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Policy Guidelines for ReducingVehicle Emissions in Asia

Vehicle EmissionsStandards andInspection andMaintenance

Asian Development Bank 2003All rights reserved

This publication was prepared by staff of the Asian Development Bank. Thefindings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in it do not necessarilyrepresent the views of ADB or those of its member governments. ADB does notguarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts noresponsibility whatsoever for any consequences of their use.

The term “country” does not imply any judgment by ADB as to the legal or otherstatus of any territorial entity.

Publication Stock No. 110602

Published by the Asian Development BankP.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines

Preface iv

Abbreviations vi

Executive summary vii

Introduction 1

Integrated strategies to reduce vehicle emissions 3

Vehicle emissions standards 7

Inspection and maintenance (I/M) 13I/M structure 14Institutional and administrative set-up 16Technical issues 18Public participation in I/M 24Quality assurance audit 25Roadside testing programs 26The “M” in I/M 28

Alternative approaches to reduce in-use vehicleemissions 31

Regional cooperation 33

Appendix on recent European Union emissions standards 35

Notes 39

Contents

POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAiv

Concerned with the increasing levels of air pollution caused by

motor vehicles in Asia’s major cities, Asian Development Bank

initiated a project on Reducing Vehicle Emissions in November

2000. The project collected and disseminated information on

policies to reduce vehicle emissions through the Reducing Ve-

hicle Emissions in Asia website (http://www.adb.org/vehicle-

emissions), an information portal on international, regional, na-

tional and city level experiences in reducing vehicle emissions.

Through five workshops, the project provided a venue for the

sharing of experiences between countries in Asia and the intro-

duction of best practices on reducing vehicle emissions from

other regions—

� Fuel Quality, Alternative Fuels, and Advanced Vehicle

Technology held on 2–4 May 2001 in New Delhi, India,

� Reducing Emissions from Two and Three Wheelers held

on 5–7 September 2001 in Hanoi, Viet Nam,

� Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance

held on 7–9 November 2001 in Chongqing, PRC,

� Transport Planning, Demand Management and Air

Quality held on 26–27 February 2002 in Manila, Philip-

pines, and

� Concluding Workshop on Reducing Vehicle Emissions

held on 28 February–1 March 2002 in Manila, Philippines.

The project supported the formation of multi-sector action

plan groups and the formulation of three action plans—”Inte-

grated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy for Greater Jakarta,

Indonesia,” “Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance

in Chongqing, People’s Republic of China,” and “Integrated Ac-

tion Plan to Reduce Vehicle Emissions in Viet Nam.” It provided

Preface

VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE v

resources for two studies—“Study on Air Quality in Jakarta, Indo-

nesia: Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy

Options” and “Pricing and Infrastructure Costing for Supply and

Distribution of CNG and ULSD to the Transport Sector in Mumbai,

India.”

The Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia con-

sist of five main books with these titles:

� Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia

� Cleaner Fuels

� Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers

� Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Mainte-

nance

� Transport Planning and Traffic Management for Better Air

Quality

These books come with a common appendix on the Adverse

Health and Environmental Effects from Vehicle Emissions printed

as a separate book to clearly demonstrate the health and envi-

ronmental impacts caused by air pollution from vehicles.

These policy guidelines, which are based on the five workshops

organized by the project, provide an in-depth analysis of the dif-

ferent components of an integrated strategy to reduce pollution

from vehicles in Asia. Policymakers in Asia will have to combine

the general principles outlined in the policy guidelines with their

knowledge of the local situation in their countries and cities to

arrive at effective strategies.

The Reducing Vehicle Emissions project produced its final re-

port in a CD-ROM containing the workshop presentations, action

plans, studies, and policy guidelines.

POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAvi

ADB Asian Development Bank

CO carbon monoxide

ECE Economic Commission for Europe

EU European Union

HC hydrocarbon

I/M inspection and maintenance

NGO nongovernment organization

NOx

nitrogen oxides

OBD onboard diagnostic system

PM particulate matter

RSD remote sensing device

UN United Nations

US United States

US EPA US Environmental Protection Agency

WP29 Working Party 29

Abbreviations

VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE vii

Air quality problems in Asian cities are increasingly caused or

exacerbated by emissions from the growing number of motor

vehicles. Appropriate vehicle emissions standards for new and

in-use vehicles and a well-designed and op-

erated inspection and maintenance (I/M)

program are important elements of an over-

all strategy to reduce vehicle emissions and

air pollution.

As part of its Regional Technical Assis-

tance (RETA) project to reduce motor vehicle

air pollution, Asian Development Bank

(ADB) organized a workshop on vehicle

emissions standards and strengthening ve-

hicle inspection and maintenance pro-

grams. The workshop was held in

Chongqing, People’s Republic of China on 7–9 November 2001.

The Policy Guidelines on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspec-

tion and Maintenance summarize the most important policy con-

clusions and recommendations from the workshop.

In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be

guided by the following principles:

� New vehicle standards must be closely linked to fuel qual-

ity requirements, as more advanced technologies are pre-

cluded or diminished by certain fuel parameters such as

lead in gasoline or high sulfur levels in gasoline or diesel.

� If the air pollution problem is serious, as it is in most major

Asian cities, policymakers should strongly consider jump-

ing forward to the most stringent standards possible after

examining what quality of fuel could be made available.

Executive summary

New vehicle standards must be

closely linked to fuel quality

requirements, as more advanced

technologies are precluded or

diminished by certain fuel parameters

such as lead in gasoline or high sulfur

levels in gasoline or diesel

POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAviii

� Short- and long-term plans for adopting vehicle and fuel

standards should be developed so that the vehicle and

fuels industries have sufficient time to adapt. The long-term

goal for each country in Asia should be parity with Euro-

pean new vehicle and fuel standards by 2010 at the latest.

Vehicles complying with 2010 United States standards

should also be acceptable.

� An active dialogue between the motor and oil industries

should be strongly encouraged to ensure that vehicle tech-

nologies and available fuels are closely linked.

� As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle stan-

dards for new models should also be tightened and these

in turn should form the basis for routine vehicle inspec-

tions. Onboard diagnostic systems (OBD) linked to new ve-

hicle standards can also play a critical role in controlling

in-use vehicle emissions.

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VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ix

Combustion-powered vehicles naturally tend to deteriorate

with age and usage, and as a result, emission levels can rise sig-

nificantly. Good maintenance is required to keep emission levels

at or near design levels. Such maintenance is not always per-

formed or performed properly. Targeted I/M programs, however,

can identify problem vehicles and assure their repair, thereby

contributing substantially to lower emissions and improved air

quality. In introducing I/M programs, certain overriding principles

have emerged which should guide policymakers in developing

and implementing such programs:

� I/M program designs should be comprehensive and must

address a variety of important aspects from inception, in-

cluding:

– There must be a well-thought out public awareness

campaign that explains the public health need for the

I/M program, the potential benefits and how the pro-

gram works.

– Roadside apprehension or remote sensing programs to

intercept vehicles that slip through the system or have

problems in between periodic tests must be included.

– Different pollutants of concern should be carefully ac-

counted for in the program design. These include par-

ticulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and smoke

from diesel-fuelled vehicles; and carbon monoxide (CO),

hydrocarbon (HC) and NOx from gasoline-fuelled vehicles.

– An effective enforcement mechanism to assure motor-

ist participation in the program is essential for success.

In areas where motor vehicle registration requirements

are routinely and effectively enforced, registration-

based I/M enforcement systems have been very effec-

tive.

– Policies should be developed to prevent, root out and

penalize any corruption that might creep into the sys-

tem.

– Sufficient flexibility should be built in to allow variations

in inspection frequency for vehicles with different mile-

POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAx

age accumulation rates and with rela-

tively durable emission control systems.

– Quality assurance including covert

and overt auditing and quality control.

– The service industry must have suf-

ficient equipment to properly repair ve-

hicles. In addition, adequate training

must be made available so that the me-

chanics and technicians are sufficiently

skilled, and careful attention must be

paid to assuring that the service indus-

try has sufficient lead time to properly

equip itself.

– Referee stations are one mechanism

for resolving disputes or difficulties with individual ve-

hicles, as owners can get a second opinion and advice

about appropriate repairs. Policymakers should carefully

consider the provision of one or more referee stations

in the overall program design.

� So as not to overwhelm the service sector or create a strong

political backlash, I/M stringency should be gradually

phased in. The worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet should

fail with the periodic tightening of the in-use standards as

the service industry and maintenance practices adapt.

Inspection and maintenance (I/M)structure

� Centralized I/M systems (sometimes called “test only” sys-

tems), where the inspection and maintenance functions

are separated, have consistently been proven much more

effective than decentralized systems, where inspection and

repair are combined. It is very difficult to supervise and

audit the “test and repair” systems and to prevent corrup-

tion and poor quality control. Policymakers must resist the

adoption of programs that combine testing with repair and

The service industry must have

sufficient equipment to properly

repair vehicles. In addition, adequate

training must be made available so

that the mechanics and technicians

are sufficiently skilled, and careful

attention must be paid to assuring

that the service industry has sufficient

lead time to properly equip itself

VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE xi

those that are very unlikely to achieve significant emission

reductions.

� A careful and thorough dialogue among all relevant stake-

holders including providers, regulators, enforcers/police,

vehicle manufacturers, the driving public and media must

be facilitated at the earliest stages of program develop-

ment and subsequently maintained throughout the pro-

gram implementation.

� While governments should regulate I/M programs, the ac-

tual implementation of I/M programs is best carried out

by the private sector. Policymakers should assure that a

bidding document is carefully designed and prepared in

an open and transparent manner, and that all potential

bidders are given a fair opportunity to compete for the

final contract. Contractor selection should be based on

technical merit and ability to perform the services, and the

number of contractors selected should be kept small.

Institutional and administrative set-up� An adequate fee structure must be developed where the

affected vehicle owners pay the full costs of the I/M pro-

gram. This must include not only the cost of testing ve-

hicles, but also of auditing and oversight, roadside appre-

hension, data management, nongovernment organization

(NGO) capacity building, public awareness campaigns, and

others. Such a structure must still allow private sector op-

erators to make a sufficient profit to maintain, replace and

upgrade equipment as required.

� Where multiple ministries (e.g., Environment, Police, Trans-

port) or different levels of government (e.g., national and

local) will be involved in the program, special care must be

taken to assure a full dialogue with all appropriate minis-

tries or departments in the early stages of program design,

and full agreement with regard to specific roles and re-

sponsibilities.

As part of its Regional Technical Assistance (RETA) project to re-

duce motor vehicle air pollution, Asian Development Bank (ADB)

organized and hosted a workshop focused on vehicle emissions

standards and strengthening vehicle inspection and mainte-

nance programs. The workshop was held in Chongqing, People’s

Republic of China on 7–9 November 2001. The Policy Guidelines

on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspec-

tion and Maintenance summarize the most

important policy conclusions and recom-

mendations from the workshop.

There are three main international ap-

proaches to standards setting: European,

American and Japanese. Most countries in

the Asian region have tended toward the

European standards for new cars and

trucks, relying largely on the UN Economic

Commission for Europe (ECE).1 With re-

gard to motorcycles and scooters, how-

ever, the standards adopted by India, Thai-

land and Taipei,China are seen as the most

advanced. These standards are discussed

in a separate policy paper, the Policy Guide-

lines on Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers.2

Emissions standards exist for carbon monoxide (CO), hydro-

carbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), smoke and particulate mat-

ter (PM) from vehicles because each of these, along with second-

ary by-products such as ozone, can cause serious adverse effects

to health and the environment. Because of the growing vehicle

population and high emission rates from many of these vehicles,

Introduction

Emissions standards exist

for carbon monoxide

(CO), hydrocarbons (HC),

nitrogen oxides (NOx), smoke

and particulate matter (PM)

from vehicles because each

of these, along with

secondary by-products such

as ozone, can cause serious

adverse effects to health and

the environment

POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA2

serious air pollution and health effect problems have become in-

creasingly common phenomena in modern life.3 The adverse

health effects and environmental damage can cause substantial

economic impacts as well.

New vehicle standards are only beneficial to the degree that

they result in actual emission reductions from vehicles as they

are driven in use. To minimize the deterioration of emissions con-

trols that result from new vehicle standards and to assure that

vehicles achieve the full emission reductions that they are ca-

pable of, an in-use vehicle focus must include in-use standards

and ongoing testing programs.

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VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 3

In developing strategies to clean up vehicles, there must be a clear

understanding of the emission reductions required from all

sources to achieve healthy air quality. Depending upon the air

quality problem and the emissions contribution from vehicles,

the degree of control required will differ by location. As illustrated

in Figure 1, an initial start should be a careful assessment of air

quality and the sources that contribute most to the problem or

problems.

Where vehicles are the major culprits, a broad-based approach

will be needed to formulate and implement policies and actions

Integrated strategies toreduce vehicle emissions

Figure 1Integrated AirQualityManagementFramework

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aimed at reducing their pollution. The following groups of stake-

holders will each have an important role in the development of

appropriate policies and strategies:

� National government agencies and legislative bodies;

� Local government agencies and legislative bodies;

� Industry (vehicle producers, fuel producers, catalyst sup-

pliers, maintenance industry, and others);

� Intermediate groups which can help advocate for and

implement pollution reduction campaigns;

� End users. Within this group it is important to differentiate

between user groups such as rickshaw drivers who depend

on the affected vehicles for a living, and users who require

vehicles for personal transportation;

� Breathers.

Effective and efficient coordination mechanisms for vehicle

pollution management must be established. These mechanisms

should also clearly allocate responsibilities for specific functions

and tasks to individual agencies and organizations.

Reducing vehicle pollution will usually require

a comprehensive strategy. Generally, the

goal of a motor vehicle pollution control

program is to reduce emissions from in-

use motor vehicles to the degree rea-

sonably necessary to achieve

healthy air quality as rapidly as pos-

sible. Failing that for reasons of im-

practicality, the goal is to meet the

practical limits of effective techno-

logical, economic, and social feasibil-

ity. A comprehensive strategy to achieve

such goals includes four key components:

(i) increasingly stringent emissions standards

for new vehicles, (ii) specifications for clean fuels,

(iii) programs to assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles,

(iv) and transportation planning and demand management.

These emission reduction goals should be achieved in the most

Figure 2Elements of acomprehensivevehicle pollutioncontrol strategy


cost-effective manner available. Figure 2 illustrates these four el-

ements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy.

Air quality problems in Asian cities are often caused or exac-

erbated by emissions from the growing motor vehicles fleet. Ap-

propriate vehicle emissions standards for new and in-use vehicles

and a well-designed and operated inspection and maintenance

(I/M) program are important elements of an overall strategy to

reduce vehicle emissions and air pollution.

A well-designedand operatedinspection andmaintenance (I/M)program is animportant elementof an overallstrategy to reducevehicle emissions

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The European Union (EU) adopted catalyst-forcing

standards for new gasoline-fuelled cars in the early

1990s (so called Euro 1 standards) and have gradu-

ally tightened them in several steps: Euro 2 in 1996,

Euro 3 in 2000 and Euro 4 in 2005. Similar require-

ments were adopted for diesel cars and light and

heavy commercial vehicles.

In conjunction with the tightening of vehicle stan-

dards, fuel quality improvements were also man-

dated. In some cases, the fuels modifications are nec-

essary to allow the introduction of vehicle technolo-

gies that are required to meet the new vehicle emis-

sions standards. For example, the adoption of Euro 1

standards for gasoline vehicles requires the use of

unleaded gasoline. The adoption of Euro 2 standards

for diesel vehicles will require the use of diesel with

sulfur levels lower than 500 parts per million (ppm). Further re-

ductions in sulfur levels in both gasoline or petrol and diesel fuel

are linked with Euro 3, 4 and, for diesel trucks, Euro 5 standards

(see Table 1). In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers must

Vehicle emissionsstandards

In setting new vehicles

standards, policymakers

must appreciate the close

linkage between vehicle

standards and the resulting

technologies and fuels

requirements, and must

assure that the appropriate

fuel quality will be

available when vehicle

standards are introduced

ppm = parts per million, NA = not applicablea 10 PPM is in the late stages of Adoption by the European Unionb Heavy Duty Diesel Engines Only

Table 1European Standardsfor Gasoline andDiesel Fuel thatCoincide withGasoline- andDiesel-FuelledVehicle Standards

Gasoline Diesel

Standard Lead Sulfur (ppm) Sulfur (ppm)

Euro 1 0 NA NAEuro 2 0 500 500Euro 3 0 150 350Euro 4 0 50a 50a

Euro 5b NA NA 50a


appreciate the close linkage between vehicle standards and the

resulting technologies and fuels requirements, and must assure

that the appropriate fuel quality will be available when the ve-

hicle standards are introduced.

In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be

guided by the following principles:

� Those countries where the appropriate fuel is available can

leapfrog to the Euro 2, Euro 3 or Euro 4 standards quickly.

Depending upon the seriousness of the air pollution prob-

lem, policymakers should strongly consider jumping for-

ward to the most stringent standards possible after assur-

ing that the appropriate fuel quality would be available.

� The implementation of new vehicle emissions standards

will be facilitated if governments announce the schedule

for tightening requirements well in advance. While the

majority of Asian countries have adopted Euro 1 standards

to regulate new car and truck emissions, only a few coun-

tries have announced the time schedule for adopting sub-

sequent Euro 2, 3 and 4 standards. Policymakers should

formulate short-term and long-term plans for adopting

vehicle and fuel standards so that the vehicle and fuels in-

dustries have sufficient time to adapt.

� At the present time, many countries throughout the region

lag behind the European new vehicle standards and fuels

requirements by approximately a decade. Table 2 shows

the emissions standards for new light duty vehicles and

Table 3 shows the emissions standards for new motorcycles

in several countries in Asia. It is strongly recommended that

each country set as a goal achieving parity with Europe,

the United States (US) or Japan by 2010 at the latest.

� As a practical matter, the technology being built into cars

and trucks to comply with the US, European and Japanese

standards is very similar. Therefore, allowing compliance

with any of these current requirements may be an efficient

approach to standards setting for new vehicles for many

countries, and should be considered by policymakers.


Table 2EmissionsStandards forNew Vehicles(Light Duty)

a Entire countryb Delhi and other cities; Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai in 2001; Euro 2

in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Pune and Ahmedabad in 2003; Euro 3 to be introducedin Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad in 2005

c Gasoline vehicles under considerationd For gasoline vehiclese For diesel vehicles

Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5

� The development of new vehicle standards will require

active dialogue between the motor and oil industries to

ensure that required fuels will be available. Policymakers

should encourage such a dialogue.

� As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle stan-

dards should also be tightened and these in turn should

form the basis for routine vehicle inspections.

New vehicle standards are intended both (i) to apply when

the vehicle comes off the assembly line and (ii) to define the ve-

Country 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Bangladesh

Indiaa

Indiab

Indonesia

Malaysia

Nepal

Philippines

PRC

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Taipei,China

Thailand

Viet Namd

Viet Name

Proposed Proposed

Under discussion

Under consideration

US Tier 1 US Tier 2 for dieselc

EuropeanUnion

Hong Kong,China


97/24/EC = Directive 97/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June1997 on certain components and characteristics of two or three-wheel motor vehicles, CO= carbon monoxide, ECE R40 = Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 40 - Emissionof gaseous pollutants of motorcycles, ECE R47 = Economic Commission for EuropeRegulation 47 - Emission of gaseous pollutants of mopeds, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC= hydrocarbons, IDC = Indian Drive Cycle, NOx = nitrogen oxides, ppm = parts per million,US 40 CFR 86.410-80 = United States Code of Federal Regulations (US 40 CFR 86.410-80)emissions standard

Table 3EmissionsStandards forNew Motorcyclesin Asia

Country

Bangladesh

Cambodia

Hong Kong, China

India

Indonesia

Japan

Malaysia

Philippines

PRC

Beijing

Singapore

Sri LankaTaipei,China

Thailand

Viet Nam

Effectivity

—

currentcurrentcurrent

current

20002005 proposed

20052005200120042007 proposedcurrentcurrent2003 proposed

2003 proposed

current20032003200320012001current

currentcurrent2004, Januarycurrent

2003, July

2004, July

2004 proposed2007 proposed2004 proposed

2007 proposed2007 proposed

Vehicle Type

—

2-stroke4-stroke4-stroke

2-stroke

2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke

3-wheel gas3-wheel diesel2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2-stroke

4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-strokeMoped

2-wheel Moped3- and 4-wheelMoped

C O

3.5 g/km

4.0%4.0%13.0 g/km

8.0 g/km

2.0 g/km1.5 g/km

2.25 g/km1.0 g/km12.0 g/km8.0 g/km5.0 g/km14.4 g/km20.0 g/km8.0 g/km

13.0 g/km

6.0%4.5%4.0%4.0%1.50%1.50%12.0 g/km

6.0 g/km4.0%3.0%4.5 g/km

3.5 g/km

3.5 g/km

4.5 g/km3.5 g/km6.0 g/km

1.0 g/km3.5 g/km

HC

—

3,000 ppm2,400 ppm3.0 g/km

4.0 g/km

——

—————5.26 g/km2.93 g/km4.0 g/km

3.0 g/km

——4,000 ppm1,000 ppm3,000 ppm300 ppm—

—6,000 ppm2,000 ppm3.0 g/km

—

—

———

——

HC + NOx

2.0 g/km

——0.3 g/km(NO

x only)

0.1 g/km(NO

x only)

2 g/km1.5 g/km

2.0 g/km0.85 g/km10.0 g/km5.0 g/km3.0 g/km——0.1 g/km(NO

x only)

0.3 g/km(NO

x only)

——————5.0 g/km

————

2.0 g/km

1.8 g/km

3.0 g/km2.0 g/km3.0 g/km

1.2 g/km2.4 g/km

Standards

Remarks

Under discussion test =ECE R40Idle testIdle test

As per IDCAs per IDC; Deteriorationfactor = 1.2

ECE R47ECE R47ECE R47

97/24/EC

97/24/EC

Idle testIdle testIdle testIdle testIdle testIdle testmust comply with US 40CFR 86.410-80Low-idlingIdle warm testIdle cold testFree acceleration; 30%white smokeEvaporative emission 2gtest; 15% white smokeWithout evaporativeemission standard;15%white smoke

For 3 and 4 wheelersmultiply by 2


hicle manufacturer’s re-

sponsibilities over a rea-

sonable period of actual

in-use driving. For ex-

ample, the current EU re-

quirements stipulate that

vehicle manufacturers are

responsible for assuring

that vehicles meet the in-

use standards for 80,000

kilometers. In the US, they

apply for 160,000 kilome-

ters. If substantial num-

bers of vehicles, which are

properly cared for and

driven, fail to meet their

new vehicle standards in

use over the defined period, they can be subject to a recall pro-

gram whereby defective vehicles will be repaired at the

manufacturer’s costs. Further, defective parts for individual ve-

hicles are covered by a warranty.

To trigger these recall or Conformity of Production programs,

individual member states in the EU and the US Environmental

Protection Agency (US EPA) carry out in-use testing programs

using the same test procedures as the Type Approval or certifica-

tion programs.

The United States has required the introduction of onboard

diagnostic (OBD) systems since 1996, and OBD systems are re-

quired in Europe with the introduction of vehicles meeting Euro

3 requirements. As new vehicle standards in Asia are tightened

to these levels, OBD systems can identify failures to both vehicle

owners and in-use vehicle inspectors. In the meantime, in order

to assure that in-use vehicles are properly cared for, many coun-

tries adopt in-use standards based on short tests that are much

less expensive to operate than typical Type Approval tests. These

in-use programs are discussed in the next section.

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Inspection andmaintenance (I/M)

Vehicles that are properly tuned and adjusted tend to be cleaner

than out of tune vehicles. Modern vehicles equipped with ad-

vanced pollution controls are even more dependent on properly

functioning components to keep pollution levels low. Minor mal-

functions in the air/fuel or spark management systems can in-

crease emissions significantly. Major malfunctions can cause

emissions to skyrocket. A relatively small number of vehicles with

serious malfunctions frequently cause the majority of vehicle-

related pollution problems. Unfortunately, it is rarely obvious

which vehicles fall into this category as the emissions themselves

may be unnoticeable and emission control malfunctions do not

necessarily affect vehicle driveability. Effective vehicle inspection

programs based on periodic short tests can identify these prob-

lem cars and, by requiring a re-test after necessary maintenance,

assure their repair. The combination of inspection and remedial

maintenance has become known as I/M. Targeted I/M programs

can contribute substantially to reduce pollution caused by such

vehicles. In introducing I/M programs, however, certain overrid-

ing principles have emerged:

� As vehicle technology advances, more sophisticated test

procedures are necessary. This includes loaded mode tests

that use a dynamometer to simulate the work an engine

must perform in actual driving.

� Tightening of new vehicle emissions standards should be

followed by a concomitant tightening of in-use standards

for those newer model vehicles. Considering that the av-

erage vehicle life in some Asian countries is much longer

than in Europe, the US or elsewhere in the developed world,

this will lead to a growing diversification of in-use stan-


If the standardsset are toostringent whenan I/M program isinitiated, mostvehicles couldfail, thus, placinga great strain onthe service sectoras well as beingpoliticallyunacceptable

dards in Asian countries. Policymakers must assure that

appropriate in-use vehicle standards are set which account

for the technology advances resulting from tighter new

vehicle standards.

� In addition, policymakers must assure that the in-use stan-

dards applied in I/M programs appropriately reflect the dif-

ferences between each group. In addition, policymakers

must assess whether the I/M test procedures also need to

differ for vehicles with different pollution control technolo-

gies.

� Further, the pollutants of concern will differ between die-

sel-fuelled vehicles (PM, smoke and NOx) and gasoline-fu-

elled vehicles (CO, HC and NOx). Policymakers should ac-

count for these differences when designing I/M programs.

� If the standards set are too stringent when an I/M program

is initiated, most vehicles could fail, thus, placing a great

strain on the service sector as well as being politically un-

acceptable. Policymakers should adopt initial standards

that fail only the worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet and

then, gradually tighten them as the service industry and

maintenance practices improve.

I/M structureThe first decision usually

made regarding an I/M

system is the fundamen-

tal structure of the pro-

gram, and this is often the

key determinant of the

overall success or failure

of the effort. Several

main principles should

guide policymakers in

designing an I/M pro-

gram structure:

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� Experience from outside Asia indicates that centralized

I/M systems (sometimes called “test only” systems) where

inspection and maintenance functions are separated have

produced the best results. Decentralized systems, where

inspections and repairs are combined, are very difficult to

supervise and audit and are subject to corruption and poor

quality control. Policymakers should be especially cogni-

zant of the international experience in this regard and re-

sist the adoption of programs that combine testing with

repair, as these are very unlikely to achieve significant

emission reductions.

� Policymakers should assure that there is a careful and thor-

ough dialogue among all relevant stakeholders when de-

fining the I/M system structure. These

groups include providers, regulators,

enforcers/police, vehicle manufacturers,

the driving public and media.

� Experience from across the world has

demonstrated that while governments

should regulate I/M programs, their ac-

tual implementation is best carried out

by the private sector. Policymakers

should assure that a carefully-designed

bidding document is prepared in an open and transpar-

ent manner, and that all potential bidders are given a fair

opportunity to compete for the final contract.

� Governments contemplating the establishment of an I/M

system or expanding the scope of an existing one need to

consider (i) whether they have adopted the appropriate

in-use vehicle emissions standards and test procedures on

which to base I/M, (ii) whether the institutional capacity

and willingness to enforce an I/M program exists, and (iii)

whether the repair sector is sufficiently trained to carry out

repairs on vehicles which fail the tests. If any of these as-

pects are found to be deficient, policymakers should take

all appropriate steps to rectify the situation.

Experience from across the

world has demonstrated

that while governments should

regulate I/M programs, their

actual implementation is best

carried out by the private sector


� Vehicle manufacturers can play an important role in pro-

viding training to the repair sector, and policymakers

should take steps to involve them in the development of

an overall strategy to upgrade the repair industry.

Institutional and administrative set-upThe single most important determining factor for I/M success is

support by senior decision-makers and the institutional capacity

to manage and regulate the system. This is often weak and as a

consequence a weak regulatory framework results. Inadequate

funding and weak enforcement frequently lead to a system that

is plagued by corruption and poor quality control. Policymakers

should adhere to the following principles, therefore, in setting

up the I/M system:

� Policymakers must ensure that an adequate fee structure

is developed where the affected vehicle owners pay the

full costs of the I/M program, including the costs of audit-

ing and overseeing the program by government or private

auditors. This follows the “polluter pays” principle.

� Within countries that have a combined roadworthiness

and emission-testing program, the responsibility is often

shared between the Departments of Transport and Envi-

ronment. Very often, there is poor coordination between

these two departments, which hampers efforts to

strengthen I/M. Policymakers should assure that there is

full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or departments

at the early stages of program design, and full agreement

regarding specific roles and responsibilities.

� In countries where responsibility is shared between na-

tional and local government organizations, coordination

problems frequently occur in the implementation of ex-

isting I/M programs as well as in strengthening the I/M

system. Again, policymakers should assure that there is

full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or depart-

ments at the early stages of program design, together

Overall success

of an I/M

program depends in

part on assuring that

all vehicles intended

to participate in the

program are actually

inspected, and

repaired if necessary


with full agreement regarding specific roles and respon-

sibilities.

� Any I/M system needs to account for new vehicle emissions

standards, which in most cases are issued by national gov-

ernments. Policymakers should strive to develop I/M sys-

tems within a national framework.

� Overall success of an I/M program depends in part on as-

suring that all vehicles intended to participate in the pro-

gram are actually inspected, and repaired if necessary. Ex-

perience from both outside and inside Asia has demon-

strated that the most ef-

fective I/M programs are

those that are linked to ve-

hicle registration, i.e., fail-

ure to present proof of

passing an inspection

leads to denial of registra-

tion. Policymakers should

therefore carefully de-

velop and implement a

registration-based en-

forcement system for all

affected vehicles.

� A well-functioning I/M

system will include a data

management system that

ensures that all test data are transmitted on a regular basis

to a central database. This will be easier if I/M stations are

linked by computers that automatically transmit informa-

tion on a real time basis. This is much easier in a central-

ized system with a limited number of contractors than a

decentralized system with a large number of independent

workshops. Policymakers should assure that a good data

management system is included when designing the pro-

gram, and that sufficient funds are included in the fee struc-

ture to manage and operate the system.

Experience from bothoutside and inside Asiahas demonstrated thatthe most effective I/Mprograms are thosethat are linked tovehicle registration, i.e.,failure to present proofof passing aninspection leads todenial of registration

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� Policymakers should also be aware that increased reliance

on data management centers will make it necessary to

strengthen the quality of the overall database on vehicles

in actual use.

Technical issuesMany I/M systems, which are often government-operated, lack

committed resources. They cannot assure that hardware is main-

tained and upgraded as needed. Funds for calibration of equip-

ment are frequently inadequate, and limited attention is often

paid to ensure the adequate training of inspection staff.

� One remedy that policymakers should carefully consider

is the privatization of such programs and the adoption of

a fee structure that provides adequate funds.

� The shift towards more stringent emissions standards for

new vehicles should be followed by tighter in-use standards

for newer models. The test procedure should be shifted to a

“loaded test” rather than the “idle test” when new vehicle

standards result in the introduction of catalyst technology

on vehicles. This will require new, additional test equipment

including chassis dynamometers. The costs of such equip-

ment will make it difficult for small-scale workshops to take

part in I/M program implementation, yet another reason for

considering a centralized system. Table 4 is a comparative

table of test procedures. Tables 5, 6, and 7 are in-use emis-

sions standards for different types of vehicles.

Table 4Characteristics ofInspection andMaintenance (I/M)Test Procedures

Test CO HC NOx

PM Smoke Cost Timea

Idle X X Very Low Fast2 Stage Idle X X Very Low FastSteady State Loaded (ASM) X X X Low MediumVMass X X X Low MediumTransient Loaded (IM240) X X X High MediumFree Acceleration X Medium FastFull Load X X X X X High Medium

CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbon, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter, X = pollutant being measured

a Time it takes for one test on one vehicle


Table 5Emissions Standardsfor In-Use GasolineVehicles

Country Effectivity CO (%) HC (ppm) Test

Bangladesh — 24.0 g/km 2.0 g/km Dynamic

Cambodia Current 4.5 10,000 Idle

Hong Kong, China Current 0.5 — Low idle or in accordance with

manufacturers’ specifications

0.3 High idle, λ = 1± 0.03 or in

accordance with manufacturers’

specifications

India Current 3.0 Idle

Indonesia Current 4.5 1200 Idle

Malaysia Current 3.5-4.5 600-800 Idle

Nepal Current 3.0 1000 —

Pakistan Current 6.0 Idle

Philippines Before 1997 January 4.5 800 Idle

Philippines 1997 3.5 600 Idle

Philippines 2003 0.5 100 Low idle

At high idle CO limit = 0.3

(λ = 1± 0.03) or in accordance with

manufacturers’ specifications

PRCa Current 4.5 900 Idle

PRCb Current 4.5 1200 Idle

Singapore Current 3.6-6 Idle

Sri Lanka Before 1998 4.5 1200 Low idling

Sri Lanka After 1998 3.0 1200 Low idling

Thailand Before 1993 November 4.5 600 Idle

Thailand After 1993 November 1.5 200 Idle

Viet Namc Proposed 2002 December 6.0d 1500 Idle

Viet Namc Proposed 2005 4.5e 1200 Idle

Viet Namc Proposed 2008 3.0f 600 Idle

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, ppm = parts per milliona For light duty vehiclesb For heavy duty vehiclesc Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nangd Rest of country CO limit = 6.5%e Rest of country CO limit = 6.0%f Rest of country CO limit = 4.5%


Table 6Emissions Standardsfor In-Use DieselVehicles

Country Effectivity Smoke (HSU) Test

Bangladesh — 65 —

Cambodia Current 50 —

Hong Kong, China Current 60 Free acceleration

50 Loaded lug down test on a chassis dynamometera

India Current 65 Free acceleration

Indonesia Current 50 Free acceleration

Malaysia Current 50 —

Nepalb Current 65 —

Pakistan Current 40 Free acceleration

Philippines Current 2.5 m-1 Free accelerationc

Philippines 2003 1.2 m-1 Free accelerationd

PRC Current 4.5 Rb Free acceleration

Singapore Current 50 —

Sri Lanka Current 65 Idle

Sri Lanka Current 75 Free acceleration

Thailand Current 45 Free acceleration

Thailand Current 35% Loaded

Thailand Current 50 Filter test – free acceleration

Thailand Current 40% Filter test – loaded

Viet Name Current 72 Idle

Viet Namf Current 85 Idle

Viet Namg 2005 72 Idle

HSU = Hartridge smoke unit, m-1 = light absorption coefficient, Rb = Filter or Bosch smoke meter unita For vehicles apprehended under the Smoky Vehicle Control Programb For vehicles manufactured in 1995 and beyondc For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.5 m-1 for turbo-charged engine and 4.5 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevationd For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.2 m-1 for turbo-charged engine and 3.2 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevatione Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nangf Rest of countryg Limit is 50 HSU for newly registered vehicles starting 2005


Table 7Emissions Standardsfor In-useMotorcycles in Asia

Country

Bangladesh

Cambodia

India

Indonesia

Philippines

PRC

Beijing

Sri Lanka

Taipei,China

Thailand

Viet Nam

CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/km = gram per kilometer, ppm = parts per million

Effectivity

—

current

current

current

current

current

before 2003 July

before 2003 July

after 2003 July

after 2003 July

before 2001 January

after 2001 January

before 2001 January

after 2001 January

current

current

2004 January

current

current

current

Vehicle Type

—

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2-stroke

4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2-stroke

4-stroke

2-stroke

4-stroke

2-stroke

2-stroke

4-stroke

4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2- and 4-stroke

2-stroke

4-stroke

CO (%)

24 g/km

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

6

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

2

4.5

2

6

4.5

3.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

HC (ppm)

2 g/km

10,000

9,000

3,000

2,400

—

8,000

2,200

4,500

1,200

8,000

3,500

2,200

500

—

9,000

2,000

10,000

10,000

1,500

Remarks

Under discussion

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle test

Idle Test

Idle Test

Idle Test

Low-idling

Idle warm test

Idle cold test

Idle test for CO and HC;

30% white smoke limit; free

acceleration for white smoke

Idle test

Idle test

Standards


Figure 4Typical RemoteSensing Set-up

� Since most countries in Asia have adopted EU standards

for new vehicles, it may be more appropriate to adopt a

European short test rather than the US derived IM240 test.

An example of such a test is shown in Figure 3 below.

� A potentially serious problem, especially where most ve-

hicles are still equipped with simple carburettor technol-

ogy, is the “Clean for a Day” syndrome in which vehicles

are tuned to pass the test and then immediately readjusted

to a high pollution condition afterwards. To address this

problem, policymakers must

give attention to complemen-

tary in-use test programs such as

roadside screening or remote

sensing (see Figure 4 for a typi-

cal remote sensing set-up).

Figure 3Sample ofEuropean ShortTest

'

('

)'

*'

+'

' (, ,' -, .'' .(, .,' .-, ('' ((, (,' (-,

��$��%

/��$#�0�%


� There are certain countries or cities leading the way in Asia

with respect to testing of particular vehicle types. These

include the Smoky Vehicle Control Program in Hong Kong,

China which involves dynamometer smoke testing for light

and heavy duty diesel vehicles. Policymakers should con-

sult with technical leaders in the region as they develop

their programs.

Typical set-upof a chassisdynamometertesting centerin Hong Kong,China

� Emphasis in I/M should be on the identification of gross

polluters within each technology category. Remote sens-

ing devices (RSD) are evolving and may play an important

role in identifying gross polluting vehicles, especially where

most vehicles are low tech. It might be less suitable for

more advanced technologies unless further improvements

are made. Currently, most RSD experience has been with

clean screening as a means to reduce the testing load, al-

though dirty screening programs are also in effect or be-

ing developed.

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� In designing programs, policymakers should assure that

frequency of inspections varies for vehicles with different

mileage accumulation rates and with more or less durable

emission control systems. For example, taxicabs typically

accumulate far more mileage in a given period than do

private cars and therefore, they should be subject to more

frequent inspections.

Public participation in I/MPublic perceptions regarding the effectiveness and transparency

of I/M systems will heavily influence the willingness of the gen-

eral public to cooperate with government-imposed I/M regimes.

To ensure a positive public perception, it is important that soci-

ety understands the public health need for the program and be-

lieves that it is fair and effective.

Experience indicates that, on average, the driving public is

more interested in vehicle roadworthiness and vehicle safety than

emission levels. This is due to the more apparent linkage between

vehicle roadworthiness and the safety of drivers, passengers and

pedestrians. To ensure the required public acceptance of I/M pro-

grams and their willing participation in vehicle I/M, programs will

have to considerably strengthen their public awareness-raising

campaigns. Particular emphasis should be placed on the health

benefits that can result from a successful program.

Environmental NGOs need capacity building and often have

limited understanding of vehicle emissions standards and I/M

issues. This limits the effectiveness of these groups in pressuring

government officials to assure that good quality I/M programs

are put in place.

� Considering the above, policymakers should develop a

strong and ongoing public awareness component that

routinely informs the public of the need for an I/M pro-

gram, its achieved benefits and overall performance. A spe-

cial focus of the public awareness campaign should be on

environmental NGOs that need to increase their under-


standing of I/M programs. Again, policymakers must assure

that sufficient funds for this effort are included in an in-

spection fee structure.

� Policymakers must develop performance standards for

I/M stations that will guarantee fast and reliable testing

for the public; poorly performing stations must be penal-

ized as well. Performance measures could include typical

waiting times as well as pass/fail rates.

� Policymakers also need to think about useful methods to

achieve better public cooperation in I/M programs. Con-

sideration should be given to tax incentives, lower regis-

tration fees for cleaner vehicles, or linkage to vehicle in-

surance rates.

Quality assurance auditI/M programs have often been associated with fraud and corrup-

tion. Failure to address these issues will seriously compromise the

credibility and effectiveness of I/M systems.

Governments in Asia are experiencing difficulties in establish-

ing effective quality assurance and audit mechanisms in their

I/M systems. Yet, a well-functioning audit and quality assurance

system is crucial for the acceptance and success of any I/M sys-

tem. Audits can be implemented by a special unit in the respon-

sible government department or can be outsourced to a private

sector firm, provided it is not operating a part of the I/M system.

These private sector providers should also not provide training

or consultancy services to the I/M provider.

� Policymakers must assure that such auditing functions are

fully built into the overall program design and accounted

for in the fee structure. Further, in designing such auditing

systems, a general rule is that the less reliance there is on

human judgment or manual actions, the more reliable the

result.

� Policymakers should also assure that test fees are set at a

reasonable level to allow private sector operators to make


a sufficient profit to maintain, replace and upgrade equip-

ment as required.

� Regulatory agencies often have ill-defined duties and are

usually poorly-staffed. Policymakers should define regula-

tory agency duties to include designing an I/M system,

setting appropriate test procedures and standards, and

assuring the proper operation of the I/M pro-

gram and careful auditing. Where audits iden-

tify problems, policymakers should insure that

the regulatory agency is authorized to and has

the capacity to enforce the requirements, in-

cluding the removal of the offending

operator’s inspection license or permit.

� A key element of a successful I/M program

that is frequently neglected in program de-

sign is how to enforce the case against cor-

rupt entities, especially inspectors.

Policymakers must give careful attention and

thought to what constitute

appropriate sanctions so

as to assure that a work-

able system is in place.

Roadside testingprogramsRoadside testing can

complement a more com-

prehensive Motor Vehicle

Inspection System but not

replace it. Policymakers

should insure that roadside

testing is designed as a

complement to testing in

fixed stations, but not as an al-

ternative to it. The primary

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function of roadside testing should be the identification of gross

polluting vehicles.

� Apart from the privatization of inspection centers,

policymakers should also consider whether to outsource

roadside apprehension to the private sector. They should

insure that the inspection fee fully provides

for the costs of an adequate roadside

apprehension program.

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Roadside testingcan complement amorecomprehensiveMotor VehicleInspection Systembut not replace it.Policymakersshould insure thatroadside testing isdesigned as acomplement totesting in fixedstations, but not asan alternative to it

� Certain countries have tried to strengthen enforcement by

allowing enforcers to retain a portion of the fines collected

from apprehended vehicles. Policymakers need to study

the effectiveness of this approach to be sure it doesn’t in-

crease the likelihood of corrupting the overall system.

The “M” in I/MWhile much attention is being paid to the “I” (inspection) in I/M, it

is the “M” (maintenance) that actually reduces emissions. Very

often, repair quality is weak and needs special attention. There-

fore, policymakers need to include a particular focus on this is-

sue when designing I/M programs. This is especially true through-

out the region as the service sector is very informal and usually

lacks good training or equipment.

� The service industry must have sufficient equipment to

properly repair vehicles. In addition, adequate training

must be available so that mechanics and technicians are

sufficiently skilled to repair failed vehicles.

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� In tightening I/M requirements, policymakers must assure

that the service industry has sufficient lead time to equip

itself to repair failing vehicles. A reasonable phase in is a

one-year transition period from the time testing is initi-

ated until mandatory repairs are required.

� Policymakers must also insure that good communication

lines exist between the repair industry and I/M managers

so that problem vehicles can be resolved. Routine meet-

ings should be arranged to discuss problems.

� One mechanism for resolving disputes or difficulties with

individual vehicles is the referee station, where owners can

get a second opinion and advice about appropriate repairs.

Policymakers should carefully consider provision of one

or more referee stations in the overall program design.

� Policymakers should also address quality assurance for

spare parts. One approach to consider is requiring parts

suppliers to warranty the performance of their parts and

to label warranty details on the packaging.

Alternative approachesto reduce in-usevehicle emissions

In developing their overall strategy for clean vehicles,

policymakers should consider other alternative approaches to

reduce in-use vehicle emissions such as vehicle retrofitting, con-

verting to alternative fuels, mandatory scrappage of old vehicles,

among others.

� Policymakers should be aware, however, that a successful

retrofit program for in-use vehicles requires a system en-

gineering approach that includes a rigorous I/M program,

proper catalyst or other effective device, optimized cata-

lyst location and appropriate quality fuel.

Retrofit programfor in-use vehiclesin Tokyo usingdiesel particulatefilters

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� Certain cities or organizations have banned the entry of

polluting vehicles in certain city areas or in their organiza-

tion compounds. Policymakers should note that while the

resulting impact on air pollution may be limited, the im-

pact on awareness raising could be considerable.

� Fuel additives also have the potential to reduce emissions,

but policymakers must take special care to ensure that no

new pollutants are introduced and that an independent

laboratory has verified an additive’s effectiveness with the

vehicle types in which it will be used.

� Age limits on public transport vehicles, other commercial

vehicles, and motorcycles have proven to be effective in

eliminating gross polluting vehicles. Policymakers should

develop adequate incentives to encourage such phaseout

programs.

Age limits onpublic transportvehicles, othercommercialvehicles, andmotorcycles haveproven to beeffective ineliminating grosspolluting vehicles

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Regional cooperation

Harmonization of new vehicle standards can potentially lower

the overall costs of pollution controls by introducing economies

of scale in vehicle manufacturing and reduced testing costs. The

United Nation’s Economic Commission for Europe Working Party

29 (WP29) is serving as a world forum for the harmonization of

vehicle regulations. Under its auspices, there has been a Global

Agreement to work toward further harmonization. In addition to

the US, the European Union and Japan, several other Asian coun-

tries are parties to the agreement.

� Policymakers should aggressively en-

courage harmonization throughout

the region and consider more active

participation in WP29. As many coun-

tries in the region move toward Euro 4

or Euro 5 standards for vehicles and fu-

els, they should closely coordinate.

� Most countries in the region have

adopted emissions standards for new

vehicles, but there is still limited capac-

ity for testing and verifying compliance

with the requirements. Many countries,

therefore, rely on type approvals carried

out in other countries. A possibility suggested during

the workshop was the establishment of an independent

regional facility for Type Approval or Certification.

Policymakers in countries that lack their own emissions test

facilities should consult with their neighbours who face

similar difficulties and explore the feasibility of collectively

commissioning such a laboratory.

Harmonization of new

vehicle standards

can potentially lower the

overall costs of pollution

controls by introducing

economies of scale in

vehicle manufacturing

and reduced testing costs.


� Inspection procedures often lack a scientific basis. For ex-

ample, several workshop presenters noted that more re-

search should be devoted to identifying a good test pro-

cedure for motorcycles. Policymakers must encourage and

fund research efforts that can develop good test proce-

dures for all vehicle categories. By working together, coun-

tries can assure that redundant research is not carried out.

By closely coordinating research efforts and sharing results,

reduced expenditures can bring maximum benefits.


Appendix on recentEuropean Union (EU)emissions standards

I. Emission limits for passenger cars

Table A.1Emission Limitsfor Gasoline Cars(g/km)a

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides

a “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles(<1305 kg)

b The above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year laterc As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000

Gasoline As fromb CO HC NOx

Euro 1c 1/7/1992 4.05 0.66 0.49

Euro 2c 1/1/1996 3.28 0.34 0.25

Euro 3 1/1/2000 2.30 0.20 0.15

Euro 4 1/1/2005 1.00 0.10 0.08

Table A.2Emission Limitsfor Diesel Cars(g/km)a

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen

oxides, PM = particulate mattera “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles

(<1305 kg)b The above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year laterc As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000

Diesel As fromb CO HC NOx

PM

Euro 1c 1/7/1992 2.88 0.20 0.78 0.140

Euro 2c 1/1/1996 1.06 0.19 0.73 0.100

Euro 3 1/1/2000 0.64 0.06 0.50 0.050

Euro 4 1/1/2005 0.50 0.05 0.25 0.025


II. Emission limits for light commercialvehicles (Classes N1, N2 and N3)

Table A.3Light Commercial VehiclesN1 Class (<1350 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter

a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)

N1 As from Fuel type CO HC NOx

HC + NOx

PM

Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 2.72 — — 0.97 0.140

Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 2.20 — — 0.50 —

Diesel 1.00 — — 0.60 0.100

Euro 3 1/1/2001Gasoline 2.30 0.20 0.15 — —

Diesel 0.64 — 0.50 0.56 0.050

Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 1.00 0.10 0.08 — —

Diesel 0.50 — 0.25 0.30 0.025

Table A.4Light Commercial VehiclesN2 Class (1305-1760 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)




HC + NOx

PM

Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 5.17 — — 1.40 0.19

Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 4.00 — — 0.65 —

Diesel 1.20 — — 1.10 0.15

Euro 3 1/1/2002Gasoline 4.17 0.25 0.18 — —

Diesel 0.80 — 0.65 0.72 0.07

Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 1.81 0.13 0.1 — —

Diesel 0.63 — 0.33 0.39 0.04


Table A.5Light Commercial VehiclesN3 Class (>1760 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)




HC + NOx

PM

Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 6.90 — — 1.70 0.25

Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 5.00 — — 0.80 —

Diesel 1.35 — — 1.30 0.20

Euro 3 1/1/2002Gasoline 5.22 0.29 0.21 — —

Diesel 0.95 — 0.78 0.86 0.10

Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 2.27 0.16 0.11 — —

Diesel 0.74 — 0.39 0.46 0.06

III. Emissions limits for heavy duty vehicles

Note: “Euro 1 and 2”: Directive 91/542/EEC; “Euro 3, 4 and 5”: Council position December 1998 and agreed with theEuropean ParliamentCO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/kWh= gram per kilowatt-hour, NO

x = nitrogen oxides

a Until 30/11/1998 the particulate limit for engines <700 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed of more than3000 rpm was 0.25 g/kWh

b For engines <750 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed greater than 3000 rpmc Measured on the European Standard Cycle (ESC)d Measured on the European Transient Cycle (ETC)

Table A.6Emission Limits for HeavyDuty Vehicles (g/kWh)

Test Total Non-Methane ParticulateAs from cycle CO HC HC NO

xMatter

Euro 1 1/10/1993 13-mode 4.5 1.10 — 8.0 0.612 <85 kW

0.36 >85 kW

Euro 2 1/10/1996 13-mode 4.0 1.10 — 7.0 0.15a

Euro 3 1/1/2000 ESCc 2.1 0.66 — 5.0 0.10 0.13b

ETCd 5.5 0.78 1.6 5.0 0.16 0.21b

Euro 4 1/10/2005 ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 3.5 0.02

ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 3.5 0.03

Euro 5 1/10/2008 ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 2.0 0.02

ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 2.0 0.03


IV. Relevant fuel specification limits

Table A.7Relevant Gasolineand Diesel FuelSpecificationLimits

2000 2005

Gasoline

RVP summer 60 —

Aromatics 42 35

Benzene 1 —

Olefins 18 —

Oxygen 2.7 —

Sulfur 150 50

Diesel

Cetane no. (min) 51 —

Density 15°C 845 —

Distillation 95°C 360 —

Polyaromatics 11 —

Sulfur 350 50

RVP = Reid vapor pressure


1 The Appendix on Recent European Union (EU) Emissions Standards which

forms part of this book contains a summary of the recent European

vehicle emissions standards and the associated fuels requirements.2 See Policy Guidelines on Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers, one of the

books published by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) as Policy

Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia.3 For a more detailed discussion of the health impacts from motor ve-

hicle pollution, see the separate book on the Appendix on the Adverse

Health and Environmental Effects from Vehicle Emissions.

Notes

policy guidelines for reducing - asian development bank · obd onboard diagnostic system pm...

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