plymouth marine laboratory has maintained its …€¦ · solo dive to the earth’s deepest point...

Annual Review 2016 www.pml.ac.uk2

OCEAN FUTURES

ANNUALREVIEW2016

Concentrating on coastal waters and the sunlit ocean, PML makes valuable contributions to understanding the functioning of those areas of the sea that provide most benefits to the growing global human population, while targeting research efforts at revealing issues and threats that might impact the ocean as the basis of life on our planet. Through its diverse, adaptable and multi-disciplinary approach to marine science PML is able to react quickly to new topics of concern to society. In all areas of its research PML enjoys a global reputation, in some it is a world leader. Through its unique combination of world-class observation, experimentation and modelling PML is at the cutting edge of developing novel approaches to unravelling what the ocean is telling us. For the benefit of the environment and human society PML Listens to the Ocean to ensure its health and productivity into the future.

PLYMOUTH MARINE LABORATORY HAS MAINTAINED ITS POSITION AS ONE OF THE WORLD’S LEADING MARINE RESEARCH LABORATORIES.

Contents:

Welcome 2

First PML Patron 3

Climate Change 4

Projecting & Predicting 10

Satellites & Oceans 16

Between Ocean & Atmosphere: Chemical Cycles 22

Impacts & Services 28

Performance 38

Continuing Success in Research Funding 48


ECOSYSTEM

SAMPLINGDATA

INTERPRETED DATA

FIELD DATA

MO

DEL

TOO

LS

KEYMODELLING

AREAS

ECOSYSTEMSERVICES:

THE VALUE OFTHE OCEAN

POLICY

MANAGEMENT

SOCIETAL: FOOD, HEALTH ANDWELLBEING

POLLUTIONOF OCEAN AND ATMOSPHERE

FOOD

ENER

GY

DISCOVERY

SCIENCE

PREDICTINGCHANGE

HEALT

H

ENVI

RONMENTAL

OBSERVATIONAL DATA

EXPERIMENTALDATA

FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE:

UNDERSTANDING FUTURE YIELDS

GOOD ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS AND OCEAN

HEALTH

CLIMATE CHANGE

OPTIMISING SAMPLING

BIOG

EO

CHEMISTRY

BIOLOGY

ECOSYSTEM

FUNCTION

HY

DRODYNAMIC

VALIDATION SCALES FROM

LOCAL, TO REGIONAL,TO GLOBAL

PLYMOUTH MARINE LABORATORY – MEASUREMENTS FOR MODELLING OCEAN FUTURES

DATA INPUTS INFORMSMODELS

http://www.pml.ac.uk/Modelling/Home

Annual Review 2016 www.pml.ac.uk2 www.pml.ac.uk Annual Review 2016 3

WELCOME

WELCOME

The year has been marked by many changes in the external landscape, including funding for science which, whilst proving challenging, demonstrated PML’s resilience and capability. It is testament to the calibre and efforts of our staff, and our scientific excellence, that PML continues to thrive, delivering high quality science with impact, and developing relationships with new partners and funders.A particular highlight from the year was the unveiling of our first patron – James Cameron, world- renowned explorer, environmentalist and film-maker – at an event we hosted on World Oceans Day. We are absolutely delighted that James has accepted this role and look forward to future collaborations with him.

The year also witnessed a foray into new funding streams and we have been successful in attracting grants from charitable foundations, such as the Lloyd’s Register Foundation, which is supporting the next generation of marine scientists through two new apprenticeships at PML. On the theme of looking forward, whilst we recognise that there are wider uncertainties in the UK, we are confident that PML’s reputation, based on its scientific prowess and relevance, will provide us with further opportunities across the globe.We hope you enjoy reading this Annual Review, and that it helps you gain a valuable insight into the importance of marine science and the work we do.

Welcome to our Annual Review 2016, which encapsulates highlights of our science and associated activities from the last twelve months.

Admiral Sir James Burnell-Nugent KCB CBE MAChair of the PML Board of Trustees

Prof. Stephen de Mora CChem, FRSC, FRSB, FRSAChief Executive

www.pml.ac.uk Annual Review 2016 3

PML’S FIRST PATRON

James Cameron is noted for his development of unprecedented deep ocean exploration vehicles and has received international accolades for his engineering innovation and enablement of research in the deep oceans. A National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence, James Cameron’s exploration pursuits have included a historic survey inside the Titanic wreck using robotic imaging of his own design, a ground-breaking forensic analysis of the Bismarck, and an investigation of hydrothermal vent sites. In 2012, James Cameron led his eighth deep ocean

expedition to some of the deepest trenches in the world. His engineering team spent seven years building a unique manned submersible, the DEEPSEA CHALLENGER, capable of diving to the ocean’s greatest depths. On March 26, 2012, James Cameron made a record-breaking solo dive to the Earth’s deepest point in the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench, successfully setting a depth record of 35,787 feet, or nearly 7 miles (11 kilometres). James Cameron has personally logged more than 80 submersible dives, including 33 to the wreck of the Titanic. These expeditions resulted in a number of acclaimed documentaries, including Ghosts of the Abyss, Expedition Bismarck, and Aliens of the Deep. James Cameron’s passion for the ocean is clearly evident, as well as his desire to pursue and expand knowledge of the ocean to inspire further exploration and discovery. Equally important to James Cameron is the plight of the ocean in the face of such major challenges as climate change. “The research undertaken by PML is critical to increasing our understanding of the ocean, and to help towards ensuring a sustainable future for this precious resource for everyone” he emphasised.

PML’S FIRST PATRON

James CameronExplorer, Environmentalist and Film-makerPML Patron

Last year, on World Oceans Day, PML was thrilled to announce that James Cameron, world renowned explorer, environmentalist and film-maker, had joined PML as its first patron.


CLIMATE CHANGE CLIMATE CHANGE

Once formed, organic matter may be respired back as CO2, or it can be stored into the ocean, away from the atmosphere, for extended timescales. The biological carbon pump (BCP) and the microbial carbon pump (MCP) are the two biological processes responsible for the long-term storage of carbon in the ocean. The BCP works through the physical transportation (e.g. gravitational sinking) of particulate organic carbon (POC) to take CO2 into the deep ocean; the MCP chemically transforms dissolved organic matter (DOM) into stable forms which are not respired by microorganisms. The balance between the two mechanisms is thought to vary, depending on the size, composition and quantity of phytoplankton. The BCP dominates when and where there are sufficient nutrients to favour larger plankton, the MCP dominates in low nutrient conditions that favour smaller phytoplankton. Climate change has the potential to alter the trophic state and affect the distributions, timings and nutritional quality of plankton species, and hence, the balance between the BCP and MCP. Understanding this balance is fundamental to predicting any future impact on ocean carbon sequestration. Now, PML scientists have created a modelling framework which

simulates the MCP:BCP variability due to nutrient availability. Their results suggest that the MCP might become more significant under future predicted climate conditions with more stratification and fewer nutrients available at the surface, and reduced nutritional value of the phytoplankton. Lower quality phytoplankton is less attractive to grazing zooplankton so influencing the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon, and weakening the lower links of food chains leading up to higher trophic levels, such as fish. The scientists combined two models into the European Regional Seas Ecosystem Model (ERSEM) for predicting quantitatively the BCP:MCP ratio globally. However, they have demonstrated that numerical models, when accurately describing the physiology of marine microorganisms, are effective tools to explore the ocean carbon sequestration dynamic and provide a suitable foundation for the design of future studies, which is an ongoing activity in PML.

CARBON PUMPS, OCEAN SEQUESTRATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATECHANGE Climate change and its associated phenomena, such as ocean acidification and deoxygenated zones, present a combination of stressors to marine ecosystems and the life they contain, these are acting in concert with existing threats such as pollution, habitat loss and over-exploitation of resources. PML has led investigations into the impacts of carbon dioxide on the marine environment and continues to direct further research into impacts and potential mitigating strategies.

PML brings together its expertise in Earth

observation, field ecology and ecosystem modelling

to understand and predict the impacts of

climate change


Phytoplankton, like all other plants, fixes carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic matter as part of the process of photosynthesis.

http://plymsea.ac.uk/7311/

Annual Review 2016 www.pml.ac.uk6 www.pml.ac.uk Annual Review 2016 7Annual Review 2016 www.pml.ac.uk6

CLIMATE CHANGECLIMATE CHANGE

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION MAY REPLACE GRAZERS

In the marine environment ocean acidification has been highlighted as a particular challenge for organisms with calcareous shells or skeletons, one such group being the coralline red algae, or corallines. Drawing on a 30-year record of ecological changes in a coralline community in the Northeast Pacific, a model was used to forecast how the various species would interact and compete for space under changing conditions. The model simulated the coralline community up to a mature point when species abundances become stable and

In the ocean populations of phytoplankton sometimes form blooms containing up to 100 million cells per litre and may occupy an area many miles in extent, have high turnover rates and can respond to environmental changes within days or hours, so making them ideal indicators of first-level change response to such environmental perturbations. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major influence on large-scale inter-annual variations in environmental conditions. ENSO thus provides a natural experiment to study how phytoplankton, and, by proxy, higher trophic levels, respond to variations in the climate. PML scientists assessed the influence of the ENSO through estimating variations in chlorophyll concentration, primary production and timings of initiation, peak, termination and duration of the

growing period. These phenological changes of the phytoplankton were then used to characterise the responses to changes in some variables, such as sea surface temperature and height, and wind. The scientists detected that phytoplankton responses to ENSO were noticeable in the global ocean but with regional variations in the timing of the growing period between ±30 days, chlorophyll concentrations ±20% and primary production between ±10%. These variations could have profound impacts on the carbon cycle and the function of marine ecosystems through trophic mismatch when prey and consumer do not coincide in time, for example. They might also aid better comparison and interpretation of ocean colour products from other sensors.In high latitudes where the solar cycle shows significant variation, the influence of ENSO

can be easily measured through the annual mean anomalies of the physical variables. Where ENSO actually modulates climates through seasonal wind reversal, Indian Ocean monsoons for example, the phenology-based anomalies help to evaluate the mechanisms that drive the biological responses. This approach may help to predict the impact of climate change on the marine ecosystem.

ENSO AND PHENOLOGY

Phenology, the study of the timing of periodic events in the life cycles of plants and animals, such as the familiar flowering of plants, emergence of butterflies and arrival of migrant birds, is influenced by environmental conditions and climatic forcing.

represented that natural state. Subsequent alterations representing the influence of ocean acidification (OA) were added to the model. The results indicated that under OA scenarios the growth hierarchy of the corallines may change and shell-bearing grazers might be affected, but OA stress could take the herbivores’ place in reducing the dominance of a single species and promoting local biodiversity. But, the researchers caution, if OA intensifies the effects might be stronger, resulting in reduced population sizes and diversity.

Many studies on the impacts of climate change and its related phenomena have been confined to individual species and their potential to decline, survive or thrive within latitudinal or microhabitat variations, but little has been done on how inter-species interactions might be affected.

Data collected over long timescales

are essential to understanding

ocean functions and changes

Timing of chlorophyll peaks during ENSO increasing (above) and decreasing phases over a 12 month period

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10712-016-9391-1

http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/283/1826/20152561


CLIMATE CHANGE CLIMATE CHANGE

www.pml.ac.uk Annual Review 2016

The creation of MPAs is often a response to growing anthropogenic local threats such as fishing, increased recreational use, or spreading development, but they will remain vulnerable to non-local threats, including the impacts from nutrients carried down rivers and global climate change. MPAs tend to be a response to the status quo but if managers hope to maintain MPA quality, they need to understand how these sites will be altered as a result of climate and other environmental changes over which they have no control. Simply using projected temperature changes in models is now recognised as being insufficient to predict developing impacts; other key ecosystem indicators should be included to ascertain how they will change into the future and to capture more of the complex interactions within ecosystems. There has not been much use of models to predict how MPAs might change into the future because

they tend to rely on sea surface temperature projections and are at resolutions too coarse to be useful locally. PML modellers have now developed an approach that down-scales global data to a regional model that projects how climate change and river nutrient loading will alter a number of key ecosystem drivers. They used spatially-aggregated results to give an overview of condition changes in selected areas under two different scenarios of climate change and river nutrient levels for the period 2040-2049, developed as part of the EU-funded VECTORS project. Projections using the coupled ERSEM/POLCOMS models included: temperature, salinity, mixed-layer depth, nutrient concentrations, dissolved oxygen, surface chlorophyll, primary production and zooplankton biomass. The study areas were the Mediterranean Sea, where MPAs cover 115,000km2 (4.6% of its area), and the North-East Atlantic containing 333 MPAs, comprising 5% of the total OSPAR area, 22% of coastal waters. The models were able to predict vulnerable areas so identifying those MPAs that require further study or action. Models, the scientists conclude, have an increasing role to play in providing information about changes affecting MPAs to the point where they become unsuitable for the purpose for which they were originally created, and can underpin site selection for future MPAs as those changes take place.

The perspective is that areas are set aside given their present value as habitat and/or biodiversity features, without consideration for future CCOA driven change. PML scientists and colleagues used a spatial meta-analysis of climate impact models to estimate the vulnerability of ocean ecosystems in a spatial/temporal manner, to help identify resilience and vulnerability to long-term CCOA, to aid regional spatial planning in the North Sea. The study considered 63 outputs from 54 distinct models as an ensemble aggregated to a common grid, and enabled calculations for each cell of the grid. Included were lower and

PROTECTING OCEANS UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

higher trophic levels and human activities, such as energy developments and MPA designation. Interestingly, the study showed that current regional conservation plans predominantly protect areas with low-ecosystem-level vulnerability to CCOA. Worryingly those plans disregard how species may redistribute to new, more suitable and productive habitats that become available as CCOA takes a hold. The study highlights the need to improve the positioning of marine protected areas (MPAs) to limit future CCOA impacts globally through using the approached developed by the scientists.

Amid calls for at least 10% of the global ocean to be set aside for conservation as a response to immediate anthropogenic threats to its biodiversity, and our own wellbeing through the potential declines in goods and services, there is a still-held belief that this cannot limit the overwhelming pressures of climate change and ocean acidification (CCOA).

MODELLING, MANAGEMENT AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have become the default tool for protecting coastal and shelf sea ecosystems from damage, biodiversity loss and unsustainable development.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13423/full



INORGANICS

CarbonateSystem

Nutrients

Phytoplankton

ORGANICS

ATMOSPHERE

PELAGIC

Consumers

PicophNanoph

MicrophDiatoms

Zoobenthos

Microbes DOM

AerobicBacteria

AnerobicBacteria

SuspensionFeeders

DepositFeeders

DOM

Hetero-trophs

Mesozoopl

BENTHIC

pCO2

Fe

Si

Si

PO4

PO4

NO3

NO3

NH4

DIC

H2CO3

HCO3

HO32-

TA

pHΩ

TA

O2

H2CO3

HCO3

HO32-

pH

pCO2

O2

Micobes

Particulates

Bacteria

Microzoopl

NH4

Particulates

Meiobenthos

DIC

PROJECTING & PREDICTING

PML scientists are developing models of increasing complexity

to reflect the real-world ocean

ERSEM has become one of the most established ecosystem models for the lower trophic levels of the marine food-web. Originally developed in the early nineties it has evolved significantly from a coastal ecosystem model, essentially for the North Sea, to a powerful generic tool for ecosystem

ERSEM TAKES ANOTHER STEP

PML is a global leader in marine ecosystem modelling and has become a partner of choice in numerous major projects within the UK, across Europe and further afield. PML modellers continue to develop the European Regional Seas Ecosystem Model (ERSEM) which has grown in scale and scope in recent years and now has more than 200 registered users from 30 countries across the world and has supported research resulting in more than 200 peer-reviewed publications.

simulations from shelf seas to the global ocean. ERSEM is always under further development by PML modellers to improve its capabilities and broaden its coverage. The most recent release now contains all of the essential elements for the pelagic and benthic parts of the marine ecosystem. ERSEM has now been used in a wide range of simulations including: across the entire North West European shelf and the North East Atlantic, over six different ecosystems across the globe and within the major coastal upwelling systems of the planet. Applications of ERSEM have been used in short-term forecasting, ocean acidification, climate change and coupled climate acidification projections. It has also been used in process studies, biogeochemical cycling, habitat and end-to-end modelling. Qualitative and quantitative validation with in situ data has demonstrated the model’s capability to represent ecosystems ranging across the extremes of oligotrophic open oceans to eutrophic coastal conditions. ERSEM 15.06 is the only model available to scientists and operational forecasters that provides the structure for simulating in one coherent system the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, the major macronutrients and iron, the carbonate system and calcification, the microbial food web and benthic biogeochemistry. As such ERSEM is suitable for a whole range of applications as different as process studies, regional or global budgets of different chemical elements, habitat maps or risk assessment of environmental hazard. The latest release, ERSEM15.06, is freely available through the portal – www.shelfseasmodelling.org.

ERSEM sits at the core of PML’s internationally renowned modelling activities.


PROJECTING & PREDICTING

http://www.geosci-model-dev.net/9/1293/2016/


PROJECTING & PREDICTINGPROJECTING & PREDICTING

However, for a model to be used for any of these purposes it has to be shown to be a valid representation of the system under study. There are two ways of doing this, the first uses hindcasts to test the model’s skill in reproducing historical spatial and temporal distributions of observations. Models that use quantitative metrics of the absolute ecosystem state are vulnerable to discrepancies in the location of important features such as the fronts, coastlines and upwelling regions. This can penalize the performance of the biogeochemical models because the uncertainties in the physical model are amplified in model domains with coarse spatial and temporal resolution. An alternative method is to demonstrate the emergence of a coherent natural relationship, such as plankton community structure, indicating that the model

Numerical models of the ocean are used frequently for policy decisions, for forecasting the impact of climate change, and to obtain a deeper understanding of the natural world.

ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION AND MODEL ASSESSMENT

is also representing the ecosystem function that leads to that emergent relationship and is a better reflection of the ‘real world’. These emergent relationships can be used to

characterise and validate the ecosystem and its functioning. PML modellers

used a selection of published meta-analyses to establish

the validity of a complex marine ecosystem model (ERSEM coupled with the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean – NEMO)

to demonstrate the power of validation with

emergent properties. The work demonstrated that ERSEM

can successfully reproduce many natural behaviours of the ecosystem. Each of these behaviours covered a different aspect of ecosystem function and, when combined together, they illustrated the potential of model validation with emergent properties and ecosystem function as opposed to relying on the model to reproduce historic measurements at specific times and places.


Identifying such changes is currently difficult due to a paucity of long-term, spatially-resolved, biological time-series data at the basin scale. The Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) is designed to exploit in situ measurements and remote sensing observations of key physical and biogeochemical variables combined with modelling to better understand the functioning of the surface ocean. This has allowed PML scientists to produce a synthesis of the seasonal functioning of the North and South Atlantic Sub-Tropical Gyres (STGs). They were able to define the gyre boundaries using a combination of physical data including sea surface temperature (SST) and salinity (SSS), peripheral current systems and biogeochemical variables (chlorophyll and nitrate) along with inherent criteria such as permanent thermal stratification and oligotrophy – where temperature-layered waters are barriers to nutrient flux to the sea surface. Using data from the period 1998-2012 they were able to detect significant relationships between the

RESPONDING GYRES area of each gyre and physical properties, such as SST and the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis, over the seasonal cycles. Against expectation the sea surface chlorophyll concentrations obtained via remote sensing showed an upward trend in both sub-tropical gyres, although the physical properties differed between them, suggesting the processes leading to the increases might vary between the gyres. This suggests that AMT-type observations need to continue, coupled with autonomous observations and remote sensing and, in order to understand seasonality, a few cruises should gather data during the keystone months of January and July.

One expected change, brought about by anthropogenically-induced global warming in the sub-tropical oceans, is a decrease in primary productivity due to strengthened stratification which puts a barrier into the system, so reducing the flux of nutrients from deep waters to the sunlit surface waters where it would normally encourage plankton growth.

http://www.geosci-model-dev.net/9/59/2016/



PML scientistsfound that although

each individual turbineis small, cumulatively

they can changethe local flow

of water


PROJECTING & PREDICTINGPROJECTING & PREDICTING

Reductions of greenhouse gas emissions and slowing of climate change are positive benefits of renewables but, to date there has been little evidence gathered of the local to regional impact from these installations. PML used mathematical models to predict the impacts of offshore wind farms in coastal seas. Most previous studies have only focused on small-scale domains, for example, a single wind

farm. This study investigated impacts at scales from an individual turbine to the whole shelf sea, based on seven existing Irish Sea OWFs with a total of 242 turbines. The PML scientists found that although each individual turbine is small, cumulatively they can change the local flow of water, with the turbines creating more mixing of the water in the vicinity of the OWF. This changes the layers of water (stratification) which form around the wind farms, potentially altering local ecosystems. The model also shows that the OWFs could alter the heights of tides, showing that by expanding domains beyond the immediate area of OWFs so-called far-field effects as far away as off the south-east coast of England were predicted. Even small changes of a few centimetres might have consequences for coastal habitat and flooding risks, as they add to increases already happening as a result of climate change.

IMPACTS OF OFFSHORE WIND FARMS

Where potential storage is offshore, regulations require an understanding of the potential for leakage and environmental impacts that may ensue, and suitable monitoring for detecting and assessing leaks. PML’s wide expertise-base has been involved in a number of national and European programmes of CCS research, including modelling likely behaviour and impacts of a CO2 leak. Using a marine ecosystem model, PML scientists examined a range of hypothetical CO2 leakage scenarios to assess impacts in the benthic system. They found that levels of impact depend on duration of exposure and magnitude of pH changes. Results showed a clear trend of increasing impact and recovery time with escalating exposure strength and duration, and that when either duration or intensity of changes was restricted, impacts were minimal. The benthic system is complex, however, with many feedbacks

MODELLING IMPACTS OF A POTENTIAL CCS LEAK

and interactions between physiological and ecological responses; the ways in which benthic environments are likely to respond are also complex. In a real-world situation there are other processes which could impact the effects of a CO2 plume but this study has established that this type of modelling approach can help in understanding impact upon potential and benthic community recovery, hence could also aid baseline and monitoring survey design.

The development of Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) has grown alongside the increasing demand for renewable energy (in UK waters 1465 offshore wind turbines have already been installed).

Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) is one suggested mitigation measure to alleviate impacts from CO2 emissions to the atmosphere.


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661115300379


SATELLITES & THE OCEANS

SATELLITES & THE OCEANS PML’s Earth Observation Science and Applications (EOSA) group enjoys a global reputation and has a proven track record in both pure and applied Earth observation science. Not simply a user, PML develops applications to address environmental questions and is in an excellent position to provide services for others and to commercialize its research via PML Applications Ltd.

Satellites are key tools in understanding

our oceans over broad scales With a flexible approach to problem solving,

scientific investigation and interpretation, and a willingness to share its expertise and to work co-operatively world-wide PML is a partner of choice for inclusion in and often leading national and international projects, latterly with the European Space Agency (ESA)

and the Copernicus Programme, as well as NERC, BBSRC and Defra research programmes. PML’s activities remain centred on the remote sensing of the Earth’s ocean and atmosphere, while not ignoring the intimate connections between the ocean, the atmosphere and terrestrial, estuarine and lacustrine environments. The multi-disciplinary group at PML comprising experts in remote-sensing, physics, meteorology, engineering, data visualisation and computing, is focused onfive research areas:

1) Phytoplankton dynamics and ocean colour – the dynamics of ocean colour as studied from various standpoints, from cellular to regional, from open ocean to inland waters.

2) Validation of Earth observation (EO) data – measurements of primary, new and net community production, and bio-optical parameters, to facilitate development and validation of satellite algorithms in regional seas and globally.

3) Exploitation of EO data – PML is at the forefront of the exploitation of EO data for new scientific and applied purposes.

4) Provision of EO services to NERC and European agencies – including through the NERC EO Data Acquisition and Analysis Service and via the NERC Airborne Research Facility – data analysis node.

Finally, the group expects to exploit new capabilities from the ESA Sentinel programme for innovative applications, and, potentially, commercial services, such as for the aquaculture industry, working with PML Applications Ltd.

PML’s Earth Observation Science and Applications (EOSA) group continues to build upon its excellent reputation and has become one of the largest such groups globally.

Turbid wakes generated by wind turbines (Landsat8/OLI satellite)Satellite image courtesy ESA

https://rsg.pml.ac.uk/



Yet the mesopelagic remains a vastly unexplored and poorly understood ecosystem. Up to now this ecosystem has been thought to be sustained by a ‘rain’ of fast-sinking organic aggregates of dead plankton and waste products from surface-living organisms – the so-called biological carbon pump. Scientists have come to realise that it simply is not sufficient to support the vast numbers and variety of organisms that live in the mesopelagic , and have investigated another oceanographic mechanism – the seasonal mixed-layer pump. This pump takes non-sinking particles as well as dissolved organic carbon from surface waters into the depths, and thus supplies an additional pulse of organic carbon to the mesopelagic. During spring-time stormy conditions, strong winds mix surface water and the organic carbon it contains deep into the ocean. This deeply-mixed carbon is then ‘trapped’ inside the mesopelagic region, until the shallow summer mixed layer forms, and it becomes available as an energy source to mesopelagic organisms. Overall, these variations

in the surface mixed layer could thus pump part of the missing carbon into the mesopelagic, but there has never been a concerted effort to estimate the total flux of organic carbon that they supply across the world ocean; now PML scientists have estimated this amount. By combining satellite data from the European Space Agency Ocean Colour-Climate Change Initiative with in situ measurements obtained by Argo and new Bio-Argo floats, partially-funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council, they estimate that the pump moves around 300 million tons of carbon each year. In the deeply-mixed high-latitude regions, the figure represents an average of 23%, but possibly in excess of 100% of the better studied flux of faster-sinking, larger particles and aggregates. This new global estimate should thus be considered as an additional flux of organic carbon to the mesopelagic region that was previously not accounted for, and that’s important when we try to understand which sources of energy fuel the mesopelagic ecosystem and the life it supports.

ENERGY FOR THE DEEP

Metop B measures thermal infrared radiation and visible light at 1km resolution

PML analysethe data

Data is beamed to a data station

Sentinel 3, currently the most important satellite for PML, measuresocean colour at 300m resolution globally

Sentinel 1 can ‘see’ through clouds detectingsea surface roughness, oil spills and ships


PML draws data from a wide range of satellites, among the most important are the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Sentinel series.

Current projects and networks using satellites:• NERC Airborne Research Facility (ARF) Data

Analysis Node (ARSF-DAN)• The NERC Earth Observation Data

Acquisition and Analysis Service (NEODAAS)• Partnership for Observation of the Global

Oceans (POGO)• NERC National Centre for Earth Observation

(NCEO)• EC FP7 European Facility for Airborne

Research (EUFAR)• EC FP7 EarthServer2• ESA Ocean Colour Climate Change Initiative

• ESA OceanFlux Greenhouse Gases• EC FP7 Europe-Africa Marine

EO Network (EAMNet)• Chlorophyll Global Integrated Network

(ChloroGIN)• BBSRC/NERC ShellEye: Satellite monitoring

for early warning of environmental risks to aquaculture farms

• EC H2020 Tools for Assessment and Planning of Aquaculture Sustainability (TAPAS)

• NERC GloboLakes• FP7 Copernicus INFORM• Copernicus Global Land Services – Water Quality• H2020 EOMORES


The mesopelagic region of the ocean, between 100m and 1000m contains one of the largest ecosystems on the planet and most of the ocean’s fish.

Mes

opel

agic

reg

ion

Euph

otic

zone

Particles exported by mixed-layer pump

Mixed layerdepth “Traditional” export

of large aggregates

Spring Deepmixing

Ephemeralstratification

Deepestmixing

Summer stratification

http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v9/n11/abs/ngeo2818.html



Satellites can provide details of plankton distributions, bloom extent, densities, composition, seasonality and other parameters. An important aspect of PML’s activities is concerned with evaluating the readings gained via satellite compared to in situ measurements obtained from the same remotely-sensed area within the same time frame. A particular challenge in obtaining chlorophyll-a estimates is within the ocean gyres which comprise most oceanic water, but are oligotrophic (sparse plankton growth) and under sampled.

Having confidence in measurements of ocean colour, which provide details of total chlorophyll-a concentration, is a prerequisite to understanding plankton communities.

SEA SAMPLES GROUND TRUTH SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS

The Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) crosses the Atlantic gyres and so presents a rare opportunity to take in situ measurements across these seldom sampled ocean areas for comparison with data from satellites passing overhead. During AMT19 and AMT22 underway data were collected using optical instruments developed with colleagues and modified for use during the cruises, on board the RRS James Cook. Samples were passed through the spectrophotometer allowing high precise and accurate continuous total chlorophyll-a estimates to be made. The high spatial and temporal resolution obtained maximised the number of ‘match-ups’ with overflying satellites. The comparisons demonstrated that the satellites were performing far better than previous studies suggested, halving the previously accepted error margins. The study which was supported by the European Space Agency clearly shows that matching-up satellite and in situ measurements can provide confidence in wider global estimates obtained from satellites observing alone.



Knowing where currents exist, their directions and speed of flow are important to many sectors including: oil and gas exploration, ships and recreational vessels, maritime search and rescue, water pollution, larval transport of invasive species, and global heat transport. Using satellite-derived thermal or visible imagery to estimate surface ocean current velocities automatically has limitations, mainly because of adverse weather conditions that obscure signals, but also due to the complexity of evolving ocean features and how any surface signature they may show degrades. The Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI), due to its multi-year record of hourly high-resolution data provided an opportunity to reappraise such estimations. A PML study of the water-

leaving radiance and chlorophyll concentration satellite products used a combination of simulated and real data to test their robustness. The maximum cross correlation (MCC) technique was used whereby images, separated in time, are compared to determine the movement of an identifiable feature, such as a plankton bloom or an area of sea-surface temperature. This technique allows estimates of current direction and velocity. These MCC-derived current estimates were compared against high frequency (HF) radar readings from ground stations on the Tsushima Strait, Japan. The HF radar current readings can be taken in any weather conditions, 24 hours a day and are very accurate with an error of around only 10cms per second. While results supported the MCC approach as having potential for a global scheme to derive low precision velocity fields, they caution that cloud cover, sunglint and

low light can still reduce data quality. Improvements in spatial resolution

from future satellite missions will however improve precision and enable smaller magnitude velocities to be derived.

MATCHING IMAGES INDICATES CURRENT VELOCITY

Ocean currents dictate the movement of water around the globe, transporting and mixing nutrients, salts, gases, biology and heat throughout the oceans.


A strengthof PML is its ability to bring together

in situ and satellite observations for better

understanding

Satellite image courtesy ESA

Total region covered by GOCI sensor (Left); mean velocities from HF radar (centre) and MCC (right)




The Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) cruises have followed a regular track south from the UK to the Antarctic, passing through a range of biogeographic provinces where surface chlorophyll-a can span two orders of magnitude. The AMT travels from the moderately productive boundary (mesotrophic) high latitudes, through the subtropical gyre where phytoplankton growth is sparse (oligotrophic) and crosses highly productive upwellings. Eleven cruises, eight of which were AMT cruises, have provided 21,000 observations over a period of 19 years. Analysis of these observations provided an opportunity to study any changes in pCO2 and pH in surface waters of the Atlantic. The results of the analysis did indeed quantify changes in surface ocean CO2 and the carbonate system at the basin-scale, and there is clear evidence that they are driven by increases in atmospheric CO2. The mechanism for uptake of CO2 was through dissolution in seawater through gas exchange and not through an enhanced uptake by living organisms.

Gas exchange across the air-sea boundary is largely controlled by gas concentrations and the speed at which gases can move across the ocean-atmosphere interface. Methanol and acetone are of particular interest because they influence the atmosphere’s ability to cleanse itself of pollutants and can affect climates. Scientists from PML and their colleagues aboard two research cruises took direct measurements of air-sea methanol and acetone transfer. Gas transfer generally increases as wind speed increases, and up to about 15m/sec the scientists found that transfer was as expected from previous studies; due to its solubility the transfer velocity of acetone was found to be about 30% lower than the airside controlled methanol. Above 15m/sec both compounds showed lower than expected transfer velocities, and additional measurements also showed that air/sea transfer of sensible heat (the energy required to change temperature without altering the compounds from the gas phase) was reduced at 20m/sec. At these wind speeds, large waves with abundant whitecaps generate large amounts of sea spray, which is predicted to alter heat transfer and could affect exchange of soluble gases. The scientists made a crude estimate of the effect that sea spray had on methanol transfer and found it to be small; the reasons for the low gas and heat transfer rates at high wind speed remains unexplained and in need of further study.

BETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE:CHEMICAL CYCLES

In a changing world it is essential to understand and predict how ocean biogeochemical chemical processes and cycles function and may alter. PML’s Marine Biogeochemistry and Observations science area aims to quantify key physical and biogeochemical processes in the surface ocean and coastal seas. Both the Western Channel Observatory and the Atlantic Meridional Transect are key data sources that contribute to PML’s research in these important areas.

The total distance travelled during the

26 AMT cruises equals the distance

to the Moon

AMT OBSERVATIONS SHOW EVIDENCE OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

REACTIVE ORGANIC GASES


BETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE: CHEMICAL CYCLES

CO2

CO2CO2

CO2CO2

http://www.amt-uk.org/


http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/35/1/012011/meta;jsessionid=E90DA988EA68D7127540644B85D70BDC.c2.iopscience.cld.iop.org


BETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE: CHEMICAL CYCLESBETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE: CHEMICAL CYCLES

The global oceans are considered a major sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and the mechanism of gas exchange across the air-sea boundary is currently receiving much attention. Among the drivers forcing CO2 transfer into the sea is the action of rain, although very few studies quantifying the effects exist. Rain influences gas exchange by enhancing the gas transfer velocity, directly transporting CO2 from the atmosphere to the ocean, by altering the temperature of the ‘sea skin’, and through diluting the surface layer. Scientists from PML, the University of Exeter and the International Centre for Island Technology, used a 7-year time series of monthly climate quality satellite observations, models and in situ data to

SEASONAL METHANOL USE BY MICROBES

Corals are prolific producers of dimethysulfoniopropionate (DMSP) which breaks down into an important atmospheric gas, dimethylsulfide (DMS). Previous research has shown that DMS concentrations in the atmosphere above coral reefs rise when the corals are exposed at low tide. Experiments and measurements carried out by scientists at PML, along with colleagues at the University of Essex, UK and the University of Technology Sydney, Australia, on three species of coral showed that concentrations of DMS rose by an order of magnitude at simulated ‘low tide’, when many corals may suffer temperature rise, increased sunlight levels and desiccation. As the corals were re-submerged, simulating a returning tide, there was a further pulse of DMS. This may reflect increased production of DMS as a reaction to the stress of exposure and submergence, or perhaps dissolution of the DMS-rich mucous formed as a protective layer by the corals on exposure to air. The amounts of DMS, which may be in the same order of magnitude as other marine DMS hotspots, also caught the scientists’ attention. Emissions from coral reefs are though a more consistent source of DMS and a significant DMS contributor to the tropical atmosphere; a large input of DMS that is currently unrecognized in climate models.

Nitrogen-containing osmolytes, such as glycine betain (GBT), trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) and choline, are widely used by organisms in the marine environment for protection against changing conditions. N-osmolytes may be released from phytoplankton cells, broken apart by viral attack, for example. Once released, they may become part of the dissolved carbon pool and be available as a substrate for bacteria, and are also important in the marine nitrogen cycle. Despite this importance, little is known about how much GBT, choline and TMAO are in seawater; existing measurements are not very sensitive. PML scientists have now developed a simple, relatively fast extraction procedure, specifically designed for quantification of n-osmolytes in the particulate fraction of natural water samples that is convenient for consecutive sample filtrations. Samples were then analysed using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Not only can the number of samples being processed each day be maximised but the lack of chemical transformation steps in the procedure reduces analysis times and the possibility of loss of the compounds being analysed. The technique holds promise for use with bulk seawater samples and may permit determination of n-osmolyte concentrations in natural phytoplankton samples sorted by flow cytometry.

CORALS – A SIGNIFICANT SOURCE OF CRUCIAL ATMOSPHERIC GAS AT LOW TIDE

NEW TECHNIQUE TO ESTIMATE N-OSMOLYTES IN SEAWATER PARTICULATES

RAIN SINKS CO2

Methanol is ubiquitous in seawater and the most abundant oxygenated volatile organic compound (OVOC) in the atmosphere, influencing air pollution and the cycling of ozone; it represents a supply of energy and carbon for marine microbes. Gaining a clear idea of how methanol is cycled is important in understanding the global carbon cycle; the detail can make significant contributions in climate modelling studies. PML scientists collected surface water at fortnightly intervals over 12 months, at the Western Channel Observatory L4 site. Collected microbes were investigated: Rhodobacterales significantly influenced the assimilation (for use in growth) of methanol, in contrast the dissimilation

(breaking it down for use as an energy source) of methanol was characteristic of bacteria of the SAR11 clade. It differed with the seasons however, dissimilation being higher in winter and assimilation higher during summer. This may reflect intra-annual changes in the population diversity of bacteria and their methanol utilisation. The extent to which the individual bacterial groups studied dominate the bacterial community composition could significantly influence the temporal variability of methanol assimilation and dissimilation. The research represents the first fully resolved seasonal study of microbial methanol uptake dynamics combined with molecular characterisation of the bacterial community.

analyse the sensitivity of sea-air fluxes of CO2 to rain. They found that rain-enhanced gas transfer and the rain-induced direct export increased the global annual oceanic net sink of CO2 by up to 6%. Regionally the effect of rain varies, with the annual net sink in the Pacific Ocean increasing up to 15%, with a monthly net flux of up to 50%. This global scale analysis was made possible by using the open source toolbox (FluxEngine) to uniquely exploit satellite, model and in situ data in a synergistic approach. The analyses show that the impacts of rain should be included in integrated global analyses and more directly in regional sea-air CO2 flux estimates.

http://www.nature.com/articles/srep36031


http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0161105



BETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE: CHEMICAL CYCLESBETWEEN OCEAN & ATMOSPHERE: CHEMICAL CYCLES

CO FLUX COMPLICATED BY TEMPERATURE AND SALINITYGiven the progression of ocean acidification and related phenomena, it is vital to estimate carbon fluxes between the ocean and the atmosphere accurately. However, vertical temperature and salinity gradients in the upper ocean and their variation over timescales from hours to years complicate calculation of global and regional CO2 fluxes. Temperature and salinity influence concentrations of CO2 at the interface, largely through effects on solubility and how the carbonate system is partitioned. Understanding the variability and taking into account the effects of the temperature of the thin layer at the sea surface – the ‘thermal skin’– which can be cool or warm, is key to better calculations. A group of scientists working together in the OceanFlux Greenhouse Gases project suggests that neglecting the ‘thermal skin’ – effect and using the previously accepted bulk sea surface temperature can produce very large errors in the calculated air-sea fluxes. They showed that a cool skin increases net downward flux (or decreases net upward flux). A warm layer, by decreasing the CO2 concentration at the sea-atmosphere interface while increasing the concentration below the ‘skin’, increases net upward flux (or decreases net downward flux), though this occurs less frequently and fluxes are usually low. They conclude that all calculations of aqueous concentration within the water column require consistency in temperature values and where temperatures are corrected CO2 values should also be corrected.

The PPAO receives atmospheric input from the north-west, across the Tamar Estuary from sources in Northern Europe and local shipping, and the open, less polluted Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. This allows scientists to quantify the impact of anthropogenic activity on coastal environments (emissions from ships, for example), as well as the influence of the sea on nearby land. The PPAO takes gas phase measurements including concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in air, as well as aerosols, trace metals and organics. The PPAO facilitates quantification of air-sea gas transport by using state-of-the-art eddy covariance

OBSERVATORY ADDS AN ATMOSPHERIC DIMENSION

The Penlee Point Atmospheric Observatory (PPAO) was established in 2014 on the south west coast of the UK, close to two existing long-term marine observation and measuring stations at E1 and L4 as part of the Western Channel Observatory (WCO).

techniques; it is very suitable for long-term, high temporal resolution measurements of air-sea exchange in shelf regions. Additionally the PPAO has proven very useful in testing and comparing instruments designed to measure fluxes of CO2 and CH4 terrestrially and assess their suitability for use in obtaining air-sea flux measurements.

A first for methane measurementOne PPAO study assessed the air-sea fluxes of CO2 and CH4 in the shelf-sea of south-west England, a heterogeneous zone where, despite the importance of the coastal zone in drawing down atmospheric CO2, carbon flux estimates are uncertain. Also direct measurements of the air-sea flux of CH4 could improve our understanding of gas exchange and hence improve model predictions of future environmental changes. The PML researchers found an expected positive dependence on wind speed for air-sea CO2 fluxes and a rapid decline with the onset of summer, driven by the demise of the spring algal plankton bloom and seasonal warming. Particularly noteworthy were the first successful eddy covariance measurements of the CH4 flux for the marine environment. They showed a higher flux when the wind is from Plymouth Sound than when from the open water and greater CH4

emissions from open water when the tide is on the rise, possibly indicating a CH4 source from the adjacent estuary. The proven approach will be immensely useful in planning future open-ocean applications.

PPAO detects pollution complianceJanuary 2015 saw the new International Maritime Organisation (IMO) regulation come into force to reduce, by 10-fold, the maximum allowed sulphur content in ships’ fuel, in emission control areas such as the English Channel. Over a period between 2014 and 2015 which straddled the introduction of the regulation, atmospheric sulphur dioxide (SO2) was measured from the PPAO, so providing a before and after assessment of compliance with the new regulation. SO2 measured from the relatively clean Atlantic to the south-west was generally low and fluctuated over a daily period, consistent with a natural oxidation of dimethyl sulphide. Winds from the south-east, however, brought a different picture showing higher levels and more variability of SO2 due to contributions from passing ships. Over the 1.5 year study the SO2 levels showed a 3-fold reduction indicating that there was a high level (>95%) of compliance with the new regulation and that about 70% of ships were emitting SO2 below the new cap in 2014.

The PPAO is ideally located to

receive air samples from Northern Europe and

the less polluted Atlantic sources

2

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015JC011427/abstract

http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/16/5745/2016/


http://www.westernchannelobservatory.org.uk/penlee/

http://www.westernchannelobservatory.org.uk/penlee/



IMPACTS & SERVICES

Wind farms continue to proliferate as one option which could satisfy increasing energy needs and the call to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but could be a source of conflict between different stakeholder groups, depending on their location. PML’s Socio-economic group has undertaken a number of public perception studies over recent years to establish how people view Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) and whether they see them as a threat, asset or indeed neutral addition to the space in which they operate. Most recently they have turned their attention to the sea angler community which comprises 884,000 participants contributing £2.1 billion to the UK economy. Competition between OWFs and sea anglers may be positive (e.g. the provision of artificial reefs) or negative (e.g. competition for sea space) but no attempt has been made to document the anglers’ opinions. The study showed that anglers appear to be favourable to OWFs and some have utilised them for recreational purposes. But opinions were mixed when it came to how OWFs affected their angling experience and there was no evidence, positive or negative, that any future OWF would affect their angling behaviour. However, one aspect the study highlighted was that anglers felt they were both poorly informed and inadequately consulted about potential OWF developments that might affect them.

FISHING FOR OPINIONS

IMPACTS & SERVICES

The global ocean links everyone on our planet and provides goods and services from food and energy to much of the oxygen in the air we breathe. As global human population grows our demands on the sea and impacts from our use of it also increase. PML brings together expertise from across the range of its scientists to address questions on how we are affecting our seas and most importantly how we might manage them into the future to maintain the goods and services they provide, while ensuring the ocean continues as a thriving natural environment.

Globally ocean assets have an

estimated valueof more than$24 trillion


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16307618


IMPACTS & SERVICES

New energy technologies might address the requirement to reduce reliance on carbon-based fuels, and hence greenhouse gases but often overlook other impacts on ecosystems throughout their lifecycles. Now there is recognition that such developments should be brought together if a truly secure and sustainable future is to be achieved. PML social scientists, working with colleagues from the universities of Southampton, Leeds, East Anglia and Aberdeen, and Imperial College London, have considered our current understanding of the implications of energy systems for ecosystems and drawn conclusions that should inform future research

and policy decisions. In essence they suggest that a consistent assessment framework, allowing for cross-comparison be developed that considers the ecosystem service impacts of large-scale shifts towards low carbon energy infrastructure. In order to achieve this they set out a number of research challenges that need to be addressed, including:

• Lifecycle analyses of individual energy systems that concentrate on a few environmental impacts but seldom include implications for ecosystem service provision.

• Energy system models that focus on greenhouse gas emissions, but say little about ecosystem service impacts or how these manifest outside of the focal country.

• The recognition that there is increasing displacement of production from consumption locations. This neglects consideration of ecosystem impact where the energy demand is remote from the location of impact.

• The mismatch between macro-level analysis of global energy systems and the high spatial resolution relevant for most ecosystem services.

• The need to integrate research from a number of disciplines including ecology, energy modelling, vulnerability and adaptation.

ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Contemporary threats to marine biodiversity, including unsustainable fishing, pollution and climate change, are likely to cause unpredictable changes in the provision of ecosystem services (ES). ES are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being. Valuation of biodiversity and ES is recognised as a useful, however contentious, tool for conservation and management in the terrestrial environment. Historically biodiversity, conservation and resource management have been considered separately and if included at all, it has often been specifically the value of target fisheries, for example, with wider less tangible, ES being ignored. But, in the face of accelerating loss of marine biodiversity, and hence the ES it supports, PML socio-economists and colleagues from the British Antarctic Survey and The Pacific Community propose a new approach following investigations using three test case areas: the tropical Pacific, the Southern Ocean and UK coastal waters. Their approach couples hydrological, ecological and fisheries models with economic models and decision support tools; considers trade-offs in decision making; uses a common terminology to increase understanding and bridge the divide between resource management and biodiversity conservation; and embeds ES valuation and biodiversity in management frameworks, to reflect the key role played by biodiversity in sustaining ecosystem value.

Human litter is a ubiquitous problem and one that is especially evident along our beaches, where the

combined effects of human activities, wind and waves accumulate litter in a visually obvious way along the strandline. Organized beach cleans such as those arranged

by the Marine Conservation Society, whereby volunteers give their time to pick litter

from beaches, obviously have an immediate benefit for the

local environment and help to raise awareness of beach litter. But

are there other benefits? PML and colleagues at Plymouth

University carried out an exercise comparing different coastal activities to explore the potential broader

benefits. Three activities: walking along a beach, rock-pooling and

litter picking were compared. While all participants reported being satisfied with their experience and felt it to be

meaningful leading to intent to engage in more pro-environmental

behaviours, there was a difference however, with beach cleaners perceiving the environment as less ‘restorative’, but the activity more meaningful than those engaged in other activities.

LITTER PICKING WITH BENEFITS

The development of tools and policies to address the challenges set by climate change and the growing understanding and ability to assess the provision and importance of ecosystem services have progressed in parallel.

VALUING BIODIVERSITY – USEFUL FOR MANAGEMENT?


IMPACTS & SERVICES

http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013916516649412




IMPACTS & SERVICESIMPACTS & SERVICES

33

In 2010, for example, an estimated 4.8 and 12.7 million MT are believed to have entered the ocean from terrestrial sources. Yet only 269,000 MT of plastics are estimated to float at or near the ocean surface and, even allowing for 50% sinking out of sampling range, the amount of buoyant plastic is only around 1-10% of what it should be – so where has the ‘missing plastic’ gone? Scientists from PML and the University of Exeter have drawn together information from their own research and that of others to try to unravel the conundrum. Many surveys have concentrated on the plastics that can be seen, the so-called macroplastics, but have largely neglected the micro- and nano-plastics, which are often too small to be collected in samples but are available to marine life.They conclude that biological interactions are responsible for the ‘missing’ plastics, especially those that fall within the micro and nano-size scales. As plastics in all size categories are hazardous to wildlife, it is crucial to develop better tools to identify impacted or vulnerable areas and species. The research team’s conclusions led them to formulate three hypotheses that should guide future research (see right).

Previous research, centred on PML, has demonstrated that zooplankton can ingest microplastics, the tiny fragments that are now ubiquitous across the world ocean.

More recently PML scientists working with colleagues at the University of Exeter and in Norway have shown that these particles can be egested within the faecal pellets produced by the animals, so establishing that faecal pellets, which already are known to carry anthropogenic pollutants, are an effective vector transporting microplastics down through the water column, where they may become available to seabed dwelling organisms. Plastics also affect the ‘behaviour’ of the faecal pellets, making them lighter in weight and thus slower

to sink. The scientists estimate that for the average ocean depth of around 3.5km, polystyrene-containing faecal pellets might take an additional 53 days to sink through the water column. This additional time spent sinking leaves the pellets open to fragmentation and also gives other animals more opportunity to consume them. Further observations revealed how these plastic particles can then move up food chains. One species of copepod, Calanus helgolandicus, eats the faecal pellets of another species, C.typicus, consuming the contained plastics at the same time. Experiments leading to these findings were carried out on samples obtained from the Western Channel Observatory L4 station.

PLASTICS, POOP AND PLANKTON

Biological interactions with plastics close to sources of microplastic pollutants

Microplastics accumulate within the marine food web, including commercially exploited species of fish and shellfish destined for human consumption

Organisms such as pelagic mesozooplankton (0.2-20mm) and fish inhabiting the intermediate depths of the sea facilitate the sequestration of microplastic to deeper waters and marine sediments.

269,000 MTof plastics are

estimated to float ator near the ocean

surface

50% ofplastics sink out

of sampling range

WHERE HAS ALL THE PLASTIC GONE?

Of the 2.6 billion metric tonnes (MT) of plastics produced globally over the last decade large amounts are known to end up in our oceans.

Between 5m and 13m tonnes

of plastic enter the ocean each year


Teeth whitening toothpaste

Fibres from fleeceMicrobeads

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b05905

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.1297/epdf


IMPACTS & SERVICES IMPACTS & SERVICES

Before these POMs are initiated, impacts, including cost benefit analysis (CBA) have to be assessed. CBA may not be able to assign a monetary value to all effects of these measures but at least they have to be listed and acknowledged. Carrying out such assessments requires an interdisciplinary approach between natural and social scientists using economic analysis to evaluate outputs from ecological analyses designed to determine the effects of such management measures. Using CBA does have its challenges however, not least being lack of knowledge on the links between potential measures, improvement of marine ecosystems and corresponding economic and social value. In order to add to existing guidance on the application of CBAs to marine ecosystems for the MSFD, a PML-led group compared existing environmental CBA application from three member States: Finland, the UK and Spain. Each case study takes a different approach reflecting local conditions, accessible data and

the nature of the descriptors being studied: to make them comparable a six-step process was followed. This allowed for systematic interrogation of the strengths and challenges of each approach. It found that challenges indeed arise in valuing the physical impacts in economic terms, and made recommendations including: the need to further develop the CBA approach to better integrate the ecosystem services approach with environmental valuation techniques. Cost effective analysisis recommended where measurement of benefits in an environmental approach is difficult, and the potential of applying multi-criteria analysis, perhaps in conjunction with expert elicitation, which brings together scientific consensus, is also suggested. Finally the use of modelling where models and data exist, or where new models can be constructed, is also recommended as a means of providing cost and benefit estimates, and for predicting future ecosystem service provision.

MANAGING INTRODUCTIONS MAY COST LESS THAN INCREASED FUEL

Biofouling is the gradual accumulation of organisms such as algae and barnacles, including non-indigenous species (NIS) on man-made, sub-sea structures including ships’ hulls.

SIX-STEP COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT OF MSFD POMS

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires that Member States achieve ‘Good Environmental Status’ (GES) by 2020 through Programmes of Measures (PoMs) based on environmental targets and indicators.


The Centre for Marine Biofouling and Corrosion at PML Applications Ltd

has been supporting hull cleaning technology developers during R&D

stages, providing environmental policy guidance and assisting in the UK

approvals process. Field tests and product evaluations of hull cleaning technologies are

also planned for next year.

These accumulations increase hull drag, resulting in higher fuel consumption and hence cost to ship operators which may be as high as 40%-80% of total fuel used! Untreated ballast water discharge is a second source of NIS introductions which are predicted to rise by 15%-30% by mid-century, due to climate and other anthropogenic changes. Apart from any economic effects, NIS can have serious impacts on native ecosystems and are potentially harmful to human health. Various international and domestic management regulations and guidelines have been, or are about to be introduced to reduce such impacts, but they add cost to operating ships. Estimates suggest that the cost of NIS mitigation may represent between 1.6% and 4% of annual operational costs for a ship operating in European seas and the cost is proportionally higher for smaller vessels.

Balancing mitigation costs against the cost of higher fuel consumption is a concern for ship operators, but preliminary PML-led analysis indicates that mitigation may work in favour of ship operators. Based on the limited data available, the scientists concluded that differences in life-history traits, including growth rate and pattern, elastic modulus, salinity range tolerance and their resistance to antifouling coatings and pollution could allow some NIS to potentially exert a greater influence on hull drag compared to native fouling species, leading to higher fuel consumption and greater costs. If further work supports this scenario, the cost of NIS mitigation might be smaller than the cost of higher fuel consumption. Although, the researchers acknowledge, there is very little data to work with, the implications of the conclusions are potentially very significant and deserve further investigation.

http://www.pml-applications.co.uk/



http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fmars.2016.00192/full


IMPACTS & SERVICES IMPACTS & SERVICES

On the one hand they may lead to oxygen-depleting eutrophication or harmful algal blooms (HABS) that may be toxic to other organisms and humans. On the other hand they can be biotechnologically beneficial as a source of bulk and speciality chemicals, such as biofuels, if the lipids they contain can be obtained at low cost. Finding naturally occurring lytic agents, which break open the cells by disrupting cell membranes, to reduce threats or to release any useful molecules is now of great interest. Many bacterial species are known to release such algae-lysing agents but very few of these compounds have been characterised in any detail, and most show limited activity against the microalgae. As part of an on-going investigation of potential marine resources for biotechnology

applications, sea water samples from the Western Channel Observatory L4 site were screened for algal-lysing bacteria and viruses of use in bioprocessing and bioremediation. Two bacterial strains, which produce algicidal compounds, were isolated from the samples. Both showed activity towards three algal species but most strongly to Skeletonema sp., an alga found at L4. Excessive growth of Skeletonema sp. might lead to nutrient depletion which could be detrimental to the alga, while lysing the algal cells would release further nutrients enabling proliferation of bacteria. The scientists suspect that the bacterial strains may have evolved toxic compounds targeted at Skeletonema sp. for their survival, but which may have biotechnology applications useful to society.

BACTERIAL ALGICIDE UNLOCKS BIOTECHNOLOGY POTENTIALBloom-forming marine micro-algae can be both environmentally hazardous and economically beneficial.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a polyester produced by some microorganisms and used as a form of energy storage during times of physiological stress, such as when nutrients are limited. It is of interest to society as a potential source of biodegradable plastics and has potential for deriving bio oils. PML has long experience in investigating the properties of algae and other microbes for bioproducts. Now working with colleagues from Vienna and the University of Bath, PML has been able to convert a PHB producing cyanobacteria, Synechocystis, through hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) into propylene, a valuable precursor for the polymer industry, and a crude bio-oil suitable for advanced biofuel production. HTL has the advantages of being able to convert the whole biomass, not just the contained lipids; it works when high water loadings are present so reducing the amount of drying that is needed; and it produces a wide variety of compounds of interest. The procedure developed has the advantage over others in producing low-nitrogen bio-fuels, so enabling the upgrading of the resulting crude oil in refineries, and is ideal for the conversion of fast growing protein producing algae and a cyanobacterium.

BIO-FUEL AND PROPYLENE FROM MICROBES

Bioremediation of waste (BW), removing wastes from ecosystems through storage, burial and recycling, is a key ecosystem service. The mussel Mytilus edulis as a filter feeder is an important contributor to this service and is actively used around fish farms, for example, where they are used to clean up. Waste can be defined as materials that have no immediate use that may be discharged to the environment from a variety of sources. Mussels are able to bioremediate many of these including excess phytoplankton resulting from eutrophication of coastal waters, toxic products of plankton, highly carcinogenic and mutagenic particles from burnt fossil fuels, heavy metals, microplastics, nanoparticles and pharmaceuticals. Although it has not been possible to place a financial value on mussels’ BW service, there is no doubt that it is an important contributor. Hence anything that reduces their ability to provide this service is likely to have impacts on water quality and knock-on effects to other ecosystem processes, food supply, recreation and tourism. Changes in pH due to ocean acidification (OA) have been shown to reduce mussel growth and filtration rate, with projections indicating that by 2100 the biomass of M.edulis may be reduced by 50%. In a study that brought together current knowledge of the resultant effect of OA on waste bioremediation PML socio-economists conclude that the effects of OA could be a major issue in the future.

Sea water samples from L4 are screened for

potential biotech applications

Skeletonema sp

WASTING MUSSELS





PERFORMANCE

PERFORMANCE PML’s excellent reputation is built upon its ability to perform to a high standard in its science outputs, underpinned by state-of-the-art computational facilities, other infrastructure and a dedicated support team.

Whilst PML’s current financial year end is 31 March 2017, indications are that turnover for the year will be of the order of £10M. PML scientists have been successful through the course of 2016 in securing major new competitive research contracts covering a raft of research topics, including the Arctic, aquaculture, carbon dioxide capture and storage, climate change, marine natural capital, ocean colour and plastics. In addition to these projects, PML scientists have partnered with NERC Research Centres – the British Antarctic Survey, the British Geological Survey, the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, and the National Oceanography Centre – and others in

SUCCESS


PML’s world-class science is reflected

in the number, diversity and quality

of its scientific publications

Closely linked, financial and scientific performance are two of the key measures of success of a research organization.

developing NERC funded, long-term, multi-centre National Capability programmes as follows:

• The North Atlantic climate system integrated study (ACSIS)

• Land ocean carbon transfer (LOCATE)• Ocean Regulation of Climate by Heat

and Carbon Sequestration and Transports (ORCHESTRA)

• UK Earth System Modelling (UKESM)

During the year the emergence of Official Development Assistance (ODA) funding streams through the Research Council UK Global Challenges Research Fund, and other government departments, which enables the UK government to support cutting-edge research that addresses challenges faced by developing countries, has provided opportunities for PML to build upon existing, and establish new, partnerships across the globe. PML ODA projects, which are due to


PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

start imminently include elements of capacity building within the relevant developing country, reflecting PML’s education and learning ethos.

PML aims to contribute to marine science education in the UK and elsewhere, and especially to the training of the next generation of marine scientists. Attracting high quality students and other visiting researchers reflects well on PML’s scientific reputation. Following the award of a prestigious Royal Society Newton International Fellowship, Dr Rafael Rasse chose to undertake his studies at PML, commencing his research in March

2016. In October seven new PhD students were welcomed to PML; they are pursuing research into topics ranging from estuarine cycling of oxygenated volatile organic compounds to integrating marine ecosystem services into macroeconomic modelling. For the first time PML was delighted to offer two new Modern Apprenticeships, starting in September 2016 for a two year period, and were successful in obtaining funding to support these from the Lloyd’s Register Foundation. On a wider educational front PML staff were involved in the production of educational resources, such as Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs), and participated in STEM events and career fairs, encouraging and enthusing young people about marine research.

Scientific publications are the most tangible indicator of excellence for a research organization and, in the course of the year, PML scientists published a total of 152 peer-reviewed papers. One of our scientists’ papers entitled “Solutions for ecosystem level protection of ocean systems under climate change” is still (at the time of writing) in the top 5% of all research outputs scored by Altmetric – a research tool used by publishers of scientific journals to measure the outcome and impact of publications.

Engagement with our many stakeholders to provide input into our research planning, to share the conclusions and results of our research and to promote our science, is an essential part of PML’s remit. Such activities take many forms, ranging from digital media to events. In March PML launched “Ocean Matters” – its quarterly e-newsletter, bringing together many highlights of PML, and its trading subsidiary PML Applications’, work, to a wide audience. Social media channels continue to prove popular in engaging others

COMMUNICATION & STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

EDUCATION & LEARNING

In the course of the year, PML

scientists published a total of 152 peer-reviewed

papers

PUBLICATIONS

The next generation - PML PhD students

Specialist workshops

Spreading the word at international meetings

Meeting key stakeholders at the House of Lords

http://pml.ac.uk/Research/Publications


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in PML’s research and wider marine science issues. Over the calendar year PML’s Twitter following increased by 48%. Media coverage also showed a significant increase of 32%, with PML’s research attracting reports in local, national and international outlets. In June PML hosted an event at the House of Lords to communicate its research to a wide range of interested parties from policy makers to business. Guest of honour was Sir Mark Walport FRS, FRCP, FRCPath, FMedSci, the Government Chief Scientific Adviser, and now Chief Executive Designate of UK Research & Innovation, who spoke of the significance of PML’s research. Engagement with parliament is an important aspect of PML’s communication strategy. During the year PML contributed comprehensive evidence to the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee’s inquiry into “Microplastics in the Marine Eenvironment”, and similarly into the Science & Technology Committee’s inquiries into “Science Communication” and “Leaving the EU:

Implications and Opportunities for Science and Research”. In addition, PML scientists provided input into the Parliamentary Office of Science & Technology’s (POST) POSTNote on “Marine Microplastic Pollution”, and one of PML’s scientists, Dr Penelope Lindeque, gave a presentation to the Parliamentary & Scientific Committee on “What are we going to do about plastics?” to raise awareness of the threat microplastics pose to the marine environment. Further afield, policy maker and stakeholder engagement at an international level was achieved through PML’s participation at the 22nd Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Marrakech, where PML led or co-led a number of side events including “Climate Readiness – ocean based adaptation and mitigation”, and where there was recognition from other countries of the pivotal role that PML has played in raising the profile of the ocean in the climate change debate.

Strong partnerships are a cornerstone of any scientific organization’s success, and the year has seen PML engaging in new collaborations whilst enhancing existing relationships. One such exciting new development was the launch of the Satellite Applications Catapult South West Centre of Excellence, where PML is partnering various universities, the Met Office and other bodies with the aim of engaging with industrial organizations who can make use of satellite information. In April the National Partnership for Ocean Prediction (NPOP) was announced, comprising PML, the Met Office, the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science and the National Oceanography Centre, with its aim to provide an improved understanding and prediction of many aspects of the marine environment, ranging from fisheries to marine renewable energy. Further afield PML has been strengthening its involvement in the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), particularly as scientific research in support of developing countries gains momentum.

Access to cutting-edge facilities is crucial to undertaking leading research. During the year PML installed a new high performance computing cluster in its state-of-the-art server room, enabling PML’s world-leading marine ecosystem modelling group to access greater computational capacity to more fully understand the marine environment and the future challenges it faces. In May the joint PML and University of Exeter Environmental Single Cell Genomics Facility, funded by the Natural Environment Research Council and the Wolfson Foundation, was opened at PML which will enable genomic characteristics of individual cells to be studied without the usual requirement to culture and grow them. Housed in an ultra-clean room, the facility includes cutting-edge cell sorting equipment, liquid handling robotics and molecular biology analysis tools and is the first of its kind in the UK.

FACILITIES

PARTNERS


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MARCH€7m – Tools for Assessmentand Planning of Aquaculture

Sustainability (TAPAS) begins. PML’scontribution to the project will focus around

large-scale ecosystem models.

JANUARYRemote sensing pinpoints

shark hotspots at ocean fronts.

Latest EU Sentinel satellite launched. The launch of the Sentinel 3 OLCI satellite by

ESA will allow PML scientists to develop and maintain ways to assess oceanic changes.

FEBRUARY

APRILNational Partnership for

Ocean Prediction (NPOP) established.“The partnership will combine PML’s

world-class modelling expertise with the knowledge and specialism of the Met Office,

CEFAS and NOC”.


PERFORMANCE

HIGHLIGHTS OF 2016

In October Malcolm Woodward, a nutrient chemist at PML for the last 35 years, was awarded an Honorary Life Membership of the Challenger Society in recognition of his major contribution over many years to underpinning the work of the wider UK marine science community. At the start of her career, PML student Alice Wilson McNeal was presented in February with the P1 Marine Foundation National Student Award 2015 for her project “Plankton eating plastic: worth worrying about?” Finally, PML, together with its trading subsidiary, PML Applications Ltd, has been pursuing ISO9001:2015 accreditation. Following an initial assessment in November by Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance indications are for a very positive outcome.

AWARDSFOR ALLIn May staff bid

a fond farewell to PML’s Deputy Chief Executive and Director of Science, Prof. Manuel Barange, who took up the role of Director of the Fisheries and

Aquaculture Policy and Resources Division at the UN Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Rome. The PML Director of Science role has since been more than ably performed by Prof. Icarus Allen, who formerly led PML’s world-renowned marine ecosystem modelling group. The progression of PML staff to key roles in other organizations is a reflection of their quality and enhances PML’s international reputation for excellent science. Further recognition of the measure of PML’s scientists comes in many ways, with appointments and invitations onto various expert groups or advisory bodies being examples. In August the Government Office for Science established a Foresight Project on the Future of the Sea to consider important future trends, challenges and opportunities for the UK from the sea, and PML’s Prof. Melanie Austen was appointed to its Expert Advisory Group. Dr Carol Turley, who has been pivotal in raising awareness of ocean acidification and its potential impacts, was awarded a Knowledge Exchange Open Fellowship to maximise science-to-policy outcomes from NERC-funded OA research.

PEOPLE

Prof. Icarus Allen

Malcolm Woodward

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Satellites_aid_shark_conservation

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/PML_scientists_to_use_latest_EU_Sentinel_satellite

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/%E2%82%AC7_million_project_to_support_sustainable_growth_i

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Science_partnership_to_improve_prediction_of_marin

MAYEnvironmental Single Cell

Genomics (eSCG) facility opens.This joint facility brings together the strengthsof PML and University of Exeter in a world-class

laboratory which enables the study ofgenomes of any microbe, even those that

cannot be cultured in a laboratory.

JUNEExplorer and film-maker

James Cameron welcomed asPML’s first patron by PML Board

Chairman Sir James-Burnell-Nugent.

PML embarks on two EuropeanSpace Agency (ESA)-funded projects. The first will use data collected on theannual Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT)cruise to validate the accuracy and quality of satellites orbiting overhead. The second aims to ensure the highest quality of optical sensors used for such ground-truthing.

SEPTEMBERPML scientists estimate

overlooked carbon source to deeper waters. This may be more than equal to the better known biological carbon pump

and helps to explain how nutrients get into this vast ecosystem.

OCTOBERLloyd’s Register Foundation

Apprentices join PML. Rebecca May andOban Jones have taken the first step on their

career ladders that will see them learning many ofthe skills required of marine technicians, includingsea-going fieldwork, technology development and

analytical laboratory techniques.

AUGUSTPlastic microbead ban

recommendation. PML scientists fed intothe report, ‘Environmental impact of microplastics’,based on research carried out at PML looking into

impacts on organisms at the bases of marinefood chains. BBC ‘Weather World’ takes trip to

Western Channel Observatory (WCO).

JULY

NOVEMBERPML team making a differenceat COP. Over the last eight annualUNFCCC Conference of the Parties

(COPs) PML has become an establishedcontributor through organizing and

presenting at COP events and engaging at exhibition stands, bringing awareness of oceanacidification and related stressors on the ocean

to international delegates, including policy makers.

DECEMBERRecord for Quest. RV Plymouth Quest’s

last research trip of the year to the WesternChannel Observatory L4 sampling station marked

a record 50 trips in the last 12 months. To achieve asuccess rate in sampling 50 out of a possible 51 timesis phenomenal and a real testament to the dedicationof the crew and scientists who go out in all weathers

in the name of science.


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PERFORMANCE

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/New_facility_to_reveal_the_secrets_of_marine_micro

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Explorer_and_Film-maker_James_Cameron_to_be_first

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Helping_satellites_to_better_observe_our_oceans

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Microplastics_tiny_fragments_big_problem

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Combining_satellites_and_Argo_floats_to_quantify_e

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Building_for_the_future_of_our_oceans_through_insp

http://www.pml.ac.uk/News/Plymouth_Quest_breaks_a_record


PROJECTSPROJECTS

There are currently over one hundred “live” Competitive Research projects, a number of which have multiple sub-projects; four cross-Centre National Capability (NC) projects; and the single centre NC programme which supports the Western Channel Observatory, the NERC Modelling NC and the Atlantic

CONTINUING SUCCESS IN RESEARCH FUNDING

PML continues to be successful in attracting research funding across the breadth of its marine science interests.

Meridional Transect. The global reputation of PML for research excellence is reflected in its success in winning funding for ongoing, as well as new projects which address the threats faced by the ocean and the opportunities it has to offer. New projects begun in 2016 (funding agencies in italics) include:

• SONIC – Shortcuts in the Oceanic Nitrogen Cycle: Fluxes & Microbial Pathways of Nitrogen Remineralization in the Ocean’s Twilight Zone. NERC

• PALM-UK – Pilot Algal Lipid Manufacturing in the UK. BBSRC

• Bayesian Monitoring Design for CCS. Norwegian CCS R&D programme

• STEMM-CCS – Strategies for Environmental Monitoring of Marine Carbon Capture and Storage. EU

• TAPAS – Tools for Assessment and Planning of Aquaculture Sustainability. EU

• CERES – Climate change & European RESources. EU

• TOSCA – Towards OperationalSize-class Assimilation. EU

• NPEC – New Plastics Economy Mobilisation. People’s Postcode Lottery

• FRM4SOC – Fiducial Reference Measurements for Satellite Ocean Colour. ESA

• AMT4SentinelFRM. ESA

• Revealing a mechanistic understanding of the role of viruses and host nutrient status in modulating CO2 fixation in key marine phototrophs. NERC

• CoastWEB – Valuing the contribution which COASTal habitats make to human health and WEllBeing, with a focus on the alleviation of natural hazards. NERC

• InSUre – Integrated Service for Surveillance of illegal Unlicensed & Unreported fishing. ESA

• Study on the economic benefits of Marine Protected Areas. EU

• NABAMA – Novel Agricultural Bioactives from Microalgae. Innovate UK Newton Fund

• EOMORES – Earth Observation-Based Sevices for Monitoring & Reporting of Ecological Status. EU

• Danubius RI – the international centre for advanced studies on river-sea systems. EU

• International Partnerships Programme Malaysia Technical call: Marine Pollution – Wider Scale Maritime Pollution Analysis. UK Space Agency

• ShellEye Demo – Satellite monitoring for shellfish and finfish aquaculture: Domain expanded; Enhanced resolution; Marine insurance; Other species. BBSRC/NERC

• NERC– funded Long-Term Multi-Centre National Capability projects:

• UK Earth System Modelling (UKESM)• Ocean regulation of climate through

heath and carbon sequestration and transports (ORCHESTRA)

• The North Atlantic climate system integrated study (ACSIS)

• Land ocean carbon transfer (LOCATE)


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