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PiXL A* Personalised Checklist

Subject Name

Knowledge and/or Skills required to achieve an A*:

1.Psychological Study Knowledge (AO*1) 2.Long Answers (All AO) 3.Evaluation skills (AO3) 4.Understanding of Issues and Debates (AO3) 5.Research Methodology (All AO) 6.Inferential Statistics and Error (All AO) 7.Application of Knowledge (AO2) 8.Essays Again - Writing Frames (AO2) 9.Approaches (AO3) 10.Key terms and Specialist terminology.(AO1)

* AO Assessment Objectives

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1.Therapy for Study Knowledge

Assessment requires knowledge of studies to evidence points. Creation of study cards from the start of course can aid memory and recall. In addition mind maps of key studies can also help.

Arthur Jennes (1932)

Jelly bean Study

Investigated conformity by getting participants to guess the number of jelly

beans in a jar. When judged in groups

guesses were closer together. Compliance

and Normative Conformity.

!Assessments and Worked Solutions for Study Knowledge (16 marks)

1.Describe two studies of social influence (8 marks)

One study on social influence is that of Jennes. He studied the influence of groups on decision making (1 mark). He gave lone participants a jar of jelly beans and asked them to guess the number of jelly beans in the jar (1 mark). He then repeated this in groups where participants had to publicly announce there guess (1 mark). He found that when participants where in groups there guesses where much closer together suggesting conformity to the group (1 mark).

Another study into conformity is Asch, he investigated normative conformity by giving sitting one participant in a row with 5 confederates (1 mark) . All of them were shown four lines (a,b,c and X) and asked to announce in turn which line matched the length of line X. The confederates were instructed on some of the trials to intentionally give the wrong answer (1 mark). Asch found that participants intentionally gave the wrong answer on 30% of trials (1 mark) . He concluded that this change in behaviour was and attempt to fit in with the group (conformity) (1 mark).

2.Outline two studies into the reliability of eye witness testimony

Loftus and Palmer investigated how leading questions can effect the reliability of Eye Witness Testimony (1 mark). Participants were shown a video of a crash between two cars. They were then each asked one question: How fast was the car going when it hit the other car? The word hit was replaced with smashed bumped, contacted etc on different trials (1 mark) Loftus and Palmer found that when the word smashed was used participants estimates were as much as 10mph higher than if the word bumped was used (1 mark). This suggests that the use of leading questions can effect eye witness responses (1 Mark)

Loftus and Pickerell wanted to see if false memories could be implanted in witnesses. 120 students who had visited disneyland during childhood were split into 4 groups each read a different fake article form disneyland form the time they visited (1 Mark). Some of the groups read articles with bogs bunny featured and some were a cardboard cut out of bugs bunny was in the interview room. When interviewed after reading the article many within the groups recalled having seen or met bugs bunny while they were there (impossible as he is a Warner Brothers Character) (1 Mark) This implies that false memories can be produced using post event information thus reducing the reliability of EWT.

(1 Mark)

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2.Therapy for Long Answers

The long answer questions are either 12 (AS)or 16 (AL) Marks either way it could to be the difference between a 'B' and an 'A*'

The key to high marks on this area is normally that of structure below is one way too ways structure your essays for maximum marks without missing assessment criteria

Think of Each Paragraph as a contained part of your answer normally containing 4-6 marks and use the PEEL method or PEELE for Psychology to tick off all AO's in each paragraph.

Point

One way to define abnormality is in terms of Social norms.

Explain

Social norms defines normal behavior as any behaviour that is considered acceptable by society and therefor abnormal behaviour is anything deemed unacceptable

Evidence/Example

An example of this would be Antisocial Personality Disorder. By exhibiting many antisocial behaviours you would be breaking the law and therefore carrying out unacceptable societal actions.

Link

APD specifically has been almost entirely defined by social norms as all of its symptoms are culturally abnormal.

Evaluation

Although this seems logical and can be easily applied to a range of psychologically abnormal conditions, it is unfortunately a method that is open to abuse. Morally desirable societal change could be prevented by society if deemed undesirable at the time, such as revolutionaries such as Mandela being placed in prison to prevent the weakening of Apartheid.

A further issue is that this definition is not culturally reliable. Arranged marriages may be deemed abnormal in this country however someone who has emigrated from abroad may deem this behavior perfectly normal

Please note that the evaluation section is much longer than the others as it is worth over half the marks in your essays and are often the easiest marks to miss

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Assessment for Long Answers (16 marks) (student exemplar). Discuss issues of reliability and validity associated with the classification and diagnosis of Schizophrenia (16 Marks)

Schizophrenia is extremely difficult to diagnose and classify due to the vast variety of symptoms that aren’t specific to Schizophrenia and may not be displayed by all schizophrenics. This has led to questions being raised about the reliability and validity of the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia.

Its very difficult to judge between mental normality and abnormality, in the case of schizophrenia. Rosenhan 1973 conducted an experiment to prove this, in which he sent 8 volunteers into a psychiatric hospitals in the US, to tell the staff they had been hearing voices saying; thud, hollow and empty. 7 of these were admitted with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This offers evidence to support the statement that it is incredibly difficult to judge between mental normality and abnormality. However this study is unethical as the participants deceived the medical staff. However this led to a second study being conducted due to an uproar by the psychiatric hospitals that the experiment was unfair. This study by Rosenhan involved him warning the hospitals that they would be sent pseudo patients who would try and be admitted claiming schizophrenia. Rosenhan sent 0 pseudo patients but the psychiatric hospitals found 10% of real patients to be suspects of being sent by him. This just provides further strength to the arguments that the diagnosis of schizophrenia is unreliable due to inability to judge between mental normality and abnormality. Further supported by Mojtabi and Nicholson 1995, as as the diagnosis of schizophrenia is highly subjective, or opinion based, asked for 50 US psychiatrists to distinguish between what are bizarre and non-bizarre hallucinations (a positive symptom of schizophrenia). Finding that there was a +.40 inter reliability correlation proving that this diagnosis of schizophrenia doesn’t provide sufficient reliability to be classed as a reliable method of diagnosis for schizophrenia.

The diagnosis for schizophrenia is so varied and unclear that patients may receive a different diagnosis from psychiatrists creating a huge unreliability. Whaley 2001, used the DSM III trained psychiatrists to diagnose a patient, and found inter-rater reliability correlations in the diagnosis of these patients as low as +.11, which is ridiculously low in terms of psychological diagnosis. This provides great weakness to the reliability of the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Supported by Beck et al 1962, who found concordance rates of 54% in experienced practitioners diagnosis. Suggesting that even the most experienced of psychiatrists may be unreliable at diagnosing schizophrenia. However this research is based upon the previous editions of DSM and therefore cannot be reliable. Soderberg et al 2005, conducted research in the diagnosis of schizophrenia using DSM IV, the more recent edition. Finding that concordance rates of this research were 81% significantly higher than the rates of research using the previous editions showing progress towards gaining greater reliability in the diagnosis of schizophrenia. However the fact that they need to keep creating and improving on the psychiatric manuals and journal suggests that they are unreliable and invalid for the use during the diagnosis of schizophrenia and therefore has to be taken into account during research.

The validity of the diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia has also been called into question. Bentall et al 1988, schizophrenia has such a wide range of symptoms both positive and negative which may not be displayed by all and aren’t specific to schizophrenia. This is made even more difficult by not sharing the same outcomes, prognosis of patients varies on the basis of functioning. This causes schizophrenia to have little predictive validity due to the unpredictability of the disorder with some people recovering whilst some may never. The hinderance of the symptoms not being specific also causes difficulties, Buckley et al 2009, estimated that comorbid depression occurs in 50% of patients and 47% has diagnosis of substance abuse. This causes invalidity due to symptoms caused by these comorbid disorders may be associated with schizophrenia and will therefore create difficulties in diagnosis due to uncertainty and causes further confusion during the allocation of treatments.

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3.Therapy for Evaluation Skills The easiest way to prepare for evaluation questions is memorise a bank of possible evaluation points and then just fit them to the theory you are evidencing, you must however make them relevant.

The mind map below is and example or maps can be related to each topic as is the second mind map.

Remember this is marked on 3 levels:

• Generic: identifying a criticism

• Intermediate: Link your evaluation to the specific example. Make it relevant.

• Higher: Both of the above but effectively elaborated on.

Prepare these points when you first cover the subject then they are ready to be revised at any point.

General evaluation ideas

Topic Specific Evaluation Ideas

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Assessment and worked answers for Evaluation Skills (20 marks)

1.Evaluate the multi-store model of memory. [10 marks].

The multi store model has many case studies supporting the separate sections of the brain (1 mark) one example is that Clive wearing who had an infection that damaged the link between his short and long term memory so he could no longer create new memories. this supports the models operate parts. These case studies are one offs often done on brain damaged patients (1 mark). In these cases it is very difficult to make before and after comparisons (1 mark).

One strength of the MSM model is a lot of the research is done in a highly controlled environments this makes it more reliable (1 mark) however it does reduce its real world validity (1mark).

The model itself although logical it does seem too simplistic to thoroughly explain a humans memory (1 mark). Models such as Working Memory have evidenced more than three simple components (1 mark) and the short term is likely made of many components (such as the verbal and visual spacial stores)(1 mark). The long term also seems more complex and it has been implied that verbal and visual information is stored differently here (episodic and procedural) (1 marks).

That said the MSM was the first testable model of memory and has paved the way for further testing and research development (1 mark).

2.Discuss the strengths and limitations of Milgrams Obedience Study (10 marks)

The key strength on Milgrams study is that of replicability. Milligrams study was done in a highly controlled lab environment, this makes the results reliable and enables other researches to retest his findings (which they have) (1 mark). It also allowed Milgram to test his findings in different situations and cultures (1 mark). Although the experiment was conducted in a lab it didn't seem to lack external validity as further research such as Hofling found that the obedience to authority here was repeated in other settings such as hospitals (2 marks).

That said Milgram was heavily criticised for the Ethics of this experiment. Although participants were given the right to withdraw the lab technicians consistent reinforcement of the necessity to continue certainly impinged on this right (1 mark).In addition the implication that the Participants were hurting someone put the ppts under a risk of emotional harm (1 mark). Also the suggestion that the experiment’s focus was memory was deceiving the participants (1 mark). That said participants on debriefing didn't express permanent damage and said they were happy to have taken part (1 mark).

The experiment’s internal validity has been questioned. The reason some participants went so far was supposedly because they did not believe the shocks were real and therefore were only being obedient because there were no repercussions to doing so (1 mark), implying Milgram was not measuring what he was planning too (1 mark).

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4.Therapy for Issues and debates

Issues and Debates(GRENADE)Genders : Is this true of both genders is this bias towards one or assumes no difference. (See alpha and beta bias)

Reductionist: Does this only account for one perspective/approach?

Ethics: Does this research break or bend any ethical guidelines? (Peter Piper Cried When Charles Darwin Died)

Nature Vs Nurture: Does this assume all abnormality comes from environment or biology? Do you believe this? Animal Studies: Does this theory use Animal Studies to evidence it? If so are they ethical? Can they be generalized to humans.

Deterministic: Does this imply this condition is unavoidable/out of our control or do we have any free will over it? How could this effect society?

Ethnocentric: Is this theory/study based on one cultural perspective? Does it lose validity outside of this culture?

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Assessment and worked answers for Evaluation Skills (10 marks) 1.Describe two types of determinism [4 marks]

Biological Determinism is the idea that all human behaviour is innate, determined by genes, brain size, or other biological attributes. This suggest that we will never exceed or biological inherited abilities and cannot change behaviour related to them.

This is in contrast with Environmental determinism that suggests that our behaviour is learnt through interaction with our environment and therefore we are simply the sum of this interaction.

2.

3.

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5.Therapy for Research Methodology

AS a general rule over half the marks in the exam exam have a Research aspect to them. As a result it is essential to have a good understanding of the Scientific Process and how different research methods are carried out.

For every process you should know what it is and the advantages and disadvantages it has.

Use the diagram below as a check list for your knowledge but for each item think ‘Description’ and ‘Evaluation’

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Assessment and worked examples for research methods (10 marks) 1.Read the item below and the answer the question below.

A group of researchers used event sampling to observe children's friendships over a period of three weeks at break times and lunch times during the school day.

What is meant by 'event sampling' (2 marks)

Rather than observing at set times researcher observes every time a specific event occurs in this example this could be every time a specific child interact.

Note this answer both describes (A01) and applies (A02)

2.Identify the independent variable in this study [2 marks]

Number of verbal Errors (note 1 mark for variable ‘errors’, 1 mark for operationalised ‘number of’)

3.Write a suitable hypothesis for this study [3 marks]

There will be a difference in the number of verbal errors made by participants who believe there are 5 in the audience (small audience) and those participants who believe there are 100 listeners ( large audience).

3 marks for appropriate hypothesis (any type) as long as it is operationalised clearly IV and DV

4. Explain one extraneous variable in this study and explained why it should have been controlled [3 marks]

One extraneous variable could be the instructions given to participants (1 mark). The same instructions need to be given to every participant. If one group were give different instructions this may make this groups less likely to make errors (1 mark) and therefore effect your results and mediate your dependent variable (1 mark).

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6.Therapy for Inferential Tests and Errors (Type I and II) Inferential Tests Students often find inferential statistics the trickiest section and though it only encompasses a few marks in your exam they could be the difference between that A and an A* grade.

Inferential tests are simply calculations to tell you whether your results support your hypothesis and if they are likely to be down to chance/dumb luck. All you need to do in the exam is select the right test and explain why you have picked it. The diagram below can be revised and it will do exactly that.

Errors Errors are the first thing to understand. All inferential tests work on probability therefor there is always a chance that they are wrong and if you are there are two types of errors. These are explained by the two diagrams directly below.

Type I errors occur if you allow a high P-Value meaning your testing is too lenient (more common)

Type II errors are when you testing is too strict and you have rejected your alternative hypothesis when you shouldn't have.

Given the Null Hypothesis

TRUE FALSE

Your DecisionReject Type I

ErrorCorrect Decision

Do not reject

Correct Decision

Type II Error

The Two types of Errors

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Assessment and Worked examples for inferential Statistics. (10 marks) 1. Name an appropriate statistical test for the above [4 marks]

1 mark for Mann Whitney or Unrelated Groups (you can assume ordinal or interval data.

Then 3 marks for:

• The data could be treated as ordinal as difference between errors cannot be treated as equal.

• The experiment is independent groups

• The psychologist is looking for a difference between groups.

2.The Psychologist found that the results were significant at P<0.10 What type of error is he likely to have made? explain your answer [4 marks].

The Psychologist is likely to have made at a type I error (1 mark), because he has a higher than usual P-value he is likely to get a false positive. A P<0.10 means that there is a 10% likelihood his results were down to chance. Therefore he will reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative when he should not.

3. Name the appropriate statistical test to analyse this experiment [3 marks]

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7.Therapy for Application of Knowledge (A02)

The application of knowledge (AO2) is perhaps the easiest way to lose or gain marks in the exam.

The simplest way to put it is AO2 are marks for:

“Applying your knowledge to the question or ‘scenario’ given”.

You have done the hard stuff, which is remembering all the knowledge but it is very easy to then forget to put that knowledge into the context of the question.

This has two steps:

1. The concept, how a particular theory works e.g. how CBT is done.

2. The context, how this would be done related to the question.

The question is always AO2 based when a scenario is given or when it is required to refer to a study e.g.

“John is has claustrophobia, his condition has made it impossible to use lifts. He has just got a job on the 50th Floor of a sky scrapper and needs to get rid of his phobia. His doctor has suggested Systematic desensitisation as a way to cure his phobia.”

Explain how Systematic desensitisation can be used to help John alleviate his fear (6 Marks)

Systematic Desensitisation = The Concept

How can it be used to treat Claustrophobia = The Context

The key here is to explain Systematic Desensitisation as a treatment for Claustrophobia

The other way that AO2 may be used is in relation to Research methods e.g.

“Give one strength of using field studies when investigating eyewitness testimony. (4 marks)”

This question would be Descriptive (AO1) if not for the addition of the last 4 words which ask you to apply it to a given situation.

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Assessment and Worked examples for Application for Knowledge. (10 marks)

1. Sam is a police officer. She has just started working the night shift and after a week she discovers that she has difficulty sleeping during the day and is becoming irritable. She is also less alert during her shifts.

Using your knowledge of biological rhythms explain Sam’s experiences.

[4 marks] A02

Sam’s internal body clock known as her endogenous pacemakers has become out of sink with her work. The endogenous pacemaker can control things like body temperature and wakefulness (1 mark). These pacemakers are entrained by external cues called exogenous zeitgebers such as light (1 mark). Now she is working at night these external cues are out of sink with her internal cues (1 mark). It is light and noisy when she is sleeping in the day stopping her form sleeping and dark when she is supposed to be working, pushing her body towards sleep and lowing her alertness (1 mark).

In addition this disruption of rhythms caused by internal cues being opposed by external ones can lead to increased anxiety and irritableness as mentioned above.

2. Read the item and answer the question below.

A nurse worker was discussing the children behaviour today.

“Max was distressed when his mother left but was happy to see her when she returned at the end of the day, Jessica, was clinging to her mother when she arrived and i couldn't settle her down even after she left. William barely seemed to notice when his mother left and didn't look up when she returned to collect him”

Name the Attachment type for each of the children and explain why referring to above [6 Marks].

Max is secure type as they are distressed when separated from primary caregiver but are easily calmed and are happy when returned to them (2 marks).Jessica is insecure resistant as they tend to be clinging and are often inconsolable when left with stranger they also exhibit seek and reject behaviour when there parents return (2 marks).William is insecure avoidant as they are defined by very independent behaviour paying little attention to there caregiver when they leave or return (2 marks)

One mark for correct type then one mark for applying and elaborating why.

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8. Therapy for Essays Plans

Memorising essays is both time consuming and impractical. However it seems wrong however to not take advantage of the fact that most Psychological Topics can be split into only a handful of essay questions.

The best way to break essays down so that they can be revised is writing frames (or essay plans). They split your essay into key points for each paragraph.

These can then be put on mind maps or revision cards. Below are some different formats for essay plans within AS.

Mind mapped plan

Table Essay Plan: Biological explanation for Schizophrenia (16 Marks)

AO1 Description AO2 Application/Evaluation

Genetic Explanation Dopamine Hypothesis Other Neurotransmitters Ventricle Size

MZ/DZ Twin studies, concordance research Effectiveness of antipsychotics Family based EE Diathesis stress model Determinism/ Early Identification Reductionism

Biological Explanation of Schizophrenia

1st para Genetic Explanation MZ/DZ Concordance

Shared Environment Family Based EE

3rd Para Ventricle Size

Autopsy Studies Cause and Effect?

Contradictory Research

4th Para Reductionist

Doesn't place blame Real world implications Nature Nurture debate

Labelling Theory

2nd Para Dopamine Hypothesis

Effective Drugs Determinism

other Neurotransmitters Cause and effect?

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Assessment and Worked Plan for Long Essay [16 marks]

Although plans cant be submitted as answers they can be sketched in at the beginning of the exam question (a space is often left) . These are even mark worthy when essay isn't completed. Below is a fully worked

essay plan for the question above.

The Plan above has a minimum of 6 x A01 and more than 10 x AO2 if elaborated on. Although it might take time to do the plan once done, writing

the essay should be quick enough to make up for the time lost.

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Therapy for Approaches Almost every theory within Psychology comes from looking at an issue from particular Approach. On the rare occasion where more than approach is used this is called a Holistic approach.

A good understanding of the approaches means that you will be able to evaluate, compare and contrast theories more easily as most evaluation comes from the approach as whole rather than the theory.

One more… One other approach is that of Evolutionary, closely linked to the Biological approach this sees all behaviour as evolved genetically for adaptive reasons to give us some Survival or Reproductive advantage.

Example: Aggression as a behaviour adapted to protect or gain resources.

Approaches

Biological This approach sees all behaviour as underpinned by biological factors: Brain s t r uc tu re , Neu rochemica l s and Genetics.

Example The theory that depression is caused by a lack of serotonin in certain areas of the brain.

Behaviourist This approach sees our behaviour as learnt from interacting with out environment. Key to this is Classical and Operant Conditioning and Social Learning.

Example Addictive behaviours such as smoking may be caused by the posit ive reinforcement we receive from them.

Cognitive Cognitive psychology suggests that all maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty thinking. Since we cant measure thinking. Cognitive Psychologist model the thought processes and then test these models.

Example Depression is caused by faulty negative thoughts and biases about the world that can be corrected through practice.

Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective is based on Freuds beliefs that our behaviour is controlled by three personalities within us. The ID, Ego and Superego. Any abnormal behaviour is caused by conflict between these three. This is normally due to under or overdevelopment of one or another during childhood.

Example Aggressive or criminal behaviour could be caused by an overactive id (the pleasure seeking aspect of personality).

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Assessment for Approaches

Describe 2 or more approaches to Explaining Addition [8 Marks]

The biological approaches sees Addiction as a result of genes or a lack of certain neurotransmitters (1 Mark). Although no gene has been proven to be related to Addiction twin studies have suggested some link between genes and susceptibility to Addiction to Alcohol and Smoking (1 Mark). Also a lack of Dopamine in the brain has been linked with many addictions. Dopamine is associated with feelings of reward and it is believed addictive behaviours and drugs can make up for this lack in addicts brains (1 Mark)

Another suggestion is the Cognitive Explanations. This sees Addiction as the result of fault thinking (1 Mark). Gambling addicts have and irrational bias which makes them believe that the chances of winning are in their favour (1 mark) This also works in the opposite way by glossing over the consequences of Drugs (1 Mark).

Behaviourism could also account for the development of addiction. Not only do most drugs result in a positive feeling reinforcing them but also trying to quit can be met with negative withdrawal symptoms that are removed when the Drug is taken (2 marks).

Describe the Biological Explanation of Schizophrenia and explain how it differs from a Diathesis Stress model [8 marks]

The biological model of schizophrenia implies that Schizophrenia is caused by Brain Structure, Genes or Neurotransmitters.

The neurotransmitter dopamine is linked with Schizophrenia. It has been implied that either an excess of Dopamine receptors or dopamine itself is responsible for the positive symptoms of Schizophrenia (1 mark). These neurotransmitters or another brain irregularity could also be caused by a genetic abnormality inherited through families (1 mark). This could account for high concordance between twins and siblings (1 mark).

The concordance rate for twins is not however 100% suggesting that genes cannot be the sole cause of Schizophrenia (1 mark). The diathesis stress model implies that a combination of approaches could be the cause (1 mark). This model suggests that people could have a biological/genetic predisposition to the disease but it may need a environmental trigger to start symptoms (1 mark). This could be Expressed emotion or a stressful life event (1 mark). This could explain why the concordance rate isn't 100% and why some family members remain healthy despite a family history ( 1mark).

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Therapy for Key Terms and Specialist Terminology Specialist terminology/Key terms are linked to your AO1 marks. To gain top marks-

‘Specialist Terminology must be used effectively’.

This means even if you answer makes sense and you have fulfilled the criteria of the question those A* grades will still not be achievable unless you have used these key terms.

Much like the sciences specialist terminology is embedded in all your topics and it is necessary to learn these as you go through. I find the best way to learn these is to have a bank for each topic either at the beginning or the end of each topic. Then they can be revised all at once. You can also highlight them in your notes (in one colour) as you go through.

Another effective method is using Mnemonics. Once you have a list to learn. Take the first letter of each of the words and turn it into another word or sentence:

eg.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages Of Development Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Orange Aardvarks Punish Lazy Goats

Methods for Remembering Inferential Test Selection No Cheese CoS I’m Really Well Toned No/ Cheese: Nominal - Chi Squared Co/s: Correlational- Spearmans Rho

I/m: Independent Measures- Mann Whitney U Really Well Toned: Repeated Measures- Wilcoxon T-Test

Issues Debates and Approaches Gender Bias, Reductionist, Ethics, Nature/Nurture, Animal Research,

Deterministic, Ethnocentric GRENADE

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Assessment and Answers for Specialist Terminology [10 marks]

Specialist terminology is also used in essays, one way to help prepare for use within these is highlighting key terminology in every essay you write and in your essay plans.

4.Attachment is a strong emotional connection, such as the bond between a child and caregiver. 5. A 6. B 7.Encoding is when information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored. 

1. D,C,B,A 2.Capacity quantifies the amount

of information that can be held in memory, e.g. short-term memory has a limited capacity of 7 +/- 2 items.

3.Duration: How long information can remain in the memory.