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118YEARSthemagazine of power generation

September 2014 t www.power-eng.com

EMISSIONS CONTROLTHE BENEFITS OF DRY SORBENT INJECTION

CONDENSER PERFORMANCEIDENTIFYING THE CAUSE

OF PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION

FLEXIBLE COALMANAGEMENT STRATAGIES

FOR MAXIMIZING FLEXIBILITY

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DEPARTMENTS 2 Opinion

4 Clearing the Air

6 Gas Generation

8 View on Renewables

10 Energy Matters

12 Nuclear Reactions

68 Ad Index

No. 9, September 2

14

The Flexibility ofInternal CombustioEngines

Fossil fuels will increasingly be called upon to provide peakin

power when wind and solar generation is not available. Exp

the benefits and costs of gas-powered generator sets.

22 A Low-Cost Pollutant Control

Solution: Installing a DSISystem at a Midwest UtilityNew regulations have restored interest in DSI as a low

capital-cost, multi-pollutant control solution. Learn about

the installation of a new DSI system at a coal-fired

station in the Midwest.

46 Condenser Performance: AssigningMonetary Losses to Sources of Degradation

Many plants fail to understand the nuances of condenser operation. Read about

how one plant dug deep into condenser data to isolate degradation during a

significant performance degradation event.

32 Improving the Flexibility ofCoal-Fired Power Plants

As more renewable power is added to the grid, increas

the flexibility of coal-fired plants will become an impor

priority. A management strategies expert examines the

flexibility of todays fleet of coal-fired plants.

56 Gas Turbine Technologiesfor the Transition

Power Engineeringexamines innovations in gas-

turbine technologies to accommodate wind and so
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5/73 www.power-eng.com

OPINION

need of reliable and affordable power. In

Germany, where renewable power sup-

plies are sold at guaranteed prices and

dispatched to the grid before convention-

al resources, power prices have skyrock-

eted, utilities have recorded huge finan-

cial losses and reliability has suffered. To

mitigate these problems, Germany plans

to add more than 7,000 MW of coal-fired

power by 2015.

Meanwhile, Africa, India and China

continue to build coal-fired generation

to meet the energy needs of millions.

Imposing unrealistic limits for car-

bon dioxide emissions from new and

existing coal-fired plants in the U.S.

will do little, if anything, to reduce cli-

mate change.

If we eliminate all of the coal plants

in the U.S., we will have effectuated 3

percent of the total global greenhouse

gas emissions, Yamagata said last

month during the keynote session at

COAL-GEN 2014. By 2019, in China

and India, coal plants planned or un-

der construction will emit annually as

much or more CO2than the entire U.S.

coal fleet currently emits annually.

The U.S. Environmental Protection

Agencys Clean Power Plan, unveiled

in June, would require existing power

plants to reduce carbon dioxide emis-

sions 30 percent below 2005 levels by

2030. By EPAs own estimates, the rule

would force power producers to close

more than 60 percent of the nations

coal-fired generation. Debate over the

timeline, the cost and the methods for

compliance will continue for months or

even years as the industry challenges

the rule in court.

One thing is certain. If the rule is not

withdrawn or redesigned, costs will rise

and jobs will be lost over a plan that

will have little or no effect on global

As masses of arctic air swept down

from the North Pole to engulf

much of the U.S. last winter, the

nations fleet of coal-fired power plants

was called on to keep us warm amid frig-

id temperatures spawned by whats popu-

larly known as the polar vortex.

Demand for electricity to heat homes

and businesses soared in January and

February. Nearly all of the increased de-

mand was met with power produced

by coal-fired plants, many of which are

scheduled to be retired in a few short

years. During the cold spell, power plants

fueled with natural gas ran at much lower

capacities or sat idle as gas supplies were

re-routed to end users for home heating.

Two of the largest coal-burning utili-

ties in the country AEP (American

Electric Power) and Southern Co. told

us that more than three quarters of the

required demand that they met this past

January and February came from coal

plants that are going to get retired in the

next couple of years, said Ben Yamagata,

executive director of the Coal Utilization

Research Council.

Last winters cold spell is just one ex-

ample of how coal-fired power has played

a critical role in maintaining a reliable

U.S. grid and why it should be preserved.

Coal is the cheapest and most abun-

dant fuel in the world. It fosters economic

stability by providing low-cost power to

manufacturers and has long been a buf-

fer to the volatility of fluctuating natural

gas prices. Yet, the U.S. is expected to re-

tire about 54 GW of coal-fired capacity by

2016 amid a campaign by environmental

groups to end the use of coal in the U.S.

As the U.S. discourages the use of coal

through misguided regulation, the rest of

the world is turning to coal to stabilize

chaotic power markets and provide elec-

tricity to regions of the world in desperate

greenhouse gas emissions.

A 10-percent increase in electricity

costs leads to a 1-percent decrease in

GDP (gross domestic product) and a

loss of as much as 1.5 million jobs, Ya-

magata said. There are all kinds of pro-

jections about the consequences of the

111(d) rule. I dont know what the right

answer is. What I know for certain is its

going to cost money. Price matters.

But the costly requirements of EPAs

proposal may never be realized, said Jeff

Holmstead, former assistant administra-

tor of the EPA and one of the nations

leading climate change lawyers. The rule

will likely be overturned by the courts

because the EPA has no authority to

regulate greenhouse gas emissions from

power plants under section 111(d) of the

Clean Air Act, Holmstead said.

If the Supreme Court stays the way

it is today, Im 100 percent confident

there are at least five votes that would

say this goes well beyond what the EPA

is authorized to do under the Clean Air

Act, Holmstead said last month during

a forum in Nashville, Tenn. The idea

that this 111(d) somehow gives the EPA

authority to require all states to funda-

mentally change the way electricity is

produced and consumed in their state

is a real stretch. This is something that

wont withstand judicial scrutiny.

Whats more, the controversial rule

could easily be scuttled by a Republican

administration, Holmstead said.

There are some EPA regulations that

are very difficult to undo. But this is not

one of those, he said. It will be very

easy for a new administration to come

in and say this isnt consistent with our

view of the agencys authority.

If you have a question or a comment,

contact me at [email protected].

Why Should YouCare About Coal?BY RUSSELL RAY, CHIEF EDITOR
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CLEARING THE AIR

Joe Friday, the no nonsense-cop

in the TV series Dragnet, sought

out misconduct to protect the in-

nocent. The country certainly could

use him in todays battle over coal,

where there are declarations about

coals contributions to global tempera-

ture change and the industrys ability

to meet stringent emission standards

within the current coal-fired genera-

tion fleet. Today, coal fired units ret-

rofitted with commercially available

state-of-the-art emissions controls are

a far cry from what was technically

achievable in past decades. In order to

achieve extremely low emissions, the

last few coal plants that were built and

operated prior to the war on coal have

been supplied with the most advanced

emission control technologies avail-

able. Using these proven and reliable

control technologies, pollutants such

as particulates, sulfur, nitrogen, mer-

cury and many other combustible ex-

hausts can be controlled to near zero-

outlet emissions.

By 2020, it is predicted that the cur-

rent 324 GW of US coal-fired units

within the countrys utilit ies fleets

will amount to only 70 percent of to-

days capacity. This 97-GW decrease is

largely driven by strict Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) regulations

that leave coal-fired units with but a

few options. Some utilities may pur-

chase custom-made air quality control

systems (AQCS) from original equip-

ment manufacturers (OEM); others

are considering converting their exist-

ing assets to natural gas, or replacing

them with natural gas combined cycle

units (NGCC). In the end, utilities may

remove some of their generation mix

by retiring coal units. Many predict

that this retirement scenario will con-

tribute to higher, less reliable energy

for all Americans. Additionally, it can

safely be assumed that approximately

6 GW of U.S. nuclear power will be

shut down by 2022. When coupled

with coal shutdowns, this will spell

bad news for U.S. power prices and re-

liability.

Even if coal units retire as predicted,

coal-fired power generation will re-

main an integral and major source of

energy for the country in the genera-

tions to come,

no matter which

natural gas in-

frastructure or

renewable tech-

nologies are im-

plemented. No

one disagrees

that energy ef-

ficiency is key to making the planet a

better place in the future. Using mod-

ern equipment, the industry continues

to implement controls on the existing

fleet of coal-fired units. However, if

the country began to replace its oldest,

least upgradeable coal units with high

efficiency, ultra-supercritical cycles

utilizing the most technologically ad-

vanced emission controls, the United

States overall contribution to green-

house gases would be much lower

than currently achievable. Attractive

as this may be, this scenario will not

be possible under the current EPA pro-

visions. Without these provisions, the

country could put more Americans to

work, regain home-grown industr ies,

utilize its natural resources, reduce its

reliance on foreign powers, and keep

its energy assets balanced. This would

allow the country to compensate for

other uncontrolled energy variables

such as natural gas pricing or wind

and sun dependency. The U.S. coal in-

dustry generates over 40 percent of the

countrys energy today. It is a stable

fuel with a stable price and, best of all,

it is a natural resource that is native to

this country.

The latest blow to a balanced U.S.

energy port folio is the new Clean Pow-

er Plan (CPP). As a result of this plan,

Americans will

see the price of

energy dramati-

cally impacted

due to addition-

al forced retire-

ments of coal-

fired plants.

To combat this

problem, the country should be ex-

ploring all resources available to it,

including building newer coal plants

which use advanced technologies that

lower carbon exhausts. The CPP takes

these options away, even though these

options make a lot of sense. The EPA

should adopt the goal of keeping the

lights on at an affordable price, while

delivering outcome certainty with a

positive economic future.

The EPA seems to be out of step

with the common-sense solutions that

many Americans endorse. For this rea-

son, a dozen states have filed a lawsuit

against the EPA over its current plans.

One can only hope that Joe Friday is

on the case.

Just theFacts Maam

BY ROBERT NICOLO, DIRECTOR OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS, MITSUBISHI HITACHI POWER SYSTEMS

The EPA seems tobe out of step with

the common-sensesolutions that manyAmericans endorse.
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GAS GENERATION

interconnected.

The newly enacted reforms are de-

signed to create greater competition and

private sector involvement in the power

industry, including in power generation

and transmission and distribution, while

also transforming the CFE into a pro-

ductive state enterprise.

Working in partnership or competition

with the state, private parties will have

the opportunity to:

t generate power for sale in a competi-

tive market

t enter into public-private partner-

ships with the federal government

for generation-related business

t enter into contracts and joint ven-

tures with the state for the con-

struction, financing, operation and

maintenance of transmission and

distribution infrastructure

Additionally, the legislation grants au-

thority to the Energy Regulatory Com-

mission (CRE) to issue rules governing

transactions between power generators

and affiliates selling electricity, and to

impose rules on market participants re-

garding accounting, operational or func-

tional separation. The legislation stipu-

lates that generators will not be permitted

to own interests in entities that operate

oil and gas pipelines or storage facilities

within the same markets that the genera-

tors operate.

A wholesale electricity market will be

created and operated by the National

Energy Control Center (CENACE). Ad-

ditionally, CENACE will maintain open

access to transmission and distribution

networks and ensure that electricity rates

are kept low, pursuant to new market

rules. The market rules have not been

In April, Mexican President Enrique

Pena Nieto proposed a legislative re-

form package that was approved by

the Mexican Congress, overhauling the

nations energy industries. The legisla-

tion contains eight new laws and amend-

ments to 13 existing laws that will affect

the energy industry.

The legislation addresses economic

and public policy challenges in the Mexi-

can power industry, which is currently

managed by the state. The Ministry of

Energy estimates that without subsidies

provided by the government, the aver-

age cost of electricity would be 73 percent

higher than in the United States. The leg-

islation will address these challenges and

potentially lower costs, expand access

and promote economic growth.

Under the old regime, the Federal Elec-

tricity Commission (CFE) controlled the

entire power industry. Consequently, fa-

cilities owned by the CFE account for ap-

proximately 68 percent of electrical pow-

er generation. The remaining 32 percent

of generation belongs to independent

generators; however, these generators

have not been permitted to sell electricity

directly to users. As a result, more than

half of this generated electricity is sold to

the CFE. The remainder is generated for

self-consumption or export under special

permits. In addition to barriers created by

the inability of generators to market and

sell power, private participation in power

generation has lagged for two other rea-

sons. First, development of generation

projects has required the participation

and planning of the CFE, but due to

budgetary constraints, these potential

development projects have been unable

to commence. Second, the transmission

network is outdated and not sufficiently

proposed, but will ultimately be promul-

gated by the CENACE. Following imple-

mentation of the legislation, CENACE

will be a separate entity from the CFE.

The wholesale electricity market will

connect three players in the power sec-

tor: Generators, Qualified End Users and

Marketers. Generators, including pri-

vate parties and the CFE, will be able to

access the wholesale market to sell their

electricity. Qualified end users, defined

as entities that exceed a threshold level of

electricity consumption, will be able to

purchase electricity from suppliers other

than the CFE. Marketers, defined as enti-

ties that have entered into a market par-

ticipation agreement with the CENACE

for buy and sell activities, will be able to

trade and market electricity.

The CFE will no longer be subject to

stringent government control, but will

be managed by its own board of direc-

tors. The primary function of the CFE

will be to supply retail electricity at regu-

lated rates to retail customers. Its other

functions will be spun off into separate

state-owned operating companies. The

newly created companies responsible for

transmission and distribution of electric-

ity will be subsidiaries of the CFE but will

not be authorized to buy or sell electric-

ity. These entities will be allowed to enter

into agreements with private parties for

the financing, management and expan-

sion of transmission and distribution

networks.

In the coming months, regulations,

guidelines, administrative rules and

forms of agreements will be issued to

make the legislation fully effective. This

new framework will set Mexico on a new

course, creating opportunities for private

investment in the power industry.

Energy Reform Package toIncrease Competition AndPrivate Sector Opportunities

in the Mexican Power IndustryBY JESSICA ADKINS, ANDREW FARRIS AND MANUEL VERA, BRACEWELL & GIUL IANI

Jessica Adkins Andrew Farris Manuel Vera


10/73

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VIEW ON RENEWABLES

Mexico. Los Azufres and Los Humeros

were both under construction, while Cer-

ritos Colorados, and Ceboruco Phases 1

and 2 were all listed as prospects.

Canada Building

a Fledgling Market

Canada could have up to 5,000 MW ly-

ing in wait and accessible with currently

available technology, but hasnt had its

first power-level commercial operation.

GEAs April 2014 international projects

list showed nine current geothermal

power generation projects, all in early or

prospective stages: six in British Colum-

bia, two in Saskatchewan, and one in Al-

berta.

Island Model Ideal in Caribbean

Central American countries such as

Costa Rica and Caribbean islands such

as Nevis and St. Lucia are devoting inter-

est and economic future in geothermal

energy, attracted by the fact that it is a

local resource and fragile environments

are preserved. Islands that have long been

leaders in geothermal energy include Ha-

waii and Iceland.

Geothermal companies cross borders

and technologies within North Ameri-

can and beyond. Geologists working in

the field and engineers who specialize

in geothermal power have worked with

a variety of resource sites and are able to

implement lessons learned into interna-

tional work. The GEA along with the U.S.

State Department held a Best Practices

for Risk Reduction Workshop in April

2014 that created a high-level dialogue

and strategic conversation about the

causes and potential solutions of geother-

mal risk and how they affect the growth

of geothermal development using exam-

ples of many of the types of frameworks

that exist worldwide. The discussion was

captured in a follow-up manual, available

on GEAs Web site.

North America holds diverse

geologic conditions, economic

and political contexts, and geo-

thermal experiences. In the geothermal

energy market, scientists and developers

successes have energized wide parts of

the Western U.S. and Mexico. Projects are

kicking off in new states and countries

every year.

The Western U.S. Experience

Drives Global Innovation

Geothermal companies will exhibit

their latest innovations this month at the

Geothermal Energy Expo, held by the

Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) in

tandem with the Geothermal Resources

Council (GRC) Annual Meeting in Port-

land, Oregon. Portland was chosen as

the site for this meeting because it is the

gateway to a new geothermal frontier in

the U.S. Pacific Northwest, said GRC Ex-

ecutive Director Steve Ponder.

California is the national and world

leader in geothermal production. The

state market has taken hits due to sub-

sidies aimed at intermittent renewables

(geothermal is considered baseload)

and competition with natural gas, but is

considering two pieces of legislation that

could bring about a geothermal revival in

the state. Nevada is also a strong market

with plans to retire coal plants and re-

place them with renewables, including

geothermal.

Nationwide, capacity shot past 3,440

MW by the end of 2013, with new or

refurbished power plants in Utah, Ne-

vada, California, and New Mexico. The

industry is robust and innovative but not

without its challenges, including policy

barriers, inadequate transmission infra-

structure, and a stiff energy market. Geo-

thermal experts work to resolve these

issues and increase the collective under-

standing of the unique values that make

renewable geothermal power a boon to

grid systems.

Mexico Opens Doors to Private

and Foreign Industry Participation

The Mexican Department of Energys

goal is to have 35 percent of Mexicos

energy production come from renew-

able sources by 2024. Until recently, the

Federal Commission of Electricity (CFE)

controlled generation, dispatch, trans-

mission and commercialization of elec-

tric energy for the public service. With

one-third of the energy being produced

by private producers through agreements

with the CFE, Mexico created the Energy

Reform to open the electricity market

to private and foreign companies that

passed in late 2013. It is a promising sign

of renewal and potential growth to a

market that is well established but needs

private investment to grow.

CFE managed to successfully add geo-

thermal capacity in the last two years;

however, there had been no new green-

field developments in 14 years. Along

with the Energy Reform, several second-

ary laws have been passed, including the

Geothermal Energy Law, which is based

on a concessions regime.

Luis C.A. Gutirrez-Negrn, president

of the Mexican Geothermal Associa-

tion, said he considers the new regulatory

frame for geothermal a way to leverage

the Mexican potential for conventional

hydrothermal resources, estimated at

more than 2,000 MW. The geothermal

law and the recent foundation of the

Mexican Center for Innovation in Geo-

thermal Energy (CEMIE-Geo), which

will conduct 30 projects in the following

four years, are two key pieces for the geo-

thermal boom the country sees as pos-

sible in the next decade and beyond.

GEAs April 2014 international projects

list showed five geothermal projects in

Profiling GeothermalEnergy in North AmericaBY LESLIE BLODGETT, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ASSOCIATION
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12/73

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ENERGY MATTERS

This is not a new concept in security,

but certainly one that needs to be un-

derstood when developing a security

program within an organization. This

does not mean that security programs

should address everything from cop-

per thieves to or-

ganized assaults. It

means that any secu-

rity program should

be flexible enough to

adapt as threats and

risks evolve.

It is very difficult if

not impossible to protect against ALL

risks to which an organization may

be exposed. It is also very difficult to

deter a determined adversary- one

who is willing to sacrifice a significant

amount to reach the goal. However, it

is important to address security. The

key to successful security in a dynamic

threat and risk environment is aware-

ness.

This can be established by effec-

tive security education programs for

visitors and employees, through liai-

son with local law enforcement, and

through being active in peer asso-

ciations. While these actions cannot

guarantee success in a changing threat

and risk environment, they can cer-

tainly go a long way to establish a se-

curity posture that is proactive rather

than reactive.

It is not possible to know when,

where, or how the next attack on trans-

mission infrastructure will occur; only

that there will be more attacks. Prepa-

ration is the key.

Editors note: This is Part III of a three-part

series on power plant security.

Preparation is the balance point

between hindsight and clairvoy-

ance. In Parts 1 and 2 of this se-

ries, recent security events at substations

and new regulations issued in response

were covered. In this, the final Part, we

turn to the evolution of threats.

Lets start by defining the language

of security. The threat is the bad guy.

This could be an organization such as

domestic- or foreign- based terrorist

group or it can also be the identified

lone wolf. Risk is what that threat

may do, such as theft, vandalism, or,

taken to an extreme, asset shooting or

bombing. Vulnerability is what the bad

guy will exploit to execute the event.

This could be a gate that is not locked,

a lost badge that was not deactivated,

poor key control programs or clear

lines of sight to critical assets.

For years the major risk to substa-

tions was that of copper theft, van-

dalism, or trespassing which was gen-

erally perpetrated by thieves either

looking for quick cash or with nothing

better to do. In light of the events in

San Jose it appears that the threat/risk

model may have shifted. While these

risks certainly still exist, the nature of

the more spectacular can often drive

additional change. In the past, utilities

would take security actions at substa-

tions that had become a common tar-

get of copper thieves. These measures

would sometimes catch a few would-

be thieves and may have deterred oth-

ers. But the point is that those that

were deterred did not go away; they

went somewhere else. Ver y rarely does

a threat wake up one morning and de-

cide to follow the straight and narrow

because of the security measures an

organization puts in place. This go-

ing somewhere else

is called a target shift.

When a target is

hardened to a level

that the probability

of capture or failure

outweighs the ben-

efits of success a tar-

get shift is generated. This target shift

can be to another similar site, such as

another substation a few miles away

without additional security measures,

or to a different industry all together.

Additionally, new security measures

or a hardened site can also generate a

method shift, such as what occurred

after the San Jose substation shoot-

ing and may have led to the Nogales

substation pipe bomb. The natural in-

clination is to eliminate clear lines of

sight to critical assets when protecting

against an asset shooting event; how-

ever, it is arguable that some critical

assets are close enough to the perim-

eter that a pipe bomb or similar device

could be hurled over the top. If the

threat is determined to disable that

particular asset and security measures

eliminate one method of attack, a new

method of attack may surface.

Threats by their nature are dynamic,

changing quickly to suit the environ-

ment. Regulation by nature is static and

slower to respond to the environment.

Security in an EmergentThreat Environment:

Reading the TeaLeaves of ChangeBY ROBYNN ANDRACSEK, P.E., AND R.J. HOPE, CPP, ABCP, BURNS & MCDONNELL

Any securityprogram should beflexible enough toadapt as threatsand risks evolve.


14/73

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NUCLEAR REACTIONS

The equipment also can be airlifted by

helicopter if road access is not available.

Procedures have been developed to coor-

dinate an effective, timely response. For

example, an off-site location has been

identified near each nuclear site where

equipment can be dropped if access is

not possible. Tie-in and hookup loca-

tions also have been identified to ensure

rapid installation when the equipment

gets to the site.

At the Phoenix dedication ceremony,

Exelon Chief Nuclear Officer Mike Pa-

cilio commented on the versatility af-

forded by the response center: It adds

tremendously to our ability to combat

any type of accident thats thrown at us,

either by Mother Nature or by man. In

other words, if a Fukushima-like scenar-

io happened at a U.S. plant, the indus-

try will be prepared. The extreme event

likely wont be a tsunami as it was for Fu-

kushima, but an earthquake or a flood

could present similar challenges.

Like a smoke alarm that needs to be

tested periodically, or a homeowners in-

surance policy that needs to be reviewed

to ensure adequate protection against

new risks, the equipment at the emer-

gency response centers will be diligently

maintained. Response center staff will

maintain the equipment according to

industry test and maintenance protocols

to ensure its functionality when called

upon. SAFER also intends to conduct at

least one annual drill to ensure readi-

ness, said McCombs. These drills may

be fairly simple such as staffing the

SAFER Control Center and the Response

Centers or much more involved, such

as actually moving equipment.

In short, as with all insurance, the

idea is the same: better SAFER than

sorry.

What do the following

items have in common:

fire extinguishers, smoke

alarms, and insurance policies? Pretty

easy one, right? They are all items most

of us own, but items that all of us hope

we never have to use. Their use implies

the existence of a dangerous condition,

a life-threatening fire, or a real accident

that could impact your home, vehicles,

or personal health.

According to a survey conducted by

the National Fire Protection Associa-

tion, 96 to 97 percent of U.S. house-

holds have at least one smoke alarm in

their residences, which is a testament

to the successful efforts by fire depart-

ments, insurance companies, and con-

sumer safety groups to promote their

use. The death rate per 100 reported

fires is twice as high in homes without

a working alarm as it is in homes with

a working alarm.

The nuclear industry has long recog-

nized the importance of emergency pre-

paredness. Defense-in-depth strategies,

robust structural designs, highly trained

workers, and close relationships with

local and regional emergency response

agencies are just some of the features

that nuclear power plants are equipped

withbut dont expect to deploy. In

laymans terms, they are all part of the

nuclear power industrys accident insur-

ance policy.

In May, the U.S. industry added an-

other arrow to its public protection and

emergency preparedness quiver with the

opening of a regional response center

in Phoenix. A second response center

in Memphis opened in late June. These

response centers, devised and developed

as part of the industrys post-Fukushima

safety strategy, can deliver emergency

equipment to nuclear plants to support

their response to extreme events.

Although individual nuclear power

plants are already equipped with safety

equipment, the response centers expand

the pool of resources to ensure nuclear

plant operators can protect reactors and

spent fuel pools until power and cooling

systems can be restored. The Phoenix

and Memphis facilities will be able to de-

liver equipment to any U.S. nuclear plant

within 24 hours using air and ground

transportation. The centers are operated

by the Strategic Alliance for FLEX Emer-

gency Response (SAFER), which is an

alliance between the Pooled Equipment

Inventory Co. (PEICo) and AREVA. PEI-

Co has managed a nuclear industry joint

inventory storage and maintenance pro-

gram for more than 30 years.

Five sets of equipment are available to

support multiple events if needed. The

locations are totally redundant, said

Deanna McCombs, SAFER project man-

ager. Each center has the same quantity

of equipment: enough to support four

units plus one redundant set that is as-

sumed to be in maintenance. The idea

is that if one of the response centers is

disabled, the other center would provide

the equipment to the affected plants.

Equipment housed at the response

centers includes portable backup genera-

tors, high-pressure pumps, low-pressure

pumps, diesel fuel transfer pumps, diesel

fuel tanks, diesel powered light towers,

water treatment components, booster

pumps, electrical distribution cabinets,

cables, and hoses. Moreover, the equip-

ment sets are intentionally generic to

guarantee that they can interface with

systems in place at U.S. nuclear facilities.

Everything in the response centers is

preloaded onto trailers to speed delivery.

BY BRIAN SCHIMMOLLER, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR

Smoke Alarms andInsurance Policies


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predominately been provided by

part-loading open cycle (OCGT) and

combined cycle (CCGT) gas turbines,

which have adapted to this role by

ramping up over a number of hours

and then quickly flexing their output

when required to support renewables.

This may have been eff icient in the

past, but is not likely to be the opti-

mum way to provide the increased

amount of flexibility needed in future.

It should be noted that the cost associ-

ated with renewable energy integration

differs from system to system, and varies

depending on how well different compo-

nents of the system fit together. However,

there are number of costs associated with

In recent years, renewables have

quickly moved from a much-

hyped, yet small, contributor

to total electric capacity into

one of comparative signifi-

cance. If the most ambitious renewable

portfolio standards are realized, clean

power could make up as much as 70

percent of total power generation by

2030. While this should be applauded,

and the role of renewables acknowl-

edged as key to the energy transition,

power systems cannot be decarbonized

in the absence of fossil fuels, which will

increasingly be called upon to provide

peaking power when wind and solar

generation is not available.

PART-LOADING PRICE TAG

Up until now, peaking power has

The FlexibilityInternal CombEnginesBY MATTI RAUTKIVI, WRTSIL

his Wrtsil plant in Texas is known locally as The Wind

nabler. Due to the modular solution of 24 combustion

ngines, the plant is able to follow wind turbine output

ecisely, sustaining top fuel efficiency at any load.

hoto Courtesy: Wrtsil



part-loading that are consistent across all

geographical areas including increased

carbon costs, reduced fuel efficiency, in-

creased number of generators needed on

the system and costly wind generation

curtailment to maintain system balance.

Given these costs, if part-loading is used

in a system with a high level of renew-

ables, the full benefits of decarbonization

may not be achieved and consumers will

end up paying higher prices. Put simply,

as a result of burgeoning renewables, the

power industry will soon be priced out

of part-loading, and it will no longer be

a viable option to creating flexibility in

power systems.

With this in mind, Wrtsil is using

have to part-load to balance fluctuations

in renewables and can instead operate

efficiently at full load, leaving ICEs to

handle normal system variations as well

as production forecast errors of wind and

solar. This creates additional carbon sav-

ings, promotes fuel efficiency, reduces

instances of renewables curtailment and

decreases the number of total generators

needed on the system.

Investigations by the International En-

ergy Agency (IEA) shows growth in ICE

plants exceeds that of gas turbines and

furthermore revealed the technology is

cost competitive with OCGTs. However,

challenges remain when selecting ICEs.

According to the IEA, this is due in part to

the electricity utilities workforce, many of

who have particular expertise in OCGT

and CCGT and perceive the switch to a

new technology to be a risk that should

be avoided unless the investment op-

portunity is considerable. As a result,

even some of the most pro-renewable re-

gions have been slow take up ICEs.

THE EUROPEAN CASE UK

According to Energy Trends statistics

published by UKs Department of En-

ergy and Climate Change (DECC) in

June 2014, renewables generation in the

UK reached a record of 19.4 percent in

the first quarter of 2014. Notably, clean

power generation was up 43 percent on

the same period last year. The rise, attrib-

uted to high wind speeds, is a welcome

boost to the countrys decarbonisation

programme, however usage of weather-

dependent energy such as wind power

is coming at a cost to the UK. Between

2012 and 2013 the country paid out 7.6

million in constraint payments made to

sites generating at times when there was

a high availability of wind power, but low

demand for electricity; the case of the so

called windy weekday night, for exam-

ple. While it is important to remember

ofstion

its latest research and projects to uncov-

er the cost implications of part-loading

and assess whether future power system

strategies have adequately considered

other feasible alternatives. The key thread

running consistently through Wrtsils

work is that another mature gas technolo-

gy internal combustion engines (ICEs)

exists and could provide more effective

flexible back up in comparison to OCGTs

and CCGTs operating at part-load.

RESURGING GAS

TECHNOLOGY

Although mostly known from the

transport industry, ICE technology has

been rapidly developed into a plausible

option in large-scale power generation,

displaying notable synergies with renew-

able energy generators. When combined

in the future energy mix, renewables and

ICEs can unlock greater emissions re-

ductions and cost savings together than

either technology is capable of in isola-

tion. This is due to renewables inher-

ent need to be backed up by alternative

highly flexible energy sources when there

is neither enough sun or wind to gener-

ate renewable power, married with ICEs

ability to provide a solution; through a

fast-reacting system that can ramp up

from zero to 100 percent output in less

than five minutes regardless of plant

size. Another key advantage is the superi-

or part-loading efficiency, which derives

from modular plant design and allows

each engine to operate independently.

ICEs can increase fuel security through

the capability to burn any gaseous and

liquid fuels and additionally come with

a short construction time of less than one

year. In many locations, a significant add-

ed value is the superior efficiency in ex-

treme temperatures and high altitudes, in

comparison to OCGT and CCGT plants.

With ICE plants in the capacity mix,

conventional fossil fuel plants no longer

Author

Matti Rautkivi is the general managerof the Liaison Office and is responsiblefor electricity market development inWrtsil Power Plants.



The new 250 MW Kiisa power plant in Estonia will be

used for peak shaving and emergency operation. This

is possible with the capability of fast startup and ability

to reach full load within 10 minutes. Photo Courtesy:

Wrtsil

The UK has a gasstrategy in place

that advocatespart-loading,through theinstallation of 4.8GW of new efficientcombined cyclegas turbines.

larger proportion of their electricity from

renewable energy sources. Legislation

mandates the renewable energy genera-

tion mix rising from approximately 14

percent in 2010 to 33 percent by 2020. In

keeping with the UK study, a California

equivalent, conducted by KEMA DNV,

also compared the transmission system

operators chosen gas strategy through

to 2020 with the equivalent amount

of ICEs. This involved comparing ICE

technology with the California Indepen-

dent System Operators (CAISO) policy

to install 5.5 GW of new capacity, split

equally between CCGTs and OCGTs. The

results revealed that the former gas capac-

ity mix could save California up to $890

million per year by 2020. In a further

study published by Wrtsil and lead-

ing global energy market modeling firm

Energy Exemplar in April 2014, it was

concluded that, in addition to cost sav-

ings, California could reduce its annual

water consumption by 25.5 million gal-

lons and reduce CO2emissions by more

than half a million tons per year by 2022

by adopting ICEs in the states Long-Term

Planning and Procurement Plan. These

savings are due to engine design features

wind farms are not the main beneficia-

ries of the UKs constraint costs, the figure

does raise important questions around

the National Grids

struggle to keep up with

a fast-growing renewable

sector. Industry body

Scottish Renewables ar-

gues that the way to re-

duce constraint costs is

to increase investment

in grid infrastructure,

which is an approach

Wrtsil concurred with

in its research, conduct-

ed by Redpoint Energy.

Currently, the UK has a gas strategy

in place up to 2030 that advocates part-

loading, through the installation of 4.8

GW of new efficient combined cycle gas

turbines (CCGT), enough to power the

equivalent of five million UK homes.

When this strategy is weighed up against

the installation of an equivalent amount

of ICEs, the cost savings are considerable

- up to 1.5 billion per year by 2030, ac-

cording to Redpoint Energy.

The study investigated the UKs

gas generation capacity mixes

under two wind energy scenari-

os: one with a high wind based

on National Grids Gone Green scenario

of around 20GW

of offshore wind

in 2020 (and close

to 40 GW in 2030)

and the second

a base wind, con-

sistent with the

Central scenario

of the UK Govern-

ments Updated

Emissions Projec-

tions, including

10 GW of offshore

wind in 2020 and around 15 GW

in 2030. Incredibly, the overall findings

revealed that the UK could save between

381 million and 545 million per year

by 2020, increasing to between 587 mil-

lion and 1.5 billion by 2030 (based on

base wind and high wind calculations

respectively).

THE U.S. CASE - CALIFORNIA

In California, the states Renewable

Portfolio Standard (RPS) programme re-

quires utilities to obtain a progressively


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ambient conditions of Jordan (and

632 MW in ISO conditions). Baseload

power for the countrys national grid

is provided by 22 engines with a 60

percent capacity factor, while the rest,

16 engines, serve peak load with an

expected 40 percent capacity factor. Ad-

ditionally the entire plant is capable of

such as closed loop radiator cooling that

eliminates the need for process water

consumption, single cycle efficiency of

between 46 percent and 48 percent and

minimum stable loads of as low as 1 per-

cent for a large multi-engine facility.

THE MIDDLE EAST

CASE JORDAN

The energy industry may be slow to

implement technical change. However,

new opportunities for ICEs arise. This

upbeat tone is driven by the unprec-

edented uptake of ICEs in Jordan. The

country has transitioned from a region

taken in by heavily-marketed CCGT so-

lutions to one that has commissioned

and is now constructing the largest ICE

plant in the world; track back five years,

and Jordan had never contemplated

this technology.

The new plant, named IPP3, has 38

Wrtsil 50DF engines with a total ca-

pacity of 573 MW even in the extreme

being operated in any load depending

on Jordans needs.

Jordan has three reasons for adopt-

ing ICEs. Firstly, the county has a strong

baseload capacity from CCGT but no

load-following power plants capable

of starting in less than 10 minutes and

meeting demand exactly as required;

This is an artists rendering of what will be the largestInternal Combustion Engine (ICE) power plant in the worWith a capacity of 573 MW, the IPP3 plant is being built i

Jordan and is expected to be completed this month.
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23/73

For info. http://powereng.hotims.com RS#11 www.power-eng.com

environmental savings, while promot-

ing the energy independence many

countries are striving for to reduce ex-

posure to volatile energy prices. While

already a mature technology, ICEs

need to be reinvented in the context of

the energy transition in order for the

industry to realise the full benefits.

While previously, ultra fast ramp-

ing speeds many have only appealed

to those procuring a plant providing

emergency electricity, the uptake of

renewables creates a new and press-

ing need for solutions possessing this

capability. Given the learnings from

Jordan, work should be done to reas-

sess the value of CCGT and OCGT in a

decarbonized energy mix.

Despite the heavy marketing of such

solutions, Wrtsil is urging decision-

makers to look objectively and later-

ally at their options; looking beyond

their areas of expertise and assessing

the performance of solutions in energy

systems soon to be highly integrated

with renewable energy.

a particular issue in a country that ex-

periences huge differences in demand

between winter and summer. Secondly,

the limited flexibility possible through

part-loading has proved particularly

costly over the last five years, due to

Jordans inherent need to rely on im-

ported gas from Egypt where supplies

have been disrupted by political insta-

bility. The result of this is that Jordan

has often used expensive diesel to run

its plants when sufficient gas is not

available. Not only is the upfront cost

of diesel more expensive, but also the

fuel is less efficient than gas when op-

erated at part-load, further adding to

fuel costs. Thirdly, amid concern over

imported supplies, Jordan has set the

tough target of energy independence

by 2020. This will require sourcing en-

ergy from up to 400MW of renewables

and a variety of local reserves, meaning

flexibility to back up intermittent wind

and solar and generate baseload power

from a range of fuels will be of critical

importance.

IPP3 received the green light after

not only a thorough market analysis

provided by Wrtsil, but additionally

a further study undertaken by the Na-

tional Electric Power Company (NEP-

CO) of Jordan to rigorously assess how

advantageous an ICE plant would be

in comparison to CCGT. At the time,

CCGT were so heavily integrated into

the Jordan energy industry that local

environmental regulations supported

its installation, but had to be amended

at ministerial level to support ICEs; a

move that went against environmental

norms in the region. Now, IPP3 is cur-

rently under construction and is due to

be completed in September 2014. Until

2015, it will run on heavy fuel oil be-

fore transitioning to natural gas.

OBJECTIVE

DECISION-MAKING

The theoret ical examples from

the UK and California and practi-

cal example from Jordan show that

ICEs unequivocally provide cost and
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The Mercury and Air Toxics Standards

(MATS) mandated by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) require that all

U.S. coal- and oil-fired power stations

producing more than 25 MW meet emis-

sion limits consistent with the average

performance of the top 12 percent of ex-

isting units known as the maximum

achievable control technology.

MATS applies to three pollutants: mer-

cury (Hg), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and

filterable particulate matter (FPM). It has

Dry sorbent injection

(DSI) systems have

been in service for

more than 20 years at

coal-fired generating

stations, providing an effective tool for

reducing sulfur dioxide acid gas emis-

sion levels. Current and pending envi-

ronmental regulations have prompted a

revival of interest in DSI as a low capital-

cost, multi-pollutant control solution.

This article describes the installation

of a new DSI system at a coal-fired gener-

ating station owned by a utility coopera-

tive located in the Midwest of the United

States. It also presents a before-and-after

comparison of emission results.

During preliminary testing and proof

of concept, the utility used sodium bi-

carbonate (SBC) as the sorbent material.

The results showed that SBC would easily

meet the objective of approximately 82

percent removal of total sulfur dioxide

(SO2), so the utility proceeded with de-

signing and building a system that would

inject SBC.

The project demonstrates an economi-

cal solution for enabling certain coal-

fired energy facilities to comply with

recently enacted air-quality regulations

and thus remain viable. Using SBC, the

DSI system achieves SO2 removal per-

centages that rival the performance of

scrubbers. DSI thus provides a feasible

A Low-Cost PollutantControl Solution:Installing a DSI Systemat a Midwest UtilityBY ROB BROGLIO, NAES CORPORATION

alternative for units that would not find

it cost-effective to invest in a wet or dry

flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) system.

While DSI systemsdo not control formercury, they doremove HCl and otheracid gases.-NAES Corp.



DSI and ACI (smaller single silo) systems ata Midwestern Utility. Photo Courtesy: NAES

coal-burning facilities.

While DSI systems do not control for

a compliance deadline of 2015

with opportunities for extended

compliance times based on case-

by-case circumstances.

In light of the Environmental

Drivers and Trends (shown in

Figure 1 on pg. 24), DSI presents

a cost-effective technology that

can play a pivotal role in en-

abling energy producers to meet

newly enacted air-quality standards

without having to retire their older

mercury, they do remove HCl and

other acid gases. When combined

with a particulate control filter,

they meet the standard for FPM,

thus covering two of the three

MATS-controlled pollutants. The

remaining stations that do not

have an air-quality control system

(AQCS) will need to determine the

effectiveness of installing either an

FGD scrubber or a DSI system to comply

with MATS.

Source:

Fuel SO2(lb/mmBtu)

Removal EfficiencyRequired to Meet Standard

0.5 84%

0.7 89%

0.9 91%

SO2Removal Efficiencies Requiredfor Various Fuel Sulfur Levels

1

Author

Rob Broglio is Senior Business Develop-ment Manager at NAES Corporation.


27/73

Environmental Drivers and Trends 1

Announced Coal-fired UnitRetirements/Conversions

51,000 MW(330 Units)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Greenhouse Gasses (GHGs)

National Electricity Sector Trends

Emission Control Investments(Coal-fired Units through 2012)

$110 Billion

Emission Reductions(Since 1990)

NOx: 73%SO2: 80%Hg: 51%

www.power-eng.com

Source:

Fuel SO2

NSR(Best)

NSR(Mid-Range)

NSR(Worst)

0.5 lb/mmBtu 0.85 (4,700 lb/hr) 1.6 (8,900 lb/hr) 2.3 (12,700 lb/hr)



Expected Sodium Bicarbonate

Sorbent Consumption Rates2

meet or exceed its CSAPR emission lim-

its.

While compliance with the MATS rule

was not assumed in the Annual Energy

Outlook (AEO) 2012 Early Release, it was

assumed in the AEO 2012 Full Reference

case, which was released in June 2012.

DSI will be included as a compliance op-

tion for coal-fired power stations.

The fate of older, less efficient coal-fired

power stations will be determined by the

new regulations. Those stations that are

not worth enough to justify the expense

of new pollution controls will be retired.

As the EPA formulates its final rules as-

sociated with its emissions rules later, the

agency is taking criticism from industry

lobbyists who say the rules would be ex-

pensive enough to kill coal stations that

would otherwise continue producing

electricity at competitive prices.

Advocates of the new rules claim that

existing power capacity, together with

Both engineering and economic trad-

eoffs factor into the selection of a DSI or

FGD system. An FGD requires a sizable

upfront capital investment but has rela-

tively low operating costs. A DSI system

usually does not require a large capital

outlay but may consume substantial

quantities of sorbent in order to oper-

ate effectively. This in turn drives up the

waste disposal cost for DSI, whereas the

waste products from an FGD system can

be sold for industrial processes. The cost-

effectiveness of a DSI system thus varies

with the rate of sorbent consumption.

DSI technology will likely prove more

cost-effective than FGD at stations that

burn low-sulfur coal.

DSI and FGD scrubbers will both en-

able stations to meet the MATS standard

for HCl and other acid gases. As of 2010,

54 percent of U.S. electric generating sta-

tions had installed FGDs.

Significant reduction of SO2emissions

through the same process as HCl remov-

al can be achieved using a DSI system.

Though the MATS rule does not specifi-

cally address it, SO2has qualities similar

to those of HCl and other acid gases that

cause it to respond in the same way to

a DSI system. Because SO2 is regulated

under the Cross State Air Pollution Rule

(CSAPR), installing a DSI system to com-

ply with MATS may also help a station

new stations, will make up for retire-

ments. However, some specialists believe

the transition will not be so easy. The

number of retirements will depend large-

ly on whether DSI technology can be put

to widespread use by the power sector as a

less costly alternative to scrubbers.

The EPA predicts that the new technol-

ogy will achieve full penetration of the

addressable market, but if DSI does not

gain traction, the power sector could lose

more than 50 GW of coal-fired capacity,

according to a new report by FBR Capital

Markets Corporation.

MATERIALS AND

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

The Midwestern utility completed con-

struction of a DSI system in mid-2014,

along with an activated carbon injec-

tion (ACI) system to address mercury

emissions. The DSI injects SBC into the

flue-gas stream after passing it through


28/73

Keeping your plant efficient while

maintaining environmental compliance

Power Generation Products

Environmental Control Solutions

After Market Services

With over 50 years of experience and many successful projects around the world, Mitsubishi Hitachi

Power Systems America Energy and Environmentis an industry leader in Power Generation and AirQuality Control Systems. Our proven technologies include Fabric Filters, Enhanced All Dry Scrubbers,

Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization, and SCR Systems and Catalyst.

Our Air Quality Control Systems significantly reduce your emissions to comply with MATS andupcoming environmental regulations with minimum capital investment, low operating costs, highreliability and no effect on unit operations like ramp rate or turndown.

Ask us about our total plant solutions. Visit us online to learn more about our world-class capabilities.

Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems

America Energy and Environment, Ltd.

www.psa.mhps.com

[email protected]

Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Americas, Inc.

www.mhpowersystems.com

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29/73

Dry Sorbent Injection Process 2

FromCoalPile

Storage Silo

Boiler

Air Preheater

SCR

FlueGas

Bulk Material

Baghouse / ESP

v

Stack

www.power-eng.com

or reactor vessel because the sorbent is

stored and injected dry into the flue duct

where it reacts with

the acid gas. It is then

collected dry, as well

by the baghouse or

ESP. When compared

to a semi-wet or wet

scrubbing system, DSI

thus offers a low-cost

alternative for removal

of SO2.

BACKGROUND

The Midwestern station was built in

the late 1970s at a cost of $179 million

and has been in commercial operation

since November 1979. This single-unit

facility has a generating capacity of 400

MW of electricity.

In 2012, the EPA announced a Clean

Air Act (CAA) settlement with the util-

ity, which agreed to invest $150 million

in pollution control technology to protect

public health and resolve violations of the

CAA. It also required the expenditure of

$5 million on environmental mitigation

projects and payment of a civil penalty of

$950,000.

The consent decree secured injunctive

a preheater. SBC undergoes rapid ther-

mal decomposition to sodium carbonate

when heated to 275F or higher:

This dehydration brings unreacted so-

dium carbonate to the particle surface,

neutralizing the SO2. The two byprod-

ucts that form sodium chloride and

sodium sulfate are collected with fly

ash. While this station elected to use SBC

as the most economical sorbent for their

purposes, other facilities use trisodium

hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (trona)

or hydrated lime in areas where those

compounds are easily mined and readily

available.

The byproducts are removed by a

downstream electrostatic precipitator

(ESP) or a baghouse (fabric filter). When

used in combination with DSI, a bag-

house is generally more efficient than

an ESP at reducing overall HCl. For

modeling purposes, the EPA estimates

that a DSI system with a fabric filter

will reduce HCl by 90 percent but will

achieve only a 60 percent reduction

with an ESP. Actual performance will

vary by individual stat ion.

DSI requires no slurry equipment

relief from the Midwestern utilitys fleet

of coal-fired power stations. It called for

the station to install

and operate either a

DSI or FGD system as

well as a selective cata-

lytic reduction (SCR)

system. It also stipulat-

ed retirement of three

of the utilitys older

units. These measures

were intended to bring

the utility into compli-

ance with the following:

t Limitations of annual system ton-

nage for SO2and NOx

t Optimization of existing particulate

matter (PM) controls to meet unit-

specific emissions limitations

t Annual surrender of any excess

SO2or NOx allowances resulting

from actions taken under the con-

sent decree

Compliance will reduce SO2by 23,000

tons and NOx by 6,000 tons per year, as

compared to the utilitys 2008 levels. It

will also significantly reduce particulate

matter emissions.

DSI TECHNOLOGY FOR SO2

EMISSIONS REDUCTION

The utility began its DSI operation for

SO2reduction in April 2014. As illustrat-

ed in Figure 2, the system injects the dry

sorbent SBC into the ductwork upstream

of the units fabric filter. After thermal

conversion to sodium carbonate, the sor-

bent neutralizes the SO2. The byproducts

are then captured by the fabric filter or

baghouse.

The photo on pages 22 and 23 shows

both the DSI (the four taller silos) and

the ACI (the smaller single silo). Working

together, the DSI and ACI systems reduce

SO2and mercury emissions.

The SBC DSI system has demonstrat-

ed the capability of removing moderate

amounts of SO2

from coal-fired emis-

sions with an ESP or baghouse.

This utility, like many others in the

DSI requires noslury equipment

or reactor vessellbecause thesorbent is storedand injected dryinto the flue duct.
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31/73

Performance of SBC In SO2MitigationWith a Baghouse

3

SO2Removal(%)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Normalized Stoichiometric Ration (NSR)0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

89% SO2removal

with SBC, an NSR of

at least 0.81

www.power-eng.com

Source:

SBC(0.80 NSR, 0.5 lb

SO2/mmBtu coal)Capital Investment $17,000,000 upfront

Fixed O&M Cost $200,250 annual

Variable O&M Cost $11,850,000 annual

Total O&M Cost $12,050,250 annual

DSI Capital and O&M CostsRequired for 0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu Coal

3into a solid mass, reducing

overall surface area. If inject-

ed at temperatures above or

below this range, more SBC

is needed to absorb a given

amount of SO2.

To maximize efficiency,

the engineering team at

the station decided to in-

ject SBC downstream from

the air heater. However,

because increasing

available reaction

time between the

flue gas and the sor-

bent also improves DSI efficiency, the

team opted to inject the sorbent as far

upstream of the particulate collector as

possible while staying within the opti-

mal temperature range.

Figure 3 shows the stations DSI

operational data for SO2 removal ef-

ficiency as a function of normalized

stoichiometric ratio (NSR). The NSR

represents the amount of SBC injected

to remove a selected amount of SO2.

NSR is defined as:

Midwest, currently fires PRB fuels with a

sulfur content in the 3 percent range, or

0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu. With an emission goal

of 0.08 lb SO2/mmBtu, the DSI system

needed to provide removal efficiency in

the mid to high 80 percent range.

The history of using DSI with SBC is

limited, but the technology continues to

be studied as an alternative to full-scale

FGD. DSI systems have been installed

and operated on a limited number of

coal-fired boilers for SO2control. These

boilers have been relatively small (< 200

MW) and located in older units that have

little remaining service lives.

When designing its DSI system, the

utility focused on three variables it be-

lieved would most affect the systems ef-

ficiency in controlling SO2emissions:

1) Sorbent particle size (milled versus

unmilled), where smaller particle

size is better

2) Appropriate f lue gas temperature,

where injection between 275F and

700F is ideal

3) Maximum contact time between the

solids and flue gas, where injecting

several seconds upstream of the ba

power engineering 2014 09 dl

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