Pre-Columbian Archaeology of Pre-Columbian Archaeology of North AmericaNorth America

Week 4:Week 4:

The Peopling of the New World:The Peopling of the New World:New Interpretations New Interpretations

Challenges to the Clovis-first theoryChallenges to the Clovis-first theory

Calico Mountains (California)Calico Mountains (California) Old Crow (Yukon, Canada)Old Crow (Yukon, Canada) Meadowcroft Cave (Pennsylvania)Meadowcroft Cave (Pennsylvania)

Calico Mountains - BackgroundCalico Mountains - Background

Located in the Located in the Mojave Desert Mojave Desert of Californiaof California Excavated by Louis Leakey and Mary Simpson in the late Excavated by Louis Leakey and Mary Simpson in the late

1950s through 19831950s through 1983 Site located in Site located in alluvial fanalluvial fan Fan dated using the uranium-thorium dating Fan dated using the uranium-thorium dating

(U234→Th230) method to 193-260 kya (U234→Th230) method to 193-260 kya Extensive amounts of lithic materials recoveredExtensive amounts of lithic materials recovered

– 800 purported stone tools800 purported stone tools– 60,000 flakes60,000 flakes

Charcoal recoveredCharcoal recovered At least one stone “circle” also foundAt least one stone “circle” also found

– Reported to be a hearthReported to be a hearth

Alluvial FanAlluvial Fan

Calico Mountains - ProblemsCalico Mountains - Problems Lithic materials appear to be the result of natural Lithic materials appear to be the result of natural

percussion (rocks rolling down the slope of the alluvial fan percussion (rocks rolling down the slope of the alluvial fan and banging into each other)and banging into each other)– Flakes show that the angle between the Flakes show that the angle between the bulb of percussion bulb of percussion and the and the

striking platform is more than 90striking platform is more than 90°, a sign that the percussion is the °, a sign that the percussion is the result of natural processes.result of natural processes. Human knapping produces an angle of less than Human knapping produces an angle of less than 9090°°

– Tools are mostly classified as choppers (Early Paleolithic Tools are mostly classified as choppers (Early Paleolithic technology)technology)

Charcoal and stone circles appear to be the result of a Charcoal and stone circles appear to be the result of a combination of natural forest fires burning tree stumps on combination of natural forest fires burning tree stumps on the slope and stones rolling down the fan.the slope and stones rolling down the fan.– Stones will naturally form circles around these stumps (either Stones will naturally form circles around these stumps (either

before or after they have burned)before or after they have burned) Generally rejected as a site showing evidence for early Generally rejected as a site showing evidence for early

human occupation of the Americashuman occupation of the Americas

Flakes and CoresFlakes and Cores

Old Crow SiteOld Crow Site Site along Site along Old Crow River Old Crow River in northern Yukon territoryin northern Yukon territory Excavated Excavated by W. N. Irving of the University of Toronto in the mid to late by W. N. Irving of the University of Toronto in the mid to late

1980s1980s Artifacts are primarily boneArtifacts are primarily bone

– More than 10,000More than 10,000– Primarily horse and mammothPrimarily horse and mammoth

Bone-tool industryBone-tool industry Radiocarbon dating on bone and charcoalRadiocarbon dating on bone and charcoal

– c. 20,000 – 27,000 BPc. 20,000 – 27,000 BP Dates claimed as early as 100,000 BPDates claimed as early as 100,000 BP Criticisms:Criticisms:

– Are bone tools actually the product of human manufactureAre bone tools actually the product of human manufacture Taphonomic modification by natural processes along the river bankTaphonomic modification by natural processes along the river bank

– Rolling, splintering, impacts resulting from collisions with rocks in river bedRolling, splintering, impacts resulting from collisions with rocks in river bed– High energy stream High energy stream

– Problems with radiocarbon (C-14) datingProblems with radiocarbon (C-14) dating Contaminated samplesContaminated samples Materials probably late Pleistocene (c. 10-12,000 BP)Materials probably late Pleistocene (c. 10-12,000 BP)

– Rejected as providing clear evidence of early entryRejected as providing clear evidence of early entry

Old Crow Site profileOld Crow Site profile

Bone tool industryBone tool industry

Excavated at nearby Excavated at nearby site of Bluefish Cavesite of Bluefish Cave– Also claimed as early Also claimed as early

sitesite This artifact from stratum This artifact from stratum

dated to 25,000 BPdated to 25,000 BP

– Good evidence for late Good evidence for late Pleistocene arrivalPleistocene arrival Dates c. 13,000 BPDates c. 13,000 BP

– Validity of early Validity of early evidence questionevidence question

Old Crow RiverOld Crow River

Old Crow River BasinOld Crow River Basin

Meadowcroft RockshelterMeadowcroft Rockshelter Excavated in the 1970sExcavated in the 1970s

– James AdovasioJames Adovasio– Extremely careful and meticulous excavationsExtremely careful and meticulous excavations

Rockshelter Rockshelter located in SW located in SW PennsylvaniaPennsylvania Long-term occupation documented in 11 strata Long-term occupation documented in 11 strata

covering at least 700 – 12,000 BPcovering at least 700 – 12,000 BP Lowest strataLowest strata

– Radiocarbon dated to 19,600 B.P. +/- 2400Radiocarbon dated to 19,600 B.P. +/- 2400– In association with clear human In association with clear human artifactsartifacts

Unlike other sites, no clear stratigraphic problemsUnlike other sites, no clear stratigraphic problems

A View of Meadowcroft RockshelterA View of Meadowcroft Rockshelter

Meadowcroft ExcavationsMeadowcroft Excavations

Lowest levels in the Lowest levels in the area known as “the area known as “the Hole”Hole”

Meadowcroft ToolsMeadowcroft Tools

Meadowcroft: ProblemsMeadowcroft: Problems

Rockshelter occurs in area naturally rich in Rockshelter occurs in area naturally rich in coal deposits and with a high water tablecoal deposits and with a high water table– Coal particles may have seeped into the site Coal particles may have seeped into the site

contaminating radiocarbon samplescontaminating radiocarbon samples

This “explanation” was championed by C. This “explanation” was championed by C. Vance Haynes, leading American Paleo-Vance Haynes, leading American Paleo-Indian specialistIndian specialist

UnresolvedUnresolved

Problems with ClovisProblems with Clovis If Clovis represents industry produced by first humans in If Clovis represents industry produced by first humans in

the Americas the Americas ANDAND If humans arrived in the Americas across Beringia, If humans arrived in the Americas across Beringia, THEN:THEN: Analogous industries should exist in this period (pre-12,000 Analogous industries should exist in this period (pre-12,000

BP) in SiberiaBP) in Siberia– Large blades, bifacial retouch, etc.Large blades, bifacial retouch, etc.– No such industries exist in SiberiaNo such industries exist in Siberia

This period in Siberia and east Asia is dominated by micro-blade This period in Siberia and east Asia is dominated by micro-blade industriesindustries

Existence of Existence of ice-free corridor ice-free corridor between glaciers challengedbetween glaciers challenged– Challenge comes from geologyChallenge comes from geology– Conditions between 21,000 and 12,000 BP would probably not Conditions between 21,000 and 12,000 BP would probably not

have allowed for travelhave allowed for travel Cold, semi-arid steppe with scant precipitation and only 10-25 percent Cold, semi-arid steppe with scant precipitation and only 10-25 percent

of the land bearing sparse grass and sagebrush, a rock-desert tundra of the land bearing sparse grass and sagebrush, a rock-desert tundra where mammals and birds were rare because of the extremely low where mammals and birds were rare because of the extremely low biomass biomass

Ice-Free CorridorIce-Free Corridor

Monte VerdeMonte Verde Located in southern Located in southern ChileChile Excavated between 1979 and late 1990sExcavated between 1979 and late 1990s

– Tom DillehayTom Dillehay Water-logged siteWater-logged site

– Excellent preservation of normally perishable itemsExcellent preservation of normally perishable items WoodWood FootprintsFootprints Plant fibersPlant fibers BoneBone

Relatively little lithic technologyRelatively little lithic technology– Not unusual for regionNot unusual for region

Radiocarbon dating: 13,000 BPRadiocarbon dating: 13,000 BP– Also claims of artifacts dating to c. 30,000 BPAlso claims of artifacts dating to c. 30,000 BP

Monte Verde locationMonte Verde location

Monte Verde DescriptionMonte Verde Description Hundreds of artifactsHundreds of artifacts. In addition to several kinds of stone tools, a wide variety of . In addition to several kinds of stone tools, a wide variety of

wooden artifacts were found including: digging sticks, spears, and a mortar. Artifacts wooden artifacts were found including: digging sticks, spears, and a mortar. Artifacts made from stone were also recovered including made from stone were also recovered including spherical stones spherical stones with an encircling with an encircling groove. These may have been used as bola stones, a South American throwing weapon groove. These may have been used as bola stones, a South American throwing weapon with 3 leather thongs weighted at each end. The bola is thrown in a spinning fashion and with 3 leather thongs weighted at each end. The bola is thrown in a spinning fashion and the stone weights wrap the thongs around the prey. Also artifacts such as a the stone weights wrap the thongs around the prey. Also artifacts such as a gouge gouge made made from mastodon ivory.from mastodon ivory.

Wooden house foundationsWooden house foundations. The timber and earthen foundations of at least 12 . The timber and earthen foundations of at least 12 structures were preserved at the site. The foundations, made of logs and planks held in structures were preserved at the site. The foundations, made of logs and planks held in place with stakes of a different type of wood, supported rooms 3 to 4 meters long on place with stakes of a different type of wood, supported rooms 3 to 4 meters long on each side. At intervals along the foundation timbers upright posts were placed to support each side. At intervals along the foundation timbers upright posts were placed to support a sapling a sapling frameworkframework, which was covered by animal skins. Small pieces of what may be , which was covered by animal skins. Small pieces of what may be animal hide were preserved next to the timber foundation. animal hide were preserved next to the timber foundation.

Food plantsFood plants. Plants were extremely important in the diet of the Monte Verde people. . Plants were extremely important in the diet of the Monte Verde people. Some 42 edible species of plants have been identified at the site, including wild potatoes, Some 42 edible species of plants have been identified at the site, including wild potatoes, bamboos, mushrooms, juncus seeds, berries from various plants, nuts, and fruits. Also, bamboos, mushrooms, juncus seeds, berries from various plants, nuts, and fruits. Also, because many of these plants are from species that ripen throughout the year, it's likely because many of these plants are from species that ripen throughout the year, it's likely that the site was occupied year-round. Further evidence of the important of plants in the that the site was occupied year-round. Further evidence of the important of plants in the diet of the Monte Verde people is the large numbers of grinding stones found there. diet of the Monte Verde people is the large numbers of grinding stones found there.

ExoticsExotics. A wide variety of items not locally available were imported by the Monte Verde . A wide variety of items not locally available were imported by the Monte Verde people: plants, beach-rolled pebbles, quartz, and bitumen (an adhesive tar). people: plants, beach-rolled pebbles, quartz, and bitumen (an adhesive tar).

Medicine plantsMedicine plants. The remains of some 22 species of plants were recovered from the . The remains of some 22 species of plants were recovered from the site; analysis revealed them to be non-food types but identical to plants used today by site; analysis revealed them to be non-food types but identical to plants used today by local native peoples in curing. local native peoples in curing.

MeatMeat. Animals bones were well preserved. Most came from mastodons. One of the . Animals bones were well preserved. Most came from mastodons. One of the bones still had a piece of meat attached to it. bones still had a piece of meat attached to it.

Human footprintHuman footprint. Preserved in the sandy mud, only about five inches long, it was . Preserved in the sandy mud, only about five inches long, it was probably made by a child. probably made by a child.

Monte Verde artifacts (1)Monte Verde artifacts (1)

Tent stakesTent stakes Bits of animal Bits of animal

skin attachedskin attached

Monte Verde artifacts (2)Monte Verde artifacts (2)

Monte Verde artifacts (3)Monte Verde artifacts (3)

FootprintFootprint– 15 cm long15 cm long– Child’sChild’s

Monte Verde artifacts (4)Monte Verde artifacts (4)

Monte Verde ReconstructionMonte Verde Reconstruction

Monte Verde ConclusionsMonte Verde Conclusions Solid evidence for human occupation of southern Solid evidence for human occupation of southern

South America at the time first humans arriving in South America at the time first humans arriving in the Americas according to the Clovis Theorythe Americas according to the Clovis Theory

Monte Verde was not occupied by big-game Monte Verde was not occupied by big-game hunters but rather broad-spectrum hunters but rather broad-spectrum hunter/gatherers with a decided marine focushunter/gatherers with a decided marine focus

Dillehay cautious about earliest dates.Dillehay cautious about earliest dates. Challenges to Monte Verde (C. V. Haynes and Challenges to Monte Verde (C. V. Haynes and

others)others)– Lack of lithic technologyLack of lithic technology– Poor excavation techniques, lack of stratigraphy etc.Poor excavation techniques, lack of stratigraphy etc.

Rebutted by visits to site (à la the Folsom and Clovis sites)Rebutted by visits to site (à la the Folsom and Clovis sites)

Coastal Entry ModelCoastal Entry Model Monte Verde (and other evidence) led to a Monte Verde (and other evidence) led to a

reevaluation of the traditional Clovis/Beringia reevaluation of the traditional Clovis/Beringia TheoriesTheories

Coastal entry Coastal entry proposedproposed– First proposed by Knut Fladmark (U. of British First proposed by Knut Fladmark (U. of British

Columbia) in the 1970sColumbia) in the 1970s– Using boatsUsing boats

Technology was knownTechnology was known– Settlement of Australia c. 50,000 BP (Lake Mungo)Settlement of Australia c. 50,000 BP (Lake Mungo)

– Moved along coastline of Asia and the Americas (the Moved along coastline of Asia and the Americas (the Pacific Rim)Pacific Rim)

– Sites would have mostly been lost as ocean levels rose Sites would have mostly been lost as ocean levels rose at end of Pleistoceneat end of Pleistocene

Increasing numbers of human remains that are Increasing numbers of human remains that are clearly pre-Clovisclearly pre-Clovis

Coastal entry mapCoastal entry map

Pre-Clovis Human RemainsPre-Clovis Human Remains

Kennewick ManKennewick Man Arlington Springs WomanArlington Springs Woman Spirit Cave ManSpirit Cave Man LuizaLuiza Peñon WomanPeñon Woman Buhl WomanBuhl Woman

Kennewick ManKennewick Man Discovered in Columbia River at Discovered in Columbia River at KennewickKennewick, Washington, Washington Nearly complete skeletonNearly complete skeleton

– MaleMale– 40-55 years of age40-55 years of age– 170-175 cm tall170-175 cm tall– Flattened skull Flattened skull (cradleboard)(cradleboard)

Radiocarbon dates 8410 +/- 60 B.P.Radiocarbon dates 8410 +/- 60 B.P. Not similar to modern Native American populationsNot similar to modern Native American populations

– The skull is dolichocranic (cranial index 73.8) rather than brachycranic, the The skull is dolichocranic (cranial index 73.8) rather than brachycranic, the face narrow and prognathous rather than broad and flat.face narrow and prognathous rather than broad and flat.

– Modern aboriginal populations in North America tend to have shorter, Modern aboriginal populations in North America tend to have shorter, broad heads and broad, flat facesbroad heads and broad, flat faces

– Cheek bones recede slightly and lack an inferior zygomatic projection; the Cheek bones recede slightly and lack an inferior zygomatic projection; the lower rim of the orbit is even with the upper.lower rim of the orbit is even with the upper.

– Other features are a long, broad nose that projects markedly from the face Other features are a long, broad nose that projects markedly from the face and high, round orbits.  The mandible is v-shaped,with a pronounced, deep and high, round orbits.  The mandible is v-shaped,with a pronounced, deep chin.   Many of these characteristics are definitive of modern-day caucasoid chin.   Many of these characteristics are definitive of modern-day caucasoid peoples, while others, such as the orbits are typical of neither race.  Dental peoples, while others, such as the orbits are typical of neither race.  Dental characteristics fit Turner's (1983) Sundadont  pattern, indicating possible characteristics fit Turner's (1983) Sundadont  pattern, indicating possible relationship to south Asian peoples. relationship to south Asian peoples. 

Initial media reports called him “Caucasian” but further analysis shows Initial media reports called him “Caucasian” but further analysis shows a close relationship to other east/south Asian peoples such as the Ainu a close relationship to other east/south Asian peoples such as the Ainu

Kennewick Man skullKennewick Man skull

Arlington Springs WomanArlington Springs Woman

Santa Rosa Island Santa Rosa Island (Channel Islands) off the coast of (Channel Islands) off the coast of California California

Original excavations Original excavations in 1959/60in 1959/60 Two femurs and partial humerus recoveredTwo femurs and partial humerus recovered Female estimated to have been between 150-157 cm tallFemale estimated to have been between 150-157 cm tall Recently new radiocarbon dates ran on bonesRecently new radiocarbon dates ran on bones

– 13,000 BP (first estimates were only 10,000 BP)13,000 BP (first estimates were only 10,000 BP) DNA testingDNA testing

– Restriction analysis of one of the samples initially indicated that the Restriction analysis of one of the samples initially indicated that the mitochondrial DNA of Arlington Springs Woman belonged to mitochondrial DNA of Arlington Springs Woman belonged to Haplogroup B (one of the five predominant clades of mitochondrial Haplogroup B (one of the five predominant clades of mitochondrial DNA lineages found among Native Americans). DNA lineages found among Native Americans).

Arlington SpringsArlington Springs

Spirit Cave ManSpirit Cave Man

Partially mummified remains of a man found in central Partially mummified remains of a man found in central Nevada Nevada in 1940in 1940 The The hunter hunter survived to his mid-40s. survived to his mid-40s. But he had broken his right hand and suffered chronic back pain from But he had broken his right hand and suffered chronic back pain from

arthritis, herniated disks and a fracture in his spine. A blow to the left arthritis, herniated disks and a fracture in his spine. A blow to the left temple dented and cracked his skull, which had just begun to heal temple dented and cracked his skull, which had just begun to heal when he died, perhaps from that injury or the advanced abscesses in when he died, perhaps from that injury or the advanced abscesses in his upper and lower jaws.his upper and lower jaws.

He was buried lying on his right side, arm flexed so his hand rested He was buried lying on his right side, arm flexed so his hand rested beneath the chin, in a shallow grave dug in a desert cave. beneath the chin, in a shallow grave dug in a desert cave.

The cave's climate preserved patches of skin and reddish-brown The cave's climate preserved patches of skin and reddish-brown shoulder-length hair on the skull, making him North America's oldest shoulder-length hair on the skull, making him North America's oldest mummy. Dried intestines contained fish bones from a final meal.mummy. Dried intestines contained fish bones from a final meal.

Also preserved were his rabbit fur robe, two shrouds of woven tule Also preserved were his rabbit fur robe, two shrouds of woven tule reeds, and well-worn moccasins of three kinds of animal hide, sewn reeds, and well-worn moccasins of three kinds of animal hide, sewn with hemp and sinew, and patched on the soles.with hemp and sinew, and patched on the soles.

Recently new radiocarbon dates the skeleton to 13,300 to 13,100 BPRecently new radiocarbon dates the skeleton to 13,300 to 13,100 BP

Spirit Cave ReconstructionSpirit Cave Reconstruction

LuizaLuiza

Fossilized skull and a third of a skeleton Fossilized skull and a third of a skeleton found in Lapa Vermelha, Minas Gerais state found in Lapa Vermelha, Minas Gerais state in in Brazil Brazil in the mid-1970sin the mid-1970s

New radiocarbon dates to 11,500 BPNew radiocarbon dates to 11,500 BP Skull shares features with Australiasian Skull shares features with Australiasian

populations (modern Aborigines)populations (modern Aborigines)

Peñon Woman IIIPeñon Woman III

The skull and the almost-complete skeleton of The skull and the almost-complete skeleton of Peñon woman was actually unearthed in 1959 and Peñon woman was actually unearthed in 1959 and was thought to be no older than about 5,000 was thought to be no older than about 5,000 years. It formed part of a collection of 27 early years. It formed part of a collection of 27 early humans in the National Museum of Anthropology humans in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City that had not been accurately dated in Mexico City that had not been accurately dated using the most modern techniques. using the most modern techniques.

Re-dated in 2002 to 12,700-13,000 BPRe-dated in 2002 to 12,700-13,000 BP Long, narrow skull, short narrow faceLong, narrow skull, short narrow face

Skull and reconstruction ofSkull and reconstruction ofPeñon Woman IIIPeñon Woman III

Buhl WomanBuhl Woman

Complete skeleton recovered from gravel Complete skeleton recovered from gravel quarry in 1989 in Buhl, quarry in 1989 in Buhl, IdahoIdaho

Radiocarbon dating shows minimum date of Radiocarbon dating shows minimum date of 10,600 BP10,600 BP

Other Pre-Clovis SitesOther Pre-Clovis Sites Cactus Hill (Virginia)Cactus Hill (Virginia)

– 16,000 – 20,000 BP16,000 – 20,000 BP– Pentangular pointsPentangular points

Possibly pre-ClovisPossibly pre-Clovis

– Faunal remainsFaunal remains Turtle, White-tail deerTurtle, White-tail deer

Many sites in western North AmericaMany sites in western North America

ConclusionConclusion

It appears likely that human beings arrived in the Americas It appears likely that human beings arrived in the Americas in more than one wave. Possibly two or more from Asia:in more than one wave. Possibly two or more from Asia:– 11stst prior to LGM (c. 18,000) using a coastal route (marine prior to LGM (c. 18,000) using a coastal route (marine

exploitation)exploitation) May or may not have contributed to later Amerindian populationsMay or may not have contributed to later Amerindian populations

– 22ndnd towards end of the Pleistocene (big-game hunters/Clovis) towards end of the Pleistocene (big-game hunters/Clovis) Some have proposed arrivals from Australia (based on Some have proposed arrivals from Australia (based on

Luiza) or even EuropeLuiza) or even Europe Connection with Solutrean technology based on similarities in Connection with Solutrean technology based on similarities in

technologytechnology Very controversialVery controversial

Creates a new pictureCreates a new picture

Solutrean-Clovis ComparisonSolutrean-Clovis Comparison This link is apparent in the early stages of Clovis point manufacture This link is apparent in the early stages of Clovis point manufacture

which were accomplished by removing large, flat percussion flakes which were accomplished by removing large, flat percussion flakes from a biface. These flakes left scars that extended past the middle of from a biface. These flakes left scars that extended past the middle of the face of the biface and created a platelike biface which is different the face of the biface and created a platelike biface which is different than a biface with a medial ridge. Occasionally, these flakes would than a biface with a medial ridge. Occasionally, these flakes would travel all the way across the biface and remove a portion of the edge travel all the way across the biface and remove a portion of the edge on the far side. In France these flakes that run all the way across the on the far side. In France these flakes that run all the way across the biface are known as outre passé flakes. Flake scars #1 and #2 in the biface are known as outre passé flakes. Flake scars #1 and #2 in the image are examples of outre passé flakes scars. image are examples of outre passé flakes scars.

The outrepassé flake is generally associated with the Solutrean The outrepassé flake is generally associated with the Solutrean tradition (17,500 to 19,500 BP) of the Upper Paleolithic. The later tradition (17,500 to 19,500 BP) of the Upper Paleolithic. The later Solutrean (18,000 BP) is even more famous for its exquisitely thin Solutrean (18,000 BP) is even more famous for its exquisitely thin bifaces (artifact on the left in the image) that were created with the bifaces (artifact on the left in the image) that were created with the same soft hammer percussion technique that the Clovis people used.same soft hammer percussion technique that the Clovis people used.

Dennis Stanford (Smithsonian Institution) is the leading proponent of Dennis Stanford (Smithsonian Institution) is the leading proponent of this theorythis theory

Clovis-SolutreanClovis-Solutrean

Clovis/Pre-Clovis bibliographyClovis/Pre-Clovis bibliography Adovasio, J. M. and Pedler, D. R.Adovasio, J. M. and Pedler, D. R.

1997 Monte Verde and the antiquity of humankind in the Americas. 1997 Monte Verde and the antiquity of humankind in the Americas. AntiquityAntiquity 71:573-580. 71:573-580. Adovasio, J. M. and Carlisle, R. C.Adovasio, J. M. and Carlisle, R. C.

1988 The Meadowcroft Rockshelter. 1988 The Meadowcroft Rockshelter. ScienceScience 239:713-714. 239:713-714. Adovasio, J. M., Donahue, J., and Stuckenrath, R.Adovasio, J. M., Donahue, J., and Stuckenrath, R.

1990 The Meadowcroft Rockshelter radiocarbon chronology 1975-1990. 1990 The Meadowcroft Rockshelter radiocarbon chronology 1975-1990. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 55(2):348-354. 55(2):348-354. Adovasio, J. M., Donahue, J., and Stuckenrath, R.Adovasio, J. M., Donahue, J., and Stuckenrath, R.

1992 Never say never again: Some thoughts on could haves and might have beens. 1992 Never say never again: Some thoughts on could haves and might have beens. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 57(2):327-331. 57(2):327-331. Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G.Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G.

1994 Introducing First Americans research. In 1994 Introducing First Americans research. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas. , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 1-6. Oregon State , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 1-6. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.University, Corvallis, Oregon.

Chappell, J., Head, J., and Magee, J.Chappell, J., Head, J., and Magee, J.1996 Beyond the radiocarbon limit in Australian archaeology and Quaternary research. 1996 Beyond the radiocarbon limit in Australian archaeology and Quaternary research. AntiquityAntiquity 70:543-552. 70:543-552.

Chrisman, D., MacNeish, R. S., Mavalwala, J., and Savage, H.Chrisman, D., MacNeish, R. S., Mavalwala, J., and Savage, H.1996 Late Pleistocene human friction skin prints from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico. 1996 Late Pleistocene human friction skin prints from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 61(2):357-376. 61(2):357-376.

Dillehay, Thomas D.Dillehay, Thomas D.1992 Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America. 1992 Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America. Journal of World PrehistoryJournal of World Prehistory 6(2):145-203. 6(2):145-203.

1989 1989 Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in ChileMonte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile . ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.. ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Dillehay, Thomas D. and Collins, M.Dillehay, Thomas D. and Collins, M.

1988 Early cultural evidence from Monte Verde in Chile. 1988 Early cultural evidence from Monte Verde in Chile. NatureNature 332:150-152. 332:150-152. Dillehay, Thomas D. and Meltzer, David J.Dillehay, Thomas D. and Meltzer, David J.

1991 1991 Peopling of the New World: problems, processes and prospectsPeopling of the New World: problems, processes and prospects . ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.. ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Dincauze, D. F.Dincauze, D. F.

1984 An Archaeological Evaluation of the Case for Pre-Clovis Occupations. 1984 An Archaeological Evaluation of the Case for Pre-Clovis Occupations. Advances in World ArchaeologyAdvances in World Archaeology 3:275-323. 3:275-323. Drew, D. L.Drew, D. L.

1979 Early Man in North America and Where to Look for Him: Geomorphic Contexts. 1979 Early Man in North America and Where to Look for Him: Geomorphic Contexts. Plains AnthropologistPlains Anthropologist 24(86):269-281. 24(86):269-281. Engelbrecht, W. E. and Seyfert, C. K.Engelbrecht, W. E. and Seyfert, C. K.

1994 Paleoindian watercraft: Evidence and implications. 1994 Paleoindian watercraft: Evidence and implications. North American ArchaeologistNorth American Archaeologist 15(3):221-234. 15(3):221-234. Ferring, C. ReidFerring, C. Reid

1994 The role of geoarchaeology in paleoindian research. In 1994 The role of geoarchaeology in paleoindian research. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas. , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 57-72. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.57-72. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.

Fiedel, Stuart J.Fiedel, Stuart J.1999 Older than we thought: Implications of corrected dates for Paleoindians. 1999 Older than we thought: Implications of corrected dates for Paleoindians. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 64(1):95-115. 64(1):95-115.

2000 The peopling of the new world: Present evidence, new theories, and future directions. 2000 The peopling of the new world: Present evidence, new theories, and future directions. Journal of Archaeological ResearchJournal of Archaeological Research 8(1):39-103. 8(1):39-103. Goddard, I. and Campbell, L.Goddard, I. and Campbell, L.

1994 The history and classification of American Indian languages: What are the implications for the peopling of the Americas? In 1994 The history and classification of American Indian languages: What are the implications for the peopling of the Americas? In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.of the Americas., edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 189-207. Oregon State University, Corvallis., edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 189-207. Oregon State University, Corvallis.

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1994 The Pacific Coast route of initial entry: An overview. In 1994 The Pacific Coast route of initial entry: An overview. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas. , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 249-256. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.249-256. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.

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Guidon, N., Pessis, A.-M., Parenti, F., Fontugue, M., and Guerin, C.Guidon, N., Pessis, A.-M., Parenti, F., Fontugue, M., and Guerin, C.1996 Nature and age of the deposits in Pedra Furada, Brazil: Reply to Meltzer, Adovasio, and Dillehay. 1996 Nature and age of the deposits in Pedra Furada, Brazil: Reply to Meltzer, Adovasio, and Dillehay. AntiquityAntiquity 70:408-421. 70:408-421.Notes: combined with Parenti, Fontugue & Guerin.Notes: combined with Parenti, Fontugue & Guerin.

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Jantz, Richard L. and Owsley, Douglas W.Jantz, Richard L. and Owsley, Douglas W.1997 Pathology, taphonomy, and cranial morphometrics of the Spirit Cave mummy. 1997 Pathology, taphonomy, and cranial morphometrics of the Spirit Cave mummy. Nevada Historical Society QuarterlyNevada Historical Society Quarterly 40(1):62-84. 40(1):62-84.

Jelinek, Arthur J.Jelinek, Arthur J.1992 Perspectives from the Old World on the habitation of the New. 1992 Perspectives from the Old World on the habitation of the New. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 57(2):345-347. 57(2):345-347.

Kornfeld, MarcelKornfeld, Marcel1980 Early Man in North American and Where to Look for Him: A Reply. 1980 Early Man in North American and Where to Look for Him: A Reply. Plains AnthropologistPlains Anthropologist 25(90):357-362. 25(90):357-362.

MacNeish, Richard S.MacNeish, Richard S.1978 Late Pleistocene adaptations: A new look at early peopling of the New World as of 1976. 1978 Late Pleistocene adaptations: A new look at early peopling of the New World as of 1976. Journal of Anthropological ResearchJournal of Anthropological Research 34(4):475-496. 34(4):475-496.

Meltzer, David J.Meltzer, David J.1994 The discovery of deep time: A history of views on the peopling of the Americas. In 1994 The discovery of deep time: A history of views on the peopling of the Americas. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas., , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 7-26. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 7-26. Oregon State University , Corvallis, Oregon.

1988 Late pleistocene human adaptations in eastern North America. 1988 Late pleistocene human adaptations in eastern North America. Journal of World PrehistoryJournal of World Prehistory 2:1-52. 2:1-52.

1979 Paradigms and the nature of change in American archaeology. 1979 Paradigms and the nature of change in American archaeology. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 44(4):644-657. 44(4):644-657.

1989 Why don't we know when the first people came to NorthAmerica? 1989 Why don't we know when the first people came to NorthAmerica? American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 54(3):471-490. 54(3):471-490. Meltzer, David J., Adovasio, James M., and Dillehay, Thomas D.Meltzer, David J., Adovasio, James M., and Dillehay, Thomas D.

1994 On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil. 1994 On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil. AntiquityAntiquity 68(261):695-714. 68(261):695-714. Meltzer, D. J., Grayson, D. K., Ardila, G., Barker, A. W., Dincauze, D. F., Haynes, C. V., Mena, F., Nunez, L., and Stanford, D. J.Meltzer, D. J., Grayson, D. K., Ardila, G., Barker, A. W., Dincauze, D. F., Haynes, C. V., Mena, F., Nunez, L., and Stanford, D. J.

1997 On the Pleistocene antiquity of Monte Verde, Southern Chile. 1997 On the Pleistocene antiquity of Monte Verde, Southern Chile. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 62(4):69-663. 62(4):69-663. Merriwether, D. A., Rothhammer, F., and Ferrell, R. E.Merriwether, D. A., Rothhammer, F., and Ferrell, R. E.

1995 Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World. 98:411-430.1995 Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World. 98:411-430. Owsley, D. W. and Hunt, D. R.Owsley, D. W. and Hunt, D. R.

2001 Clovis and Early Archaic Period Crania from the Anzick Site (24PA506), Park County, Montana. 2001 Clovis and Early Archaic Period Crania from the Anzick Site (24PA506), Park County, Montana. Plains AnthropologistPlains Anthropologist 46(176):115-124. 46(176):115-124. Rogers, R. A., Rogers, L. A., and Martin, L. D.Rogers, R. A., Rogers, L. A., and Martin, L. D.

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1993 Paleobiology of the First Americans. 1993 Paleobiology of the First Americans. Evolutionary AnthropologyEvolutionary Anthropology 2(4):138-146. 2(4):138-146.

1992 Peopling of the Americas: Paleobiological evidence. 1992 Peopling of the Americas: Paleobiological evidence. Human BiologyHuman Biology 64(3):303-336. 64(3):303-336. Straus, Lawrence G.Straus, Lawrence G.

2000  Solutrean settlement of North America? A review of reality. 2000  Solutrean settlement of North America? A review of reality. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 65:2. 65:2. Taylor, R. E., Haynes, C. V. Jr., and Stuiver, M.Taylor, R. E., Haynes, C. V. Jr., and Stuiver, M.

1996 Clovis and Folsom age estimates: Stratigraphic context and radiocarbon calibration. 1996 Clovis and Folsom age estimates: Stratigraphic context and radiocarbon calibration. AntiquityAntiquity 70:515-525. 70:515-525. Whitley, David S. and Dorn, R. I.Whitley, David S. and Dorn, R. I.

1993 New perspectives on the Clovis vs. Pre-Clovis controversy. 1993 New perspectives on the Clovis vs. Pre-Clovis controversy. American AntiquityAmerican Antiquity 58(4):626-647. 58(4):626-647. Workman, W. B.Workman, W. B.

1994 Giving the dead their due? Reanalysis, repatriation, and reburial at the Uyak site. 1994 Giving the dead their due? Reanalysis, repatriation, and reburial at the Uyak site. Review of ArchaeologyReview of Archaeology 15(1):28-39. 15(1):28-39. Xinzhi, W.Xinzhi, W.

1994 Pleistocene peoples of China and the peopling of the Americas. In 1994 Pleistocene peoples of China and the peopling of the Americas. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas.Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas., edited by , edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 73-78. Oregon State University , Corvalis, OregonBonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 73-78. Oregon State University , Corvalis, Oregon

North AmericaNorth America

CalicoCalico (CA) (CA) Old CrowOld Crow (YU) (YU) MeadowcroftMeadowcroft (PA) (PA) KennewickKennewick (WA) (WA) Santa Rosa IslandSanta Rosa Island (CA) (CA) Spirit CaveSpirit Cave (NV) (NV) Peñon Woman (Mexico)Peñon Woman (Mexico) Buhl Buhl (ID)(ID)

South AmericaSouth America

Monte VerdeMonte Verde (Chile) (Chile) LapaLapa VermelhaVermelha (Brazil)(Brazil)