from the problem solving, memory work type of exam. He also emphasized the need for involvement but just how this was to be accomplished was not clear.

Dr. J. S. Fraser reviewed the history of the C.A.P. Secondary School Science Education Committee. The Committee was established in 1958 and contact was made with the P.S.S.C. group at M.I.T. Mr. J. H. MacLachlan*, a high school teacher, was sent to work with them in the summer. In 1959 the Committee recommended that a symposium on secondary school physics be held at the annual Congress. Since that time the Comittee has been mainly involved in the organization of the high school physics competitions.

Dr. Lewis Salter reviewed briefly the history of the upgrading of secondary school science courses in the United States, and told of the large financial, post-sputnik support. He has seen the impressive effect that the P.S.S.C. course and others such as the Chemical Bond approach and Chem Study courses have had on the quality and attitude of the freshman. He was impressed with the dreariness of the pre-university courses and was certain that the teachers needed lists of simple experi-mental equipment costing only a few dollars with which to liven up their courses. He also cautioned strongly against underestimating both the scientific ability of the teachers and the amount of work involved in bringing about changes.

Following the more formal remarks, representatives of various groups who were invited to the meeting were given the opportunity for a few remarks.

Dr. K. H. Hart summarized and thanked the speakers.

•Author of "Matter and Energy" with K. G. McNeill and J. M. Bell published by Clarke Irwin Co. Ltd. 1963.

in MY Opinion --

" C A P I U S "

Do Professors Need Keepers? THIS is A SERIOUS QUESTION and merits objective discussion. One of my brothers is a professor and as he is younger and bigger than I am I have learned to be polite to this particular class of vertebrates. Although some suffering administrators might say yes to the question, particularly those who work in universities, I myself do not think it is necessary to employ a keeper for each professor. Much of the enjoyment of my college days was due to the fact that my professors had no keepers and in conse-quence followed their natural bents without concern for such things as business methods or administrative efficiency.

"Johnny" was one such—a delightful tiny whiskery Irishman from Trinity College, Dublin who must have had leprechaun ancestry. He was always very polite to students including freshmen and after wishing us good morning would ask what class we were. Freshmen and upper class-men all looked alike to Johnny so he never knew which class we happened to be unless we told him.

He always carried a walking stick, grasping it near the middle and holding it up in front of him. One of his many presents from graduating classes was a two-handled walking stick, a handle at each end. He lived on the other side of a seafront crescent from the college and enjoyed his walks between, invariably smoking a large bent-stem pipe. It was always windy and occasionally his pipe would need relighting. To do this he sometimes needed to turn around and, having succeeded in lighting his pipe, would calmly proceed home if he had been on his way to college or vice versa in the other case.

CAPIUS 4 1

It would have robbed generations of students of great joy in life if Johnny had been in charge of an alert keeper. I am still definitely against the keeper concept. We had several other professors in the college who preferred to be called absent minded rather than nuts. We appreciated these gentlemen very much although Johnny was our pride and joy.

Superficial changes have occurred among professors during the forty years since Johnny taught us conic sections. Nowadays a professor is quite likely to have a haircut or a bath on his own initiative without being prodded by his wife. Nevertheless this is a superficial change. Absentmindedness, especially concerning administrative matters, is still rife and something can be done to correct this without depriving the students of their innocent fun.

This could be painlessly achieved by appointing a retired officer of the armed services to each university department in the rank of assistant professor. He would soon take care of all the administrative matters which tend to be spread amongst a half dozen or more professors. There is a continuing lament over the shortage of professors in our rapidly expanding universities. Employment of retired officers would ease the strain of recruitment of professors by some 10 to 20% and, besides allowing each professor to work full time as a professor, would substan-tially improve the efficiency of departmental administration. Many of these officers are in the early fifties or late forties with wide experience in specialist branches as well as in the several aspects of administration.

FRANK T . DAVIES

Physics as I See it Taught at High School and University Level* When I first entered university, I was prepared to follow a course in

Engineering. At one of the collegiates in this city I had followed the course of study set down by the Department of Education of Ontario, and I gained first-class honours in all subjects necessary for admission to my course. I found that I was prepared for Chemistry, Calculus, and English and got A's or B's on all those courses at the mid-year exams. On the other hand, from the first day of physics classes I was more or less lost, and only by being conscientious and working hard at my laboratory work was I able to pass with a D.

My difficulties made me wonder; "What is wrong with my physics? I work hard at it, and God only knows that I should do well in some-thing that has always interested me and in which I have been more or less successful." When I thought of this, I began to wonder whether my background had been as good as it could have been. True, in my Grade

*From a first-year physics examination paper at Carleton University.


XIII physics class only one student out of twenty failed, but most people had gone down sharply in marks. (I lost fifteen between Easter and June). Then, as I thought some more, I realized that the attitude towards physics that my teacher had, was not the best. His notes followed word for word the book and he only taught that which was on the syllabus. His one aim was to pass as many students as possible (his 95% was considerably above the provincial average of about 80% ) , but we didn't have any real appreciation of physics. We studied about interference of waves in order to do problems on "soap film". The only experimental work we did all year was to determine the index of refraction of light using a glass block and pins and observation of interference of light bands using plates of glass. If I were the Minister of Education, I would insist that the Physics High School textbooks be upgraded every five years or so, that teachers (especially of Upper School Physics) periodi-cally take refresher courses, that the rules concerning the types of problems set on exams be broadened, and that at least two problems are not similar to those from past years. The more capable students would probably still do just as well; as they would have to think. These problems would also help separate "the sheep from the goats" and would improve the quality of the university classes in this subject. Physics as it is taught in high school is too factual. Students are taught that laws such as F = ma. are universally true, instead of only being very good approximations for a certain range of values.

As an Engineering student, I probably look at Physics, as it is taught in University, differently from Science students. With the work load of thirty to thirty-two hours per week of lectures and laboratory periods, an Engineering student has little time to spare. It is difficult for the instructor to have close contact with the students in such a large class, but perhaps weekly or bi-weekly tutorials with the instructor, other members of the Department, or even fourth year honours or graduate students would help give more feeling of the subject to the student. Laboratory work is enjoyable, but the pressure of the time element is such that when a lab report must be handed in by a certain time, the student cannot do his best job. This manoeuvre prevents "cooking" of results, and a well-prepared, well-organized lab report is often ruined by hastily calculated results. Perhaps if the original results were handed in at the end of the lab period, the final calculations could be handed in no later than the next lab period.

The physics course in first year should be integrated with mathematics and perhaps chemistry so that ideas common to all three fields need not be taught repetitiously and that when during the second week of physics "ds/dt = v" comes up, we do not wait until the first of November to take differentiation in mathematics.

CAPIUS 4 3

In university, guest lecturers always provide a change of thought that cannot be achieved in high school. These lecturers show that physics is not an impossible subject.

Education should prepare young people how to live, face problems, and think. Many people in physics feel that certain types of educators are not fulfilling this goal in the teaching of physics. The student of today, whether he studies nuclear physics or Ming Dynasty Chinese History, is tomorrow's leader and citizen, and if all he can do is parrot other's ideas, and not think, what is the world headed for?

R. A. J A V I T C H 8c A S S O C I A T E S LTD.

1549 Burnside Place, Montreal 25, Que. Tel. 933-7236

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Books

Introduction a la Physique Nucleaire. Par D. M. MAIN. Presses Universitaires de France, 1965. Frs. 12.

L'ORIGINAL ANGLAIS FUT REVISÉ dans le Bulletin de l'Association (Hiver, 1964, Vol. 20, No. 5, p. 42).

Sur la suggestion du Prof. Teillac, Directeur de l'Institut de Radium de Paris, quo a écrit une preface pour l'édition française, le volume a été republié en français dans la série 'la Science Vivante' des Presses Universitaires de France. Meteorological Service of Canada J. L. GALLOWAY

Electrons in Atoms. By G. F. LOTHIAN. Butterworths, 1963. Pp. 196. $8.00. uns is A BOOK small in size, high in price, but with a large amount of up to date information at the undergraduate level. I agree with the author that it is desirable to introduce the student to the methods of wave mechanics as early as possible. This book proves that this can be done without introducing insurmountable diffi-culties. The mathematics used does not go beyond the level of elementary calcu-lus, and the necessary physics background is usually covered in any good intro-ductory general physics course. Vector notation is used only in the chapter on electron and nuclear spin.

The author preferred not to use the M.K.S. units. Some of the most important formulas however are given in these units in one of the four appendices. The book is not suitable for self-study, but supplemented by the guidance of a teacher it could be profitably used as a text for an introductory course on atomic physics. However the rather small number of problems is considered as a shortcoming. The concise but clear approach makes pleasant reading for those scientists who have lost contact with this field of science and wish to review and update their knowledge. Acadia University D. VAN DER BAREN

The Discovery of the Electron. By D. L. ANDERSON. D. Van Nostrand Company (Canada) Limited, Toronto, 1964. Pp. 138. $1.80.

THIS BOOK is ONE OF Van Nostrand's Momentum Books, published for The Com-mission on College Physics. The subtitle The Development of the Atomic Concept of Electricity is more accurate than the title as a statement of the contents. The purpose of the book is to show by an example how our present ideas have arisen from experiments and theory by much groping and some flashes of inspiration. The author describes his account of the discovery of the electron and the develop-ment of the "atomic" concept of electricity as a "case history" in the methods of science.

This historical review for the above purpose principally covers the period 1890 to 1935. The substantial account of the many experiments done with cathode-ray tubes between 1860 and 1905 shows the confusion that existed over corpuscles and waves until both X-rays and electrons had been discovered. With regard to the discovery of the electron, Anderson missed the opportunity to dramatize the close race between J. J. Thomson, Wiechert and Kaufmann. The German physi-cists might have won if they had not been so fascinated by Maxwell's electro-

BOOKS 4 5

magnetic theory. Anderson mentions Wiechert only once and that incidentally in a table of charge-to-mass ratios for cathode rays in various experiments, with the date of his work given as 1899 whereas it should be 1898. No special mention is made of Kaufmann's outstanding accuracy in the charge-to-mass ratio obtained in his early experiments, nor is there any suggested explanation why Thomson's measurements of charge-to-mass ratios in various experiments were low by a factor of two. Since the table referred to was taken from Thomson's Conduction of Electricity through Gases, the error in the date of Wiechert's publication shows the danger of depending on a secondary reference.

The discovery of the positron is included in this book. To this reviewer, this is saying either too much or too little. If the positron has a rightful place in this book, experiments done recently on the charge-to-mass ratios of electrons and positrons and on their rest energies should be included.

This book is easy to read, but the writing is undistinguished and the discussion is not very penetrating. A few dubious words, of which the worst is "conceptuali-zation", should have been avoided. Some readers will share this reviewer's regret that Thomson's "English-plum-pudding" model of the atom has been degraded in description to the "raisin-cake" model. Queen's University B. W. SARGENT

An Introduction to the Theory of Relativity. By W. G. V. ROSSER. Butterworths. 1964. Pp. 516. $17.00.

THE AUTHOR'S AIM as expressed in the preface is to provide a book "to fill the gap between . . . advanced treatises . . . and semi-popular accounts" of the theory of relativity. In this reviewer's opinion Rosser has admirably succeeded in realis-ing his aim. The level of difficulty is intended as that of the junior year for "the average honours physics or pass degree student... mathematicians . . . electrical engineers" and consistent with this level Rosser has gone thoroughly into the theoretical framework and the experimental environment of the theory with an attention to detail and, in some cases, unresolved difficulties that is not to be found elsewhere. The book is more than an exposition of Relativity. Mechanics and Electromagnetic Theory are surveyed historically before going on to discuss "the changes in outlook that resulted from the theory of special relativity". The book is unique in its extended discussion of the "Clock Paradox" and this is used as a framework for analyzing some of the more philosophical problems in the Special Theory as well as demonstrating the need for the General Theory. The book contains a wealth of problems which should aid in cementing firmly the theory in the student's mind. It is possible to disagree with the author's opinions on various aspects of the theory but he himself is most fair in presenting opposing views. It would be useful if the word "Special" were included in the title since only the briefest introduction is, and can be, made at this level to the General Theory. Dept. of Physics, Carleton University, Ottawa ALLAN M . M U N N

The Physics of Engineering Solids. T . S. HUTCHISON and D. C. BAIRD. John Wiley and Sons, 1963. Pp. 368. $8.00.

THE PURPOSE OF THE TEXT is to "familiarize the student with the fundamental principles and properties of the solid state". The first part of the book is con-cerned with the detailed structure of solids and its effect on microscopic mechani-cal properties. In this part, the book deals with crystalline structure, diffraction techniques, alloys, imperfections and elastic and plastic properties of solids. After an introduction to quantum mechanics, the second part treats the electronic properties of solids. The student is introduced at a moderate depth to statistical mechanics, free electron and zone theory, the theory of semiconductors, mag-netism and dielectric processes.


The book is intended for the engineer and although the selection of topics is somewhat guided with applications in mind, it offers at the undergraduate level a self-contained treatment of the basic physics of the solid state. It provides a unified approach to materials to which all engineering students should be exposed. For the physics of today is the engineering of tomorrow. It is presented by physi-cists and properly so; the engineering student should be exposed to the viewpoint of the physicist even though the distinction between the physicist and the modern engineer is becoming less and less apparent. The subject matter may then be built upon in different directions by engineering departments.

On the whole, the text seems excellently suited at the junior level as an intro-duction to a material science programme. University of Waterloo R. A. Aziz

Rutherford at Manchester. Edited by J. B. BIRKS. Published by W. A. Benjamin Inc., New York, 1963. Pp. 363. $12.50.

ANY BOOK ON THE PERSONALITY and discoveries of a famous scientist will be of interest, and one dealing with an active period in the life of Lord Rutherford will appeal especially to physicists. The present volume of 363 pages contains the addresses given at the Rutherford Jubilee International Conference held at Man-chester during September 1961. Sir Ernest Marsden was Chairman of the Con-ference and gave the introductory lecture describing his association with Ruther-ford working with Geiger on the scattering of alpha-particles which led to the theory of atomic structure. Rutherford had only recenûy come to Manchester at Schuster's suggestion, establishing at once the same social congenial atmosphere of cooperation and inspiring his graduate students, as he had created at McGill. The scientific ideals, enthusiam and high standards he set, had a lasting effect on all who were fortunate enough to be numbered among his associates and friends. As Marsden points out "He had no ostentation. He did not let his honours inter-fere with his friendly relations". He was like the father of a grateful family: referred to at that time by the Manchester group as "Papa" among themselves, a designation which in later days at Cambridge became "The Crocodile" con-noting a characteristic of Rutherford's voice.

Sir Charles Darwin describes his association with Moseley and gives a vivid account of the exceptional and hard working individual Moseley was, continuing to devote his energy to his experiments day and night until utterly exhausted. Professor Andrade referred to the contrast between working under the formal atmosphere in the laboratory of the famous Lenard at Heidelberg which he had just left to join "the enthusiastic comradeship in research" which existed with Rutherford at Manchester.

More than half the book consists of reprints of addresses given as Rutherford Memorial Lectures by H. R. Robinson, A. S. Russell, P. M. S. Blackett and Niels Bohr. Robinson was probably Rutherford's closest associate at Manchester and his account of the incidents during the period is both illuminating and delightful. For example, he tells of the remarks of Moseley when he was discussing with him a null method of measuring ionization. "But", said Moseley, "Rutherford will think it very effeminate of us to use a null method, when we might measure the deflection instead". That by Bohr is an extended account of the address he gave to the Physical Society of London in 1958. He records how Rutherford enjoyed an interesting remark by Lord Rayleigh who was requested by Sir Joseph Larmor to express his opinion on the latest developments in radiation which had just been announced at the B.A. Meeting in Birmingham, September 1913. "In my young days I took many views very strongly and among them that a man who had passed his sixtieth year ought not to express himself about modern ideas. Although I must confess that to-day I do not take this view quite so strongly, I keep it strongly enough not to take part in this discussion!"

BOOKS 4 7

The remaining part of the book contains reprints of the special papers by Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden, Moseley and Bohr in which the original dis-covery of the nucleus, atomic number and the Bohr atomic structure were announced. This is followed by a list of papers published by those who worked at the Physics Laboratory at Manchester 1907-1919.

The book is a welcome addition to the recollections of those who knew Rutherford at a time when he was changing by his discoveries the idea of atomic structure. It will add to the accounts given by A. S. Eve and Feather in their books on Rutherford. There must have been many others who attended the Con-ference who had stories to tell of those days, which are not recorded. For example, the late Dr. A. B. Wood, a student of Rutherford at Manchester, when visiting the writer in Deep River, told this amusing incident.

"When we were at Manchester having tea, the research people and the staff were talking about the big electromagnets we had there in those days weighing about half a ton, used for deflecting alpha particles. Some were saying what their magnet would do and, after a while, Rutherford chipped in and said 'Well, I used to have a magnet at McGill, in Montreal, which would take a bunch of keys out of a man's pocket when he came into the room. In fact it would take the iron out of a man's constitution!"

The book is illustrated with six plates, giving pictures of Rutherford, the staff and research students in 1910 and in 1913, some of those attending the congress and the honorary degree ceremony. The book is well printed but the copy received by the reviewer has pp. 87-118, folio D, repeated in the bound volume. The price seems rather high. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited DAVID A . KEYS

Space Logistics Engineering. Edited by KENNETH BROWN and LAWRENCE D. ELY. John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 623. $16.95.

"LOGISTICS IS DEFINED as that art or science that deals with the transporting, quartering, and maintaining of equipment and men". For earthbound equipment and men, logistics considerations generally come into effect when the equipment is available. A completely different situation, however, prevails in the case of space technology, because of the complexity of problems in space flight, new factors of environment, and the number of disciplines involved. Space logistics, therefore, mean more than supply and re-supply—logistics considerations play an important part in the design of components and subsystems of a space vehicle. The desire to indicate and stress the close interaction between design factors and logistics problems was the motive for the Editors of this book to coordinate a series of lectures on space logistics which were given at the University of California and form the basis of the present volume.

The book has 18 chapters, each written by a specialist in the topic under consideration. The contents can be clearly divided into three parts: (1) Introduc-tory chapters show the relationship of technological aspects, including vehicle performance, and the problems of the logistician, give a short review of logistics considerations, and discuss the space environment, the space man and his requirements. (2) The Technical disciplines are dealt with in chapters on Space Guidance and Control, Astrodynamics of Space Vehicles; Propulsion for Space Vehicles; Space Communications; Reliability and Development Testing; and Space Vehicle Design. (3) Finally, the specific logistic subjects, together with considera-tions on use and economics of space travel, are treated in chapters entitled: Earth-Lunar Logistics employing Orbital Assembly and Launch; Supply Support; Maintenance Requirements; Facilities for Space Logistics; Transportation; Civilian and Military Uses of Space; and Economics of Space Travel. A subject index is a useful addition to the book.


Each chapter gives a concise treatment of the subject under consideration and an outline of the problems involved so that the logistician obtains a clear view of the technical disciplines in their relation to logistics and the designer a full understanding of the logistic problems. It should also be mentioned that all chapters are well referenced. In general it can be stated that this volume, published as one of the University of California Engineering and Physical Sciences Extension Series, is well arranged, edited, and printed. With contributions from twenty specialists in their fields, the book is not only up-to-date and most useful for the space vehicle designer and logistician, it will undoubtedly also be read with interest by everyone dealing with Space Technology. Canadair Limited H . J. LUCKERT

"Applied Physics". By H. W. POLLACK. Prentice-Hall Inc. 1964. Pp. 770 (price unknown).

THIS BOOK is primarily intended for students in technical institutes, junior colleges and similar institutions. The emphasis throughout is in drilling the reader in the solution of elementary physics problems. Despite the stated aim of thus bringing understanding of the principles of physics to the student, this is not well achieved. Rather the text seems to have been aimed at successful coaching for a particular examination.

The chapters deal with the traditional topics reminiscent of the older English high school texts. Angular motion is followed by elasticity, momentum, liquids, buoyancy, viscosity, submerged surfaces, liquids in motion, expansion, specific heat, gases etc. Perhaps even more incoherently, at a later stage electrochemistry follows alternating current and polarisation follows interference and diffraction. Surely at whatever level the subject is presented this division of physics into small packages must obscure the principles and fail to familiarise the student with the methods of physics.

The book avoids the use of calculus and as a consequence concentrates exclusively in the chapter on linear motion on problems of constant acceleration. Indeed the one example of variable acceleration in the whole text is that of simple harmonic motion. This is positively misleading. Again at a later stage the differ-ential equation for the growth of a current in an inductive circuit is suddenly presented and integrated!

It would be better also to avoid brief attempts at explanation of some of the rather more sophisticated ideas of physics. Thus, for example, to say that "a material is a good conductor if the atom releases electrons" and is "an insulator if the nucleus holds its electrons very strongly" may be succinct but unfortunately is also extremely misleading.

The book contains a large number of problems and worked examples and would serve as a tutorial aid in problems classes. Royal Military College T . S. HUTCHISON

RESEARCH IN PHYSICS PLASMAS

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RADIATION DOSIMETRY BRANCH requires a Research Officer for Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories to undertake a programme of research in radiation dosimetry and participate in the development of instruments and techniques for application to health physics and radiation biology.

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Appelez Dr. S. Wagner 728-4527

s i m t e c l t d 3400 Metropolitan Blvd. East Montreal 38, Canada

CTS of Canada invites inquiries, in strict confidence, from solid-state physicists, chemists, and electronic engineers who wish to conduct basic research in semiconductor and thin film physics or who wish to engage in the development of devices, miniature circuit components, semiconductor and electro-optical devices.

This is an unusual opportunity to join a young research and development laboratory and to conduct your own program in a stimulating scientific environment in which excellent support is provided, both in facilities and in technical personnel.

CTS of Canada is a well established, profitable firm manufacturing variable resistors, transistors, hybrid cir-cuits and custom electronic equipment. The Streetsville location combines the advantages of quiet suburban living with the easy availability of the many cultural and social activities in nearby Toronto.

Contact

Dr. W. F. J. Hare, Director of Research, CTS of Canada, Ltd., Streetsville, Ontario.

TAylor 6-1141

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CENCO GIVES YOU IMMEDIATE DELIVERY ON MITAC RESEARCH GYROSCOPES

T H E M I T A C R E S E A R C H G Y R O -S C O P E , developed by the Massachu-setts Institute of Technology and the A C Spark Plug Division of General Motors, makes possible comprehen-sive demonstrations of gyroscopic principles and associated physical phenomena.

Wi th it, you can visually present such forces as gyroscopic inertia and rigidity, precession, single degree and two degrees of f reedom gyro, basic requirements of the gyro com-pass, roll, pitch and yaw conditions of an automatic pilot or inertia! guid-ance system, and basic physical laws with respect to Newton's first and third laws of motion.

T h e Mitac research gyro has single or two degree freedom capability— with built-in turntable and accesso-ries. It permits experimentation with both captive and free gyros.

T h e six pound rotor is driven by a 150 rpm, 110/115 volt, 60-cycie ac

motor. Net weight of the gyroscope is 17 pounds. It is 15 inches high; 13 inches wide. A handbook of oper-at ional theory , exper iments , and m a t h e m a t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n s is in-cluded.

If you'd like a demonstration of this versatile research tool before you order, see your Cenco representative. He'll be glad to give you a thorough d e m o n s t r a t i o n of Mi tac r e s e a r c h , standard, or single degree of freedom gyroscopes. CSL.I.U»

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PHILIPS NUCLEAR EQUIPMENT

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