Power Matters:

Missed Opportunities for Poverty Reduction

in Uganda

Paper Overview Conceptual Issues - ‘Evaluating Frames’ Historical development of inequalities in

Uganda, emphasizing the underlying power structures and relations

Institutional Change and Policy Responses: interactions between new and old power structures and relations

How Power Performs What Power Means for Methodology; What

Power Means for Policy

Main Arguments Power structures and power Power structures and power

relationsrelations at multiple and at multiple and interconnected (that is, from intra-interconnected (that is, from intra-household to global) levels are household to global) levels are among the factors that underpin among the factors that underpin inequality and that can cause and inequality and that can cause and keep people in poverty.keep people in poverty.

Main Arguments A comprehensive attack on A comprehensive attack on

poverty and inequality requires poverty and inequality requires understanding of the sources understanding of the sources of power and of ‘how power of power and of ‘how power performs’ (its constructive and performs’ (its constructive and destructive roles and its more destructive roles and its more and less visible features). and less visible features).

Therefore…

Power must figure in Power must figure in poverty analyses.poverty analyses.

Power must figure in policy.Power must figure in policy.

Evaluating Frames Frames shape the way we look at the

world There is a danger in assuming that the

way we see the world is the only way to see the world

There is a danger in wearing our frames for so long that we forget we have them on

Evaluating our Frames

How do we conceptualize individuals? Rational autonomous agents

The Rational Autonomous Actor Will, with the right assets and opportunities,

act to improve her own welfare; She will exercise `agency’

(Agency) - `Possesses internal powers and capacities, which, through their exercise, make her an active entity constantly intervening in the course of events ongoing around her (Barnes 2000)

Rationality, Individuality and Poverty

Poor people are poor because they lack/have inadequate access to assets and opportunities; therefore, policy-makers should focus on supplying these

Poverty reduction may also depend on our improving the conditions under which people might exercise agency - avenues for participation and voice; institutional access; building capabilities etc.

Rationality, Individuality and Inequality

Focus is on equality of what, not equality between whom

An Alternate Framework People are primarily social actors As social actors, people observe

norms of mutual accountability and susceptibility

As social actors, people are involved in relationships of power, which influence their thoughts, self-perceptions, visions, actions

An Alternate Framework People, in their roles as social

actors, might accept and uphold conditions that perpetuate their own inequality.

People can become and remain poor because of the deliberate actions and inaction of others

Relational Approach: The `Underbelly’ of Poverty Giving Resources to Poor Baganda in

Uganda might not solve inequalities - Norms of Mutual Accountability and Susceptibility

Many British subjects accept class distinctions between themselves and royalty, who have access to more and better opportunities and assets

Relational Approach It may be sensible, judicious; I.e

perfectly rational for persons to act in ways that uphold shared ways of living and agreed understandings, where these actions do not serve individual interests.

People do not have to exercise agency, at least not in the direction we currently assume

Relational Approach: The `Underbelly of Poverty’ Giving Assets and Opportunities to

Women in Uganda might not solve inequalities - These are often owned and controlled by men

Facilitating the Conditions for Agency Might not solve poverty and inequality- People might have presence but no influence

Summary Statements

Inequality and poverty can be understood as relational and categorical.

Categorical vs. Relational Categorical explanations focus on the

disparities (such as in assets and opportunities) that exist across different groups of people (e.g. women, ethnic groups, the chronic poor).

Relational explanations focus on the processes and power relations that produce and sustain poverty and inequality, even within defined categories.

The Significance of Power Power relations—coercive and non-

coercive; visible and hidden; agreed and imposed—can cause poverty and help to hold inequalities in place.

The Significance of Power A comprehensive attack on poverty and

inequality requires understanding of the sources and performance of power, including its constructive and destructive roles and its more and less visible features. Power must figure in poverty analyses. Power must figure in policy.

Development of Inequalities in Uganda Pre-Colonial Uganda:

Centrality of the Clan; Norms of Mutual Accountability and Susceptibility Between Elders and Non-Elders, Rich and Poor etc. (Intransitive Power)

Women and slaves generally had low status, though positions differed across cultures. Women conditioned to accept position. (Coercive and non-coercive power)

Note:

Social acceptance and relations central; these were not `individualistic’ societies

Norms and Values helped to sustain inequality

What appears as acceptance may well mask a calculation to postpone resistance; resist in less visible ways

Coercive and non-coercive forms of power; ingrained power/`habitus’.

Colonial Uganda Religion: Protestant-Catholic discord one of

the most significant causes of intra/inter-ethnic group divisions

Racial Inequalities: White-Black; Asian-Black Ethnic Inequalities: Privileged Place for the

Baganda Elite Administration, Land, Culture Used to Mediate British Rule (Forced Crops,

Sales, Taxes)

Colonial Uganda Regional/Spatial: British actively

stratified the kingdoms. Bunyoro regarded as enemy territory; The North used as a reservoir for labor and

soldiers. Deliberate policy not to stimulate production in these parts;

Economic zoning of the country fomented ethnic and regional tensions.

Post-Colonial Uganda Coercive power structures

dominated Uganda’s politics - made use of ethnic and religious factionalism, social inequalities, political cleavages---producing widespread violence, repression and dislocation.

Ethnic and Religious Divisions mobilized for Political Ends

Frames Again Rational Frames - Assets and

Opportunities Build Roads, Provide Schools, Provide

Markets Supply seeds, Improve Access to Health Improve the Quality of Health etc

Frames Again Relational Frames

Power is embedded in institutions (formal and informal);

People not only concerned about tangible means of addressing inequality; also concerned about the intangible - transforming the ways in which they are perceived; terms of which they are acceptance- source of power

Historical legacies empower some; dis-empower others and these are not easily overturned, particularly where they are ingrained

Frames Again Characteristics of Ingrained Power:

What you believe about yourself creates your world

Thoughts …. Beliefs …. Convictions…. Attitudes….. Perceptions ……Behaviour

Institutional and Policy Responses (Post 1986) The NRM’s Ten Point Programme

outlined plans for an integrated self-sustaining economy, which required democracy, security and regional cooperation

Key Features Resistance Council (RC) then decentralized Local

Council (LC) system Decision-making power, authority and policy-

making responsibilities should be located at the local levels

All citizens should be able to participate; to ensure this, some groups, such as women, PWDs and youth must be allocated special places via affirmative action.

Key Features Policies to counter sectarianism :

Under the Movement system, Uganda was to be a distinct no-party democracy and political parties were prohibited from appealing for membership on the basis of gender, ethnicity, religion etc.

Space opened but controlled

Political stance opened space for women Women’s organizations have been able to

influence a National Gender Policy (1997); they have also been instrumental in healing societal divisions.

Key (Tripp 2001)- Women’s groups have resisted political cooptation

Limitations Increased presence has not

produced the desired gains: Government has obstructed efforts to act

as an interest group; Ingrained patriarchy and sexism in

Parliament and at local state levels Habitus / `Tacit Acceptance’ - Some

women uphold the norms that disadvantage them

Chronic Poor Routes: LCs, Parliament, CSOs, Lobby

Groups Level of influence depends on perceived

threat; PWDs and youth least influential (Hickey 2003); women more organized

Northern MPs concerned that the chronic poverty and destitution in the North are being neglected, largely for political reasons/desire to ensure power balance.

Limitations Donor-Political-Technocrat

ownership of the PEAP (particularly up to late 1990s) - Precludes alternate positions

Discourse and Power: Chronic poor are being depicted as groups that are left behind, incapable of taking advantage, lacking agency

The Batwa Story Small group of former hunter gatherers

who live on the outskirts of the Echuya Forest and the Mgahinga and Bwindi National Parks

Expelled from the forest in the 1930s Discriminated against by local groups

Source of Legacy 1751 - Edward Tyson - The Anatomy of

a Pgymie Compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape and a Man

Conclusion - Pygmies are all either apes or monkeys, and not men, as formerly pretended

Consequences for Batwa

Perceptions-Viewed as subhuman and primitive

Overlooked at policy level; discriminated against in markets and within society.

Consequences for Batwa Women Social and economic

marginalization plus disadvantage within the household.

How Power Performs: People are not only poor because

they do not have access to adequate assets and opportunities; power structures and relations can cause and help to keep people poor.

Power structures and the relationships that support them can be cultivated over long periods and, therefore, have deep historical roots

How Power Performs Power relations may persist despite

institutional change because less tangible but durable factors, such as ingrained norms and perceptions of inferiority and superiority continue to hold the status quo in place.

How Power Performs Overt and Coercive: The more

powerful can use their positions to compel others to act in ways they would choose not to. Coercion can entail the use of force. It may also rely on subtle but no less effective strategies, such as categorizing people and problems in ways that suit the more dominant.

How Power Performs Hidden and Coercive: The more

powerful can operate effectively from behind the scenes; coercive power can be embedded in formal and informal institutions, hidden but effective

How Power Performs Overt and Non-Coercive: Power

is not only coercive; it can also be (visibly) instrumental in building consensus. As Parsons explains, people may use power in non-conflictual and non-coercive ways, building agreements in order to achieve desired outcomes.

How Power Performs Hidden and Non-Coercive:

Power relations are upheld unintentionally and even unconsciously. Here, power relations are so ingrained that there is little need for overt coercive demonstrations.

How Power Performs

Power relations affect people’s lives from policy to intra-household levels.

Power and Methodology Combined Methodologies

Quantitative measures alone are inadequate for understanding relational forms of poverty and inequality

By combining qualitative and quantitative methods---particularly those explicitly designed to understand power relations---analysts can gain a better understanding of the processes underlying poverty and inequality

Power and Policy: Beyond Assets and Opportunities Evaluating Our Roles in Policy Process:

How do we influence policy? How does the language we use

empower/disempower? What categories do we assign and

what are the consequences? (NB. The Power to Categorize is itself an act of power, which can cause social dislocation)

Power and Policy: Beyond Assets and Opportunities The Character and Role of Institutions

(Formal and Informal) Education - Re-Presenting Histories;

Celebrating Value Working with Power Holders (Not

merely the elite but men in the home; neighbours of the Batwa; village leaders etc.)

Building Capabilities and the Capacity to Aspire