proceedings of the workshop on efficient ......2. commanded area, total crop area and hyv rice area...

PROCEEDINGS OF THEWORKSHOP ON EFFICIENT USE ANDMAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATIONSYSTEMS AT THE FARM LEVELIN CHINA

WATER RESOURCES SERIESNo. 5.i

UNO ED NATIONS

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSIONFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

I ' , ', • j •

C - = • • ' • • • • < • * :

PROCEEDINGS OF THEWORKSHOP ON EFFICIENT USE ANDMAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATIONSYSTEMS AT THE FARM LEVELIN CHINA

WATER RESOURCES SERIES

No. 51

UNITED NATIONSNew York

ST/ESCAP/SER.F/51

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

SalesNo.:E.79.II.F.16

Price: $US 9.00 or equivalent in other currencies

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publicationdo not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariatof the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or areaor of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Themention of any commercial firm, industrial enterprise or licensed process in this publica-tion does not imply endorsement by the United Nations.

C O N T E N T S

Part One

REPORT OF THE WORKSHOP

Page

I. Introduction

A. Initiation of the Workshop 1

B. Objectives 1

C. Preparatory work 1

D. Participation 2

II. The Workshop

A. Land and water resources 2

B. Projects visited/arrangements 2

C. Institutional machinery: general 3

D. Institutional machinery: water conservancy 5

E. Practices in water conservancy 8

F. Main factors and transferability 14

G. Conclusions and recommendations 15

Annexes

I. Locations visited and Officials 16

II. Institutional machinery 20

III. Organization of Tsing Ping area 21

IV. Agriculture 22

Part Two

REPORTS AND OBSERVATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS

I. Project reports

A. Tsing Ping irrigation area 25

B. Wu Chiao people's commune 31

C. Lung Chao production brigade 36

D. Tong Hsing production brigade 38

E. Mei Chun people's commune 41

F. Tung Pei Wang people's commune 43

II. Observations of participants and relevance to developing countries 44

III. Analysis of the observations 49

(Hi)

C O N T E N T S (Continued)

Page

Part Three

COUNTRY PAPERS SUBMITTED BY PARTICIPANTS

A. Small-scale irrigation systems in Bangladesh: a study of problems at the farm level 53

B. Use and maintenance of the irrigation system at the farm level in the projects completed by the BangladeshWater Development Board 57

C. Proposed measures for improvement of the Panlaung irrigation project in Burma 62

D. Use and maintenance of irrigation systems in India 67

E. Water management at the farm level in India 72

F. On-farm water management in Malaysia: current problems and efforts 75

G. Operation and maintenance of irrigation projects in Nepal 81

H. Farm-level water management development programme in the Philippines 87

I. Problems encountered in efforts to improve the performance of irrigation projects in Sri Lanka 98

J. Multiple cropping on rice farms in Phetchaburi, Thailand 106

Tables

1. Development of tube wells, shallow wells and low lift pumps in Bangladesh 55

2. Commanded area, total crop area and HYV rice area of the Ganges-Kobadak project (first phase) 59

3. Commanded area, total crop area and HYV rice area of the Dacca-Narayanganj-Demra project 60

4. Commanded area, total crop area and number of tube wells working in the Thakurgaon tube well project 61

5. Commanded area, total crop area and total number of pumps working in the low-lift pump irrigation scaheme . . 62

6. Additional irrigation potential in the various plans 67

7. Some statistical data on water management pilot projects in the Philippines 93

8. Statistical data on density of irrigation facilities in the Upper Pampanga River project : 95

9. Status report on irrigator's groups in water management pilot areas as at June 1978 96

10. Accomplishments in the organization of farmer irrigators' groups, compact farm associations and project de-velopment compact farms in special projects as at June 1978 97

11. Water duty for land preparation (single 36-hour water issue) 103

12. Different growth stages for three common varieties of paddy 104

13. Water duty for paddy irrigation 104

(iv)

C O N T E N T S (Continued)

Figures

Page

I. Typical layout of field ditches 25

II. Typical layout of subsurface drainage pipes • ; . 39

III. Typical layouts of subsurface irrigation and drainage systems 42

IV. Controlled drainage scheme 76

V. Typical supplemental irrigation system 77

VI. Typical riverine irrigation scheme 77

VII. Flow of water over farm lots 78

Photographs

1. Lined main canal 28

2. Secondary canal 28

3. Division structure in canal system 28

4. Lined tertiary canal 28

5. Brigade canal 28

6. Covered canal and outlet 32

7. Side view of outlet '. 32

8. Drawing showing irrigation and drainage systems 32

9. Details of deep drains 32

10. Covered drain system 32

11. Schematic deep drains for wheat field 32

12. Samples of drain components 32

13. Drain plug pulling 32

14. Commune slogan: "Get up and work hard to carry out the responsibility of modern times" 38

15. Lung Chao production brigade in 1964, before land consolidation 38

16. Lung Chao production brigade in 1974, after land consolidation 38

17. Lung Chao production brigade in 1980, prospective 38

(v)

Part One


Part One


I. INTRODUCTION

A. INITIATION OF THE WORKSHOP

1. The Workshop on Efficient Use and Maintenance ofIrrigation Systems at the Farm Level in China was the firstregional project organized in China by the United NationsEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP).

2. In 1977, following a visit by the Executive Secretaryof ESCAP and some of this senior staff, a number of speci-fic proposals for regional projects were submitted to theGovernment of China for consideration with a view toselecting two for implementation in 1978 using, in part,funds contributed by China to the United Nations Devel-opment Programme. Early in 1978, the Government ofChina informed the Executive Secretary that this Workshopwould be one of the two it had selected. Accordingly, aproject document was submitted to UNDP, and an agree-ment between ESCAP and China was drawn up which,among other things, called for the Workshop to be heldduring the period 24 August to 8 September 1978.

B. OBJECTIVES

3. Virtually all of the developing countries of the regionhad made large investments in irrigation systems, bothlarge- and small-scale, but the level of efficiency and pro-ductivity achieved by fanners had often proved disappoin-ting, and management and maintenance of the delivery anddrainage systems at the farm level unsatisfactory.

4. The United Nations Water Conference, held at Mardel Plata, Argentina, in March 1977, in its resolution III,recommended an action programme on irrigated agricultureat the national and international levels. Great importancewas attached to the improvement of existing irrigationsystems with the objectives, inter ulia, of raising produc-tivity with minimum cost and delay, improving the effi-ciency of water use and preventing waste and degradationof water resources.

5. In China, a high percentage of cultivated land hadbeen irrigated and the land was intensively cultivated witha large input of human labour, with emphasis on efficiencyin water use. China therefore provided good illustrations

of ways in which the objectives of resolution III of theUnited Nations Water Conference could be achieved.

6. The broad objective of the Workshop, therefore, wasto provide information to technical staff of developingcountries on institutions, systems and practices used inChina in connexion with the operation and maintenanceof irrigation systems at the farm level with particularreference to those with potential for transferability toother developing countries of the region.

7. Its immediate objective was to provide an opportu-nity for technical staff from selected developing countriesto observe, study and discuss the approach to those mattersin China, to make comparisons with the situation in theirown countries, and to reach conclusions and recommenda-tions for consideration in their own countries includingthe potential and constraints for transferability of Chineseexperience to other countries in the region.

C. PREPARATORY WORK

8. With a view to achieving optimum benefits from theWorkshop, and having regard to the importance of closelinks between irrigation engineering and agriculture devel-opment, ESCAP requested each participating Governmentto nominate two participants with the following qualifi-cations: (i) they must be directly involved in the Govern-ment's efforts to promote irrigated agriculture; (ii) theymust be of sufficient seniority to be in a position to initiatenew policies and programmes or modify existing pro-grammes in the light of the Workshop experience; (iii) onemember of the team should be an irrigation engineerengaged in supervision or management of irrigation pro-jects; (iv) the second member of the team should haveconsiderable experience in extension services involving theguidance of farmers in the proper utilization of irrigationfacilities and application of new technology; and (v) thetwo members should be at about the same level of senio-rity to promote co-operation in follow-up action upontheir return to their countries.

9. The nominees were also asked.to prepare a paperon the subject of operation and maintenance of irrigationsystems in their respective countries for discussion andcomparative purposes during the Workshop.

Part One: Report of the Workshop

10. In addition, ESCAP sent to the nominees a copy ofthe Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations (FAO) publication Learning from China, a reporton agriculture and the Chinese people's communes preparedby an FAO mission which visited China in 1975. The nomi-nees were requested to study the publication which pro-vided valuable background information on agriculturaldevelopment in China as well as its organizational aspects.

D. PARTICIPATION

11. There were 16 participants in the Workshop from thefollowing countries: Bangladesh (2), Burma (2), India (2),Malaysia (2), Nepal (2), Philippines (2), Sri Lanka (2),and Thailand (2). Three members of the ESCAP secretariatacted in the capacity of director, technical rapporteur, andassistant technical rapporteur of the Workshop.

II. THE WORKSHOP

A. LAND AND WATER RESOURCES

12. China had a total area of 9.6 million km^ of which60 per cent was mountains and hills and 20 per cent wasgrassland. The cultivated area was only about 10 per centof the total or 1 million km^. The mean annual precipita-tion was 630 mm which was unevenly distributed through-out the country, ranging from 100 mm to 200 mm in thenorth-west to about 1,600 mm in the south-east.

13. Precipitation was also unevenly distributed in time,and on the average a major flood or drought occurrednearly every year during the period 206 B.C. to 1949when 1,092 heavy floods and 1,056 severe droughts wereexperienced. There was also a strong seasonal pattern ofrainfall over most of the country,'50 per cent to 70 percent of the annual total occurring in the rainy season,July to September.

14. The total average annual river discharge was 2,700 x109 m3. There were about 1,500 catchments with an areaof over 1,000 knA The hydroelectric potential was esti-mated at 580,000 MW.

15. In general, the land sloped from west to east and allthe five major rivers - the Pearl, Yangtze, Yellow, Huaihoand Haiho - drained to the China Sea.

16. Since 1949, there had been a vigorous water conser-vancy' programme based on collective strength and landreform and development.

17. Since 1949, China had engaged in a vigorous waterconservancy programme, including the construction of:

(a) 300 large reservoirs (storage capacity more than100 million m3);

(b) 1,900 medium-sized reservoirs (capacity between10 million and 100 million m3);

1 In this report, the term "water conservancy" refers to waterresources projects involving mainly irrigation and drainage butincluding other purposes, such as flood mitigation, navigation andhydro-power generation, as appropriate.

(c) 70,000 small reservoirs (capacity between100,000 and 10 million m3);

(d) 6,000,000 small ponds (capacity less than100,000 m3).

18. During the same period, the capacity of pumpedirrigation and drainage stations, including ground-waterpumping, increased from 90,000 hp to 55 million hp,and 2 million pumped tube wells for irrigation were in-stalled, there being none before. The area irrigated in-creased from 16 million to 46.6 milllion hectares duringthe same period.

19. Flood control had been achieved to a considerableextent on the five large rivers referred to above. Of the20 million hectares of land which had been subject tofloods, waterlogging and drought, 70 per cent had beenlargely freed from those hazards.

20. Although grain output of 285 x 109 kg in 1977was 1.7 times the production before 1949, largely becauseof water conservancy works, further increase in productionwas needed because of the large population. For thatreason, the fifth People's Congress held early in 1978 setthe total target output for 1985 as 400 x 109 kg, and thatwould require further efforts in water conservancy in orderto overcome the effects of floods and droughts.

B. PROJECTS VISITED/ARRANGEMENTS

21. The Workshop participants visited a number of irri-gation projects in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Re-gion, around Shanghai, Suzhou and Wuxi, Jiangsu Provinceand around Beijing. The technical itinerary of the Work-shop is given in annex I. Although the technical itinerarywas confined to the irrigation projects visited, it must bementioned that the participants were given the opportunityto visit places of historical and cultural interest which pro-vided them with a background perspective for China'spresent setting.

22. The participants appreciated very much the excellentarrangements made by the officials assigned to the Work-

II. The Workshop

shop who spared no efforts to make the stay of the parti-cipants as comfortable and interesting as possible. Theyparticularly expressed a wish to place on record theirheartfelt thanks to the officials and workers they met whoare also listed in annex I.

23. The general procedure of the Workshop was a shortbriefing given by the workers (usually the vice-chairman ofthe commune and his assistants). After the briefing, theparticipants broke up into three groups — Agriculture,Irrigation Engineering, and Administration. One or tworepresentatives of the commune were assigned to eachgroup which obtained information on the respective sub-jects.

24. At the end of the visit to a project, each group heldseparate discussions and prepared a group report whichwas submitted to the Workshop director as a basis forpreparing the draft Workshop report.

C. INSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY: GENERAL

1. Introduction

25. Much has been written about the evolution of thepresent administration system in China, and a very briefoutline only is given here, in order to facilitate the presen-tation of somewhat more detailed information on adminis-trative matters related to water conservancy. Referenceis made to two publications:

(i) The Constitution of the People's Republic ofChina, as adopted on 5 March 1978 by the Fifth NationalPeople's Congress of the People's Republic of China at itsfirst session;

(ii) Report from Tungting - A People's Communeon Taihu Lake, by Wu Chou (distributed to participantsin the Workshop).

26. In the context of its socialist basis, the system inChina placed special emphasis on two principles — that allpeople should have appropriate involvement in planning,carrying out and benefiting from the development process,and that responsibility for decision-making should bedelegated to the lowest effective level.

27. On the highest level of government was the NationalPeople's Congress, Standing Committee and State Counciland the smallest unit was the people's commune, whichhad under its responsibility production brigades and pro-duction teams. Between the national level and the com-munes, in descending order, were provinces, prefecturesand counties. There were in addition, at the provinciallevel, autonomous regions and three municipalities -Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin — and other subdivisions

at lower levels, but the general pattern was as indicated.This structure is illustrated in annex II.

28. As can be seen there was no revolutionary commit-tee (policy-making body) at the prefecture level, the roleof the prefecture being essentially to inspect and checkwork assigned by a province to counties.

2. The commune system

29. The commune played a critical role in the wholesystem. Distinctive features included:

(a) It was the lowest level at which there a wasrevolutionary committee;

(b) It was the highest level at which the congresswas elected by the voting of all adult (18 and over) citi-zens, and not by voting of citizens' representatives;

(c) It was the highest level at which the people'sorganizations developed and managed their enterpriseswithout an associated government departmental structure.(Communes, brigades and teams might, however, havethe support of technicians provided by the State if re-quired.)

30. That term, "the State", also had a watershed at thecommune level. When, for instance, it was said that aservice might be provided by, or payment made to, theState, that referred to institutions at county level or above,where there was a government departmental structure,parallel to the people's organizations which developedand managed programmes appropriate to their level andscope of responsibility.

31. The Workshop was concerned mainly with projectsand activities handled at commune or lower level, and someadditional information is given on this section of thesystem.

32. The people's commune commonly comprised 20,000to" 30,000 people in 15 to 25 production brigades, each ofwhich might comprise from 10 to 25 production teams,which in turn had a population commonly ranging between100 and 300 people. Numbers might, however, be welloutside that range.

33. The terms "people's commune" and "productionbrigades" and "teams" were significant in indicating therelative roles of the bodies referred to. The commune,which often developed and managed industrial enter-prises involving resources not conveniently managed at alower level, might also develop and manage some farmingenterprises and had extensive responsibilities in socialservices, but direct responsibility for use of land wasessentially at the production team level, with the brigade


actively involved in co-ordinating and supporting day-to-day operations.

34. The people's commune congress was elected by thevotes of all members aged 18 or over and held office fortwo years. Provision was made for reasonable representa-tion of different age groups and of women.

35. The people's commune congress elected the com-mune revolutionary committee which elected its ownchairman and a number of vice-chairmen who were assignedresponsibility for specific areas of activity. (In all caseswhere the terms chairman and vice-chairmen are used, thepost might be held by a woman.) The revolutionary com-mittee carried out functions in the nature of a board ofmanagement for the commune with operational responsi-bilities decentralized as much as possible to the productionbrigades and teams.

36. The brigade was managed by an administrative com-mittee which held office for one year. It comprised a com-bination of four members appointed by the commune(secretary, vice-secretary, brigade leader and accountant)and a number, typically five, selected in consultation withthe production teams and endorsed by the communerevolutionary committee. These members had responsi-bilities related to specific areas of activity, i.e. youth,women's affairs, local militia. The names of the fournominees for the key administrative posts in the brigadecommittee were submitted to the brigade for considerationbefore a final decision was made.

37. Each production team had a leader who also heldoffice for one year. In consultation with each productionteam, the brigade compiled a list of names, one for eachteam, and submitted it to the commune revolutionarycommittee for approval, after which each team formallyelected the* designated leader.

38. The following quotations from the two publicationsreferred to previously help to explain the system and itsoperation.

"People's congresses and revolutionary commit-tees of the people's communes are organizations ofpolitical power at the grass-roots level, and are alsoleading organs of collective economy . . . "^

"Deputies to the people's congresses of . . . peo-ple's communes are directly elected by the voters bysecret ballot after democratic consultation . . . "^

"Local revolutionary committees at variouslevels, that is, local people's governments, are theexecutive organs of local people's congresses at the

corresponding levels and they are also local organsof state administration . . . "^

"Local revoluntary committees are responsibleand accountable to people's congresses at the cor-responding levels and to the organs of state adminis-tration at the next higher level, and work underthe unified leadership of the State Council."^

'The people's commune is a social structurethat integrates government administration with com-mune management. It is at once a basic economicorganization and a grass-roots unit of state power inChina's socialist countryside ..."•*

'The people's commune exercises state powerand organizes its own economic activities related toproduction, distribution and consumption. Peopleoften call this the system of integrating governmentadministration with commune management, or thefive-in-one unit administering industry, agriculture,trade, education and military affairs ..."•*

'The commune helps the brigades and teams towork out their production plans, and supervises andchecks up on their implementation. It also lends ahand in improving their administrative and financialwork and distribution of income, and spreads ad-vanced experience and methods among them in orderto increase production ..."•*•

"With the unified leadership of the commune,trade is more closely geared to agricultural produc-tion and other local needs. Basing themselves on thecommune's over-all production plan, the tradingorganizations assess and supply the amounts ofchemical fertilizers, insecticides, farm implementsand other items needed by the brigades and teams.Also in accordance with the plan, they make promptpurchases of farm and side-line products and arrangeproper outlets for them. Their supply and marketingservices help considerably to boost production ..."•*

'The production brigade, functioning undercommune leadership, directs its teams in productionand administration. The brigade participates in thepreparation of the teams' production plans, andv

guides, examines and supervises their production,income distribution and financial work. It helpsthem improve management, initiates and runsbrigade-wide water conservancy and other farmcapital construction projects and, when necessary,organizes joint undertakings between the teams ..."•*

2 Constitution of the People's Republic of China.3 Wu Chbu, Report from Tungting - A People's Commune on

Taihu Lake.

II. The Workshop

"Ownership at the production team level isbasic at the present stage of development. Withinthe team's area, all land, and all forest and waterresources other than those managed by the State,as well as draught animals, farm implements andsmall farm machinery, belong to the team. Neitherthe commune nor the production brigade can usethem without compensation ..."•*

"The production team is the basic accountingunit in the commune. In other words, it organizesproduction and distribution of income, handles itsown accounting and is responsible for its own profitsor losses."-'

39. Institutional machinery above commune level was ofless direct concern to the Workshop, but it was of some in-terest that election of members of the county congressstarted with election of voters by social (mainly occupa-tional) groupings.

40. As indicated above, the words of the Constitution"elected by secret ballot after democratic consultation"summarized a process whereby a consensus was reachedon nominees for office before the matter was formalizedby voting.

3. Technical support and training services

41. It has been mentioned that there was no governmentdepartmental structure below the county level. Communesand lower units were encouraged to develop within theirown members the technical competence necessary for theachievement of their development goals. Provision wasmade, however, for the assignment of specialist cadres(government officers) to a commune by the State whenrequired. Those technicians might work at any level withinthe commune system.

42. There was also provision for assistance with training.In addition to normal procedures whereby citizens withsuitable qualifications might receive higher education, in-service training might be provided at one level for traineesfrom lower levels. This could include trainees sent by thecommune for experience at the provincial level.

43. If a subsidy was being sought for a proposed work,or it affected other communes, the proposal must be sub-mitted to the county for approval, which automaticallyinvolved a check on its technical soundness. This servicemight also be provided on request, even if the proposalaffected only the one commune and no subsidy was beingrequested.

D. INSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY: WATERCONSERVANCY

1. Introduction

44. The arrangements observed and discussed in relationto water conservancy were no doubt similar to those inother areas of activity, but there were some special factorsassociated with the nature of drainage basins. The basicunderlying principles were, as mentioned earlier, involve-ment and motivation of the masses andv maximum effec-tive decentralization. Additionally, in the case of waterconservancy, the system appeared to encourage an inte-grated approach to the management of land and waterresources.

45. Except in the case of the Tsing Ping irrigation project,which involved multipurpose development of a river basin,the Workshop was involved with projects and operationscarried out within the commune system. However, arrange-ments in the Tsing Ping irrigation project, a county project,are illustrated in annex III.

2. Initiation of projects

46. It was a reflection of the Chinese approach that pro-jects seemed to be initiated at the lowest level of identifiedcommunity need and possible remedial action. The effectwas that, from the very beginning, projects were closelyidentified with those who expected not only to benefitfrom them but also to make an important contribution totheir construction. As part of the spirit of local self-reliance, the State was seen as a supplementary resourceto be called on only if necessary, rather than as the mainprovider.

3. Planning, design and construction

47. The planning, design and supervision of constructionof work to be carried out by a production team wouldnormally be done by the brigade which also had responsi-bility for work affecting several teams, or related to brigadeinterests as a whole. It could, however, seek help from thecommune. At each level, plans should be approved by theauthority at the next higher level, but once plans wereapproved at the higher level, responsibility for constructionand management was again delegated as far as possible.

48. The concept of multipurpose projects applied at thecommune level, and not only for larger projects. In theYangtze delta area, navigation was often an important com-ponent along with irrigation and drainage, and fisheriesmight also be significant.

49. With regard to over-all planning, it was reported thatthere were soil maps for all agricultural land, and water was


commonly the limiting factor in the development of agri-culture. The policy was to encourage the formulation andimplementation of water conservancy plans at all levels.As mentioned above, large inter-provincial projects werethe responsibility of the central Government; medium-sizedprojects were frequently designed by a prefecture, checkedand approved by the provincial administration revolu-tionary committee (with the Water Conservancy Bureauchecking technical soundness), with the counties respon-sible for recruitment for construction.

50. Where there was a need for additional water suppliesto make full use of the land in a large or medium-sizedproject, the water users were requested to adopt all possi-ble water-saving measures, and the local authorities wereencouraged to carry out additional smaller water conserva-tion works linked to the main system. In ^uch cases therewas a linking of a number of levels of administration inthe evolution of the final scheme.

51. In the case of works involving more than one com-mune, the county would normally construct, operate andmaintain those works which could not be related directlyto the interests of one commune, and delegated responsi-bility for the remainder. This is discussed in more detaillater in relation to the Tsing Ping irrigation project.

4. Financing

52. As with other aspects, decentralization of financingwas the normal approach, and the high degree of successachieved was a very good indicator of local self-reliance.Capital development funds were commonly formed at theproduction team as well as brigade and commune levels.Thus the production team was commonly the basic ac-counting unit, as well as being the basic water user in irri-gation systems, since there were no individual irrigatorsexcept for home gardens. In some cases, such as the TongHsin brigade, there was no capital fund at the team level,and it was suggested that that arrangement was coming intofavour, since it enabled a more flexible development pro-gramme by a larger community.

53. Capital funds were accumulated by setting aside apart, commonly from 7 per cent to 12 per cent, of theincome from activities managed by the team, brigade orcommune, together with income from side-line activitiescarried on within the respective unit.

54. Depending on the needs of the unit concerned, astate subsidy might be made available for water conser-vancy projects. This commonly ranged from 10 per centto 20 per cent, where the commune or brigade was rela-tively well off, to 30 per cent to 40 per cent where theneed was greater. Higher subsidies were provided in somecases, such as for irrigation and drainage works carried

out by the Tong Hsin brigade, where the subsidy amountedto 60 per cent. The subsidy could take a variety of forms,but in principle was aimed at providing those resourceswhich were most difficult to obtain locally. For instance, inthe case of the Tong Hsin brigade the subsidy was largelyin the form of pumping equipment and constructionmaterial. The Wu Chiao commune obtained cement andreinforcing steel at subsidized rates. Where the local workforce was inadequate, assistance might be given in obtainingadditional labour.

55. Funds for maintenance were raised by charges onwater users (production teams). Charges were normallybased on the area irrigated, and varied with the intensityof land use. The average was about 15 yuan per hectare^per year, ranging from about 9 to 18 yuan depending onthe number of crops grown. Funds might also be raisedfrom other water uses such as navigation and fish breeding.Similar charges were levied by the State in relation to stateprojects or components.

5. Cropping pattern (annual plans)

56. Each year the State compiled over-all productionplans with targets for various agricultural commodities.Targets were allocated through provinces, prefectures andcounties to communes, which made allocations to brigadesand production teams. The allocations were made havingregard to conditions such as soil suitabilities for variouscrops, stage of development, available water, skills andother resources, together with previous production records.Provision was made for negotiation if at any level it wasfelt that the allocated target was inappropriate.

57. Cropping patterns in individual areas were often sub-ject to an evolutionary process associated with improvinglevels of soil fertility, and development of improved irriga-tion and drainage facilities, and that was reflected in theprocess of fixing annual plans. Thus, as with other issues,the determination of cropping patterns involved a continu-ing process of communication between the various levelsfrom the central Government to the production team.

6. Water allocation and system operation

58. Good management of water conservancy projectswas given the same importance as good construction, thepolicy being "those who built the project should manageit".

59. Responsibility for day-to-day water allocation andsystem operation was generally exercised at the same levelsas for construction, and this might involve several levels,depending on the size of the project. In nearly all cases,

4 1.69 Yuan = $US 1.00 (approximate estimate, not officialAugust 1978).

II. The Workshop

however, the system was based on requirements as assessedby the production team, the water user. The Workshopvisited one brigade, however, Lung Chao, in which therewere no production teams, and all operations were managedby the brigade itself. The system used was none the lessvery similar in all cases.

60. Whether or not there were production teams, the areacontrolled by a brigade was divided into blocks of whatmight be termed production team size (commonly varyingfrom 10 to 20 ha) and one person was assigned full time tocontrol deliveries to and drainage from the individual plotsof land within those blocks. In the common case wherethere were production teams, the water manager wasselected by the team and responsible to the team leader.

61. Depending on the nature of the supply of irrigationwater, requests for water were aggregated to give require-ments at progressively higher points in the system. Wherepumping was involved, one person was assigned full timeto each pumping station, by the authority responsible forits performance. This operator was responsible for main-tenance as well as operation of the equipment.

62. At the brigade level there might be a vice-leaderresponsible for water management, or that responsibilitymight be assigned to one of the brigade members. He wasresponsible to the brigade leader for those components ofthe system under the control of the brigade, the objectivebeing to provide water as required to the team, or equiva-lent areas. Personnel controlled by the brigade watermanager might include pump operators and individualsassigned the control part of a distribution system. Similararrangements applied at the commune level.

63. However, at the Tung Pei Wang commune at Beijing,remote control of 25 wells had been established at brigadelevel, and three pump operators were now able to handlethe work, instead of the normal practice of providing oneor two attendants at each well.

64. The case of projects involving more than one com-mune was illustrated by the Tsing Ping irrigation area re-ferred to earlier, and illustrated in annex III. Over-allresponsibility lay with a people's unit, the irrigation areamanagement committee, comprising the chairman of theseven communes and two towns benefiting from the pro-ject, together with the chairman of the reservoir projectmanagement division referred to below. The committeemet weekly to implement resolutions of senior authorities,to formulate and manage irrigation plans, and to popu-larize recommended irrigation practices.

65. The reservoir project management division was atechnical body comprising state personnel and was respon-sible for management, operation and maintenance of the

reservoir, distribution and drainage system down to thelevel at which responsibility was assigned to the communes.The division had five functional units — Office, Engineer-ing, Irrigation, Multipurpose Activities and Hydroelectri-city. Sixteen management stations had been set up withinthe area as focal points for operation and maintenanceof the main, sub-main and distributary channel system.The division (State) assumed direct responsibility foroperation and maintenance of the main and sub-mainsystem, the remainder being handled within the communeadministration.

66. The distributary canal committees were establishedon a commune basis, and comprised the water conservancymember of each brigade (generally a vice-leader) and arepresentative of the division. These committees also metweekly, their functions being to implement resolutions ofthe area management committee, to develop ways of mak-ing more efficient use of water, and to operate, inspectand maintain the distributary canals under their care.

57. In that area the production teams were grouped intheir natural villages for operational purposes. Each villagehad a water management group comprising a representativefrom each production team. Its functions were to formulateplans in accordance with farm activities, to regulate thewater flows, and to save water through the use of goodirrigation practices. The members of the group were thosedirectly involved in controlling water use on the land.

68. Requests for water from individual production teamswere first considered by the group, and if agreed were con-sidered and co-ordinated by the distributary canal commit-tees, which sought appropriate releases of water throughthe system.

7. Maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems

69. The general requirement for good management in-cluded provision for systematic maintenance. Each areawas required to establish a maintenance team and carry outa planned system of maintenance. This was generally donewith the same organization as for operation, labour beingprovided by the affected units in proportion to the benefitsreceived. In addition, intensive maintenance was carried outat the end of irrigation of the second crop.

70. In a number of cases it was noted that one of thereasons given for converting open irrigation and drainagesystems to covered systems was the reduction in main-tenance requirements.

8. Agricultural research and extension services

71. The degree of decentralization of agricultural researchand the methodical integration of research findings were

8 Part One: Report of the Workshop

notable features of practice in China. Experiment stationsappeared to be common at the brigade level, and mightinclude rice-seed breeding. Such stations were also estab-lished and operated at the commune and higher levels asappropriate. Support for such activities might be providedby the State. For instance, in one case, equipment forsprinkler irrigation trials had been so provided. Technicalassistance might also be made available through the assign-ment of cadres with specialized knowledge.

72. Experience gained at such stations was popularizedby various methods, including the holding of demonstra-tions, the provision of lectures and guidance to productionteams and arranging for demonstration plots at suitablescattered locations.

9. Integrated rural development

73. A consistent feature at the places visited was theintegrated approach, not only to irrigated agriculture butalso to the integration of that development into,the totaldevelopment of the community. This included the timelyprovision of all requisites for the agricultural programme,orderly marketing, facilities for repair and maintenance ofequipment, and, often, for the manufacture of equipmentat the commune and brigade levels, roads, town planningand industrial development in relation to rural developmentand so on.

E. PRACTICES IN WATER CONSERVANCY

74. The systems visited during the Workshop providedthe participants the opportunity to observe and study irri-gation and drainage practices in southern, south-easternand northern China.

75. Although water in the Tsing Ping irrigation area wasrelatively plentiful by normal standards in China, it wasstill the limiting resource. High water tables were a problemmainly in the natural depressions and lower reaches of thearea. In the Yangtze delta, however, land was the limitingresource within the areas visited. Natural drainage of theland was poor, the land surface being generally below hightide level except at Wuxi, and special attention had to begiven to both surface and subsurface drainage to overcomethe hazards of floods and waterlogging. In all cases irriga-tion was essential for intensive and reliable crop productionbecause of the strongly seasona and variable rainfall. Themain crops were rice and wheat and, to a lesser extent,cotton.

1. General approach

76. Small projects were considered the mainstay of waterconservancy work, with medium and large projects pro-

viding the necessary support, particularly for mitigationof floods and droughts. Classification was based on areairrigated, Le. small size less than 10,000 rnou,-* mediumsize 10,000 to 30,000 mou and large size more than 30,000mou. Small projects were encouraged because they opti-mized use of local materials and other resources and theprojects were easy to operate and maintain. Medium andlarge projects were often needed as well for proper develop-ment and use of resources.

77. In carrying out projects, it was essential that localconditions were studied and analysed, requirements deter-mined and appropriate measures adopted with a view tomaking the best use of available resources.

78. Comprehensive river-basin planning and multipurposedevelopment were adopted whenever possible. This appliedparticularly to large river basins for which the Ministry ofWater Conservency and Electric Power was responsible,but was also evident on quite small projects.

79. Reflecting the importance ascribed to water con-servancy, masses of peasants, between 50 and 100 milliondepending on conditions, were organized to carry out waterconservancy works during the slack season, commonlyreferred to as the winter-spring campaign. Land levellingwas the major work, but special teams were also formedfor important projects.

80. One of the important objectives of China was toincrease and stabilize agricultural production throughirrigation. To realize that objective, great attention waspaid to the proper use and management of irrigation sys-tems not only in order to make full use of the availablewater resources but also to ensure the safety of the systems.The Government had therefore instituted a policy of givingequal importance to the proper construction and manage-ment of projects. That meant that every structure shouldbe constructed, operated and maintained very well.

81. To carry out the policy, it was essential that completemanagement organizations be established. Projects builtby communes and brigades were managed by the com-munes and brigades themselves, while projects built by theGovernment were managed by special bodies organized bythe Government. The general rule followed was that which-ever authority constructed the system, or any portionthereof, managed it.

82. It was also important that water utilization plansshould be drawn up annually or before each irrigationseason so that the water could be allocated and supplied intime for irrigation. In the case of systems managed bybrigades or communes, water allocation and supply prob-

5 15 mou = 1 hectare.

II. The Workshop

lems could easily be resolved, as those bodies could maketheir own decisions. For systems managed by the State,however, it was necessary to have a unified plan whichspecified how much water should be supplied to each userfor a given period of time during the irrigation season.The factors considered in preparing the plan were:

(a) Size of area and kinds of crops grown based onlocal production plan;

(b) Irrigation and cultivation practices for thecrops grown;

(c) Type of soil on which crops were grown;

(d) Available water resources;

(e) Capacity of the conveyance canals.

83. Where water supplies were limited in relation to waterdemand, certain measures were adopted to conserve watersupplies. The water users were requested to save water.They were encouraged to use "self-prepared" water re-sources such as small tanks and ponds, which they wereencouraged to build near irrigation canals like "melons ona long vine". In northern China, many tube wells weredrilled so that ground water could be used conjunctivelywith surface water.

84. In addition to the above measures, land levelling wasa basic requirement which was considered particularlyimportant to increase irrigation efficiency.

85. A very important aspect in the efficient use andmaintenance of irrigation systems at the farm level wasthe effective extension (popularization) techniques adoptedby China in ensuring that efficient irrigation techniqueswere applied by the water users. The Workshop observedthat those extension techniques frequently made use ofslogans which could be remembered easily by the produc-tion teams.

86. Among some of the general irrigation practices whichwere passed down to the water users were the following:

(a) Avoiding "running-water" irrigation — applyingirrigation water independently and individually to eachplot;

(b) Using shallow water irrigation;

(c) Carrying out watering day and night;

(d) Controlling the ground-water level in the soil.

87. Examples and details of the application of the abovewere explained to the participants during their visits toproject areas.

88. An illustration of the application of the generalapproach outlined above was seen in the Tsing Ping irriga-tion area in Pinyang County, Guangxi Province.

89. The importance of the formulation of water utiliza-tion plans for the timely mobilization and utilization ofinputs was emphasized in the slogan of the 'Three Defi-nites" and the "Four Reach to the Field" The "ThreeDefinites" were programmes for irrigating a definite area ata definite time with a definite discharge, while the "FourReach to the Field" simply meant that water, man, workanimals and machines should all reach the field at thesame time.

90. In order to optimize the use of the water supply ofthe system, the "Five Firsts" slogan was adopted whichlaid down the following basic rules:

(a) First use natural flow of streams and return flowfrom irrigation areas and then wSter from ponds and smallreservoirs;

(b) First use water from small ponds and reservoirsand then use water from the main reservoir;

(c) First irrigate fields in high lands and then in lowareas;

(d) First irrigate large plots and fields and then oddand scattered fields;

(e) First irrigate crops with the greatest need andthen those whose needs are not so urgent.

At the same time attention was required to be paid to thefollowing "Four Relationships":

(a) Between irrigation and food control. While itwas important to discharge water to prevent flooding, itwas also important that as much water as possible shouldbe stored for irrigation;

(b) Between upstream and downstream areas. Thereshould be equitable distribution of water between the two;

(c) Between big discharges and small discharges. Inthe case of drought, high discharges should be releasedfirst so as to reach the tail end of the canal and thensmaller discharges maintained. This would minimize waterlosses and crop damage;

(d) Between power generation and irrigation require-ments. Power should be generated only when water wasrequired for irrigation purposes.

2. Distribution and drainage systems

91. Before 1949, the areas visited in the course of theWorkshop consisted of irregularly shaped farm lands


drained by meandering water courses. Because of their lowelevation, these areas were often subject to floods andwaterlogging during wet years but were also subject todrought during dry years. The average annual yield of riceranged from 100 to 250 kg/mou. After the constructionof water conservancy works and arid land consolidation,average annual rice yields increased significantly, theincreases ranging from about 400 to 1,000 kg/mou.

92. The distinctive features and practices characterizingthe irrigation systems visited during the Workshop were:(a) protection from flooding by the construction of earthembankments around low-lying farm land; (b) careful landpreparation through high standards of land levelling andconsolidation in regular rectangular blocks of a size to suitlocal conditions; (c) careful application of irrigation wateraccording to knowledge of crop water requirements gainedfrom local experience and disseminated widely to themembers of production teams; (d) provision for irrigationand drainage of plots invididually; (e) control of the groundwater table; (f) extensive and intensive use of pumps forirrigation and drainage; (g) provision of access roads;(h) conjunctive use of surface and ground water, includingfull utilization of supplemental sources of water supplies.

(a) The Tsing Ping water conservancy works

93. The general slope in the irrigated area was about 1 in500 but the individual plots were level. From one plot toanother plot there was some difference in level dependingon the slope of the land. Where the slope was large, thefields were terraced and the field ditches served as drainagechannels for the upper terrances and irrigation channelsfor the lower reaches.'

94. The field ditches were open ditches fed by distribu-taries which ran parallel to the sub-main canal below theground surface for some distance. These distributaries alsoserved to collect drainage water from adjacent rice fieldsand at the same time fed water to field ditches downstream.Where the distributary canals took off from the sub-maincanal, simple gated regulators made of rubble masonrywere provided. Flow at these bifurcations was measuredby staff gauges. The water level in the sub-main canalbelow the gate regulators was lower than the ground sur-face, enabling surface drainage water to enter the canal.

95. The plots were irrigated through gaps cut in onecorner of the small embankment surrounding the plot^through which water flowed from the field ditches andwhich could be closed with earth when required.

96. Water could be let into the plots or drained fromthem by raising or lowering the water level in the fieldditches by blocking or unblocking the field ditches belowthe supply point with earth or small slide gates. Thus,

the field ditches could be used for both irrigation anddrainage. No measuring devices were used for delivery ofwater to the individual plots, but it appeared that theexperience of the operator enabled efficient water manage-ment to be achieved.

97. Drainage water collected from upper fields was usedto irrigate downstream areas. One such drainage canal at theChou Shu people's commune (7.5 km long, 7 m wide, 1.6m deep with a capacity of 11 m^/sec) replaced a smalland narrow meandering stream. In a number of cases itwas noted that lined channels had nearly vertical sides inorder to reduce the land area required for a channel withgiven discharge capacity.

98. In the Kung Tsun production brigade irrigation area,a typical field plot was rectangular, 20 m wide and 50 mlong. In general, it was irrigated and drained by the samefield ditch but in some cases, depending on the topography,there were separate field and drainage ditches.

99. Field ditches were generally 40 cm wide and 30 cmdeep while separate open drainage ditches were generally60 cm wide and 40 cm deep both being nearly rectangularin cross-section. Field ditches were spaced 100 m apart sothat water was applied in opposite directions from eachfield ditch running between rows of 50 m x 20 m plots.In one area a single outlet at the corner of four plots servedall four, with the water flowing away from the outlet inall directions.

100. While plot sizes varied considerably, there seemedto have been a careful planning process to relate plot sizeand irrigation and drainage systems to the prevailing condi-tions.

(b) The Yangtze delta

101. Except for the Mei Bei production brigade, whichwas located away from tidal influence, the systems visitedin the Yantze delta were in low-lying areas subject to flood-ing from high tides and heavy rainfall and, in addition, onland at higher levels, losses associated with droughts. Thepattern before 1949 had been one crop per year fromuneven land which was poorly drained and inadequatelywatered, with irregular natural watercourses and depres-sions. Individual blocks were therefore irregular in sizeand shape.

102. More recently, extensive works had been undertakenwith emphasis on the following:

(i) Construction of dykes or embankments toprotect low-lying areas from high tides;

(ii) Restructuring the natural channels to provide aregular pattern suitable as a source of irrigation water, asa main drainage system, and as a basis for water transport;

II. The Workshop 11

(iii) Control of .water levels within the project areaby gates and locks and associated pumps;

(iv) Provision of pumps to serve the land to be irri-gated, by pumping from the channel systems the head wascommonly 2 to 3 m;

(v) Provision of surface and subsurface drainagesystems to enable accurate management of surface watersupplies and water table, in accordance with the crop re-quirements;

(vi) Land preparation involving the subdivision ofland into rectangular blocks suited to local conditions —commonly 15 to 25 m wide and 80 to 100 m long - andprecise levelling of each block;

(vii) Progressive conversion of open supply channelsand drains to covered conduits constructed in situ using amixture of subsoil and lime;

(viii) Direct water supply to and drainage from eachindividual plot for accurate and rapid water control onthe land.

103. The increasing use of covered supply and drainagesystems was based on improved speed and flexibility inwater management, lower operation and maintenancecosts, improved access for agricultural equipment and asaving in cultivable land compared with open channel anddrain systems. Tractor ("walking tractor") roads werecommonly constructed over the covered conduits.

104. Subsurface drains were commonly at a depth of 1 to1.2 m, and a spacing of 10 to 20 m. At Mei Bei, a spacingof about 7 m was used as the subsoil was clay with a verylow permeability.

105. In the systems affected by tides, water quality wassuitable for irrigation and, in normal circumstances, waterwas admitted to the system twice a day by gravity. Afterheavy rain it was necessary to dispose of the water quickly,and pumps were provided at the frontage with the riversystem for that purpose.

106. One of the brigades visited had summed up thepurpose of the water conservancy works as the "fourseparates":

(i) To separate the water in the rivers and channelsoutside the area from the system inside the area;

(ii) To separate the water in the higher areas in theproject from the water in the lower areas;

(iii) To provide separate irrigation and drainage;

(iv) To enable separate management of paddy anddry (wheat) fields.

107. The emphasis on flexibility and speed in watercontrol was illustrated in the Wu Chiao people's communewhere originally a small number of large irrigation pumpingstations, each serving 470 ha, had been built. That had beenprogressively modified, and there were now 23 pumpingstations each serving about 70 ha.

108. In all cases the system was based on the main channelsystem being used as a drain and irrigation supply and forwater transport. Irrigation water was pumped on to theland and returned to the drain by gravity. Water levels onthe main channel system were controlled at the desiredlevels by pumps, gates and locks.

(c) Beijing area

109. In northern China, which was a semi-arid region,60 million mou of farm land was irrigated mainly throughthe conjunctive use of ground water and surface water.Where the water table was near the ground surface, the useof ground water and resultant lowering of the water tableprevented soil deterioration owing to waterlogging andsalinization. In the Beijing area, 4 million mou of farmlandwas irrigated by both surface and ground water.

110. The Workshop participants visited the Tung Pei Wangcommune in the Beijing area where the typical techniquesin the conjunctive use of surface and ground water wereexplained. Of the total area of 33 sq km, the communefirst levelled 1,500 ha, consolidated the land into big plotsof 15 ha, which in turn were subdivided into smaller plotsof 2 mou according to unified plan. Irrigation canals wereconstructed to convey only surface water from the nearbyChing Mi diversion project and open drainage ditches wereexcavated. Every 500 m there was a distributary canalserving 2 to 3 ha through field ditches which supplied waterto 25 m by 50 m plots.

111. As the surface water was insufficient, 130 wells,120 to 140 m deep, were drilled to supplement the surfacewater with ground water. There was a well for every 15 ha.The commune, which grew wheat, corn and rice, received70 per cent of its irrigation water from ground water and30 per cent from surface water.

112. The techniques for drilling, testing and developingwells appeared to be similar to conventional practices.Percussion-type drilling equipment was used with drillingmud to keep a 550 mm hole open while installing a 330mm-diameter steel casing, opposite the aquifers the casingwas perforated and wound with wire, and gravel packed.Samples were taken at each aquifer for analyses and a welllog was maintained. Pump tests were, however, sent to theFirst Mechanical Research Institute (a national body) foranalysis and determination of appropriate pump capacityand setting. Pumps were generally at 17 hp and could dis-charge 87 cu m per hour.


113. The annual average total power consumption ofeach pump (serving 15 ha) was from 600 to 800 kWh.As the cost of electricity was 6 fen per kWh for ruraldevelopment (compared with 20 fen per unit for industry),the annual cost of pumping came to 2.4 to 3.2 yuan permou over the area. This water charge varied according tothe crop grown and was 2 yuan for rice, 3 yuan for veget-ables and 70 to 80 fen for wheat and corn.

3. Maintenance

114. Reference has already been made to the attentiongiven to systematic maintenance of water conservancyworks. It was also frequently noted that steps had beentaken to modify systems or to use devices and systemswhich not only operated efficiently but also had low main-tenance requirements. The use of covered supply anddrainage conduits, and of concrete for gates of all sizesdown to farm outlets, were illustrations of this.

4. Irrigated agriculture

115. The term "irrigated agriculture" was particularlyappropriate in discussing practices in China since, as men-tioned earlier, the whole approach was based on integrationof all the components involved in achieving optimum useof land and water resources for crop production. In pre-vious sections reference has been made to those matterswhich seemed to be of the greatest interest and importance,but it may be convenient to summarize here the factorswhich seem to be critical.

116. First, however good the available technology andresources might be, it was unlikely that they would be usedwith full effectiveness unless the people concerned weresuitably motivated, and that consideration underlay allothers. Secondly, since, for China as a whole, water was thelimiting factor in agricultural development preparation ofland as a basis for efficient irrigation was treated as a matterof outstanding importance. That involved regular size andshape of individual irrigation plots, and levelling'of landwithin those plots to an exceptioally high standard. For thesame reason, there was a continual striving for optimumperformance in the systems themselves, and in their opera-tion and maintenance, in irrigation and drainage facilities,in order to produce the highest yields per unit of waterprovided. As part of the same concern, great attention waspaid to soil fertility, with special emphasis on the use oforganic fertilizer produced locally, and to the developmentof plant varieties suited to local conditions through seed-breeding programmes.

117. It was made clear to the Workshop participantsthat the itinerary had been planned to show some of theareas in which considerable progress had been made in

achieving the desired standards of productivity and effi-ciency, since that was the basis for the Workshop. Whilefurther progress was expected in the areas visited, in spiteof their relatively advanced state, there were many otherparts of China which were currently far behind thosewhich had been visited. South and south-eastern China wererelatively well endowed with water, and the same levels ofproductivity could not be expected on a general basis.

118. In that connexion, reference might be made to somedifferences in practice associated with water availability.In the Yangtze delta, where water suitable for irrigation wascommonly available only a metre or two below the levelof the land surface, and could be pumped on to the land atlow cost, rainfall which did not fit in with the carefullyplanned watering programme was drained off as quicklyas possible, so that in spite of the substantial rainfall mostof the crop water requirements were met by irrigation.In the Tsing Ping irrigation area, however, although most ofthe area was served by gravity, water was the limitingfactor, and use was made of the rainfall as far as possible.The wet season occurred mainly during the growth ofthe second rice crop, and about 300 mm out of a totalof about 500 mm was effective as far as irrigation wasconcerned.

119. In all areas visited south of the Yangtze, rice was theprincipal crop, and the precise watering schedules whichhad been developed seemed to involve, in effect, wateravailability to the production team almost on demand,although rostering appeared to be practised to some extent.The practices observed in the south involved a capacity inthe supply system somewhat higher than might otherwisehave been expected. It was understood that in drier areasit was the policy of the Ministry to encourage irrigation ona roster system with a view to reducing not only the capitalcost but also losses from seepage and evaporation. In suchcases, rostering was based on the layout of the distributionsystem rather than on existing administrative subdivisions.

120. In spite of differences reflecting local conditions,practices in the areas visited south of the Yangtze werebroadly similar, and the general features are summarized inannex IV. It was notable that in all cases detailed informa-tion was available on water applications at the variousgrowth stages of rice, reflecting systematic study at experi-ment stations, followed by effective ."popularization"programmes to ensure that the best practices were adopted.The watering sequence for rice was related to plant require-ments not only for water, but also for aeration of the rootzone, and for appropriate temperatures. Thus the waterwas allowed to drain from the soil for periods of abouta week at certain stages, and, at the early stages of the firstcrop, depth of water was designed partly for protectionfrom low temperatures.

II. The Workshop 13

121. In general, the productivity per unit of water usedwas very high compared with values commonly encoun-tered in other countries of the region. For instance, totalwater consumption for a crop of rice was generally below900 mm, with yields up to 6 tons per hectare.

122. Quick draining of the flat plots was assisted in manycases by field ditches near the perimeter of the plots, andoften down the middle, and connected to the drainageoutlet. The ditches were commonly about 12 cm wide and20 cm deep.

123. In those areas also, the growing of three crops peryear was common, and that practice was being extended.The most common rotation in the areas visited was wheat-rice-rice, with cotton or barley as alternatives to wheat insome cases. Where the winter crop was not a grain, a greenmanure was often grown, bird's-foot trefoil being the mostcommon variety encountered, with milk vetch used in onecase (Wuxi County).

124. In all cases, special attention had been given to thecontrol of the water table to suit the different requirementsof the paddy and the winter crop. Where the water tablewas controlled by open drains, the depth was varied fromabout 60 cm for rice to about 1 m to 1.2 m for wheat, bydigging out and refilling as required. In that case, the depthof the internal field ditches referred to above was alsovaried with the crop, being about 18 cm for rice and 50 cmfor wheat. Where subsurface drainage had been providedunder the plots, the outlets were controlled, and were keptclosed when rice was being grown, except when the plotswere being drained, and open during the growth of thewinter crop.

125. The following summary of rice irrigation practice,which was provided in relation to the Tsing Ping area,illustrates the care that was taken in the matter. The prac-tice was based on studies at the experiment farm since1966, and was referred to as the nine links in rice cultiva-tion. As shown, they were first presented' in very briefform, presumably for easy memorizing, and then elaborateda little.

(i) Soak the field before transplanting;

(ii) When transplanting, use shallow water;

(iii) When growth resumes, use deeper water;

(iv) When tillering, keep soil moist;

(v) After middle cultivation, leave at originalmoisture;

(vi) When full tillering, expose to the sun;

(vii) At the heading stage, use shallow water;

(viii) When milking, keep moist;

(ix) Expose to the sun for harvest.

(i) Normally the field would be as ploughed,with organic or green manure buried in the soil. The fur-rows had a spacing of about 20 cm and a depth of about15 cm. The first soaking involved filling the furrows toabout half depth, then allowing them to dry, after whichharrowing produced a smooth, level surface. An applica-tion of 10 to 15 mm of water was then made, allowedto dry on the surface, and followed by a second harrowingand watering. It was stated that the successive small water-ings resulted in better retention of soil fertility and highersoil temperature than a single large watering.

(ii) Transplanting was done with a water depthof 6 to 9 mm, following a third watering as above. Carewas taken to ensure planting at the correct spacing anddepth. Where mechanical transplanting was done, thecare taken in land levelling was an important factor insecuring uniform depth of planting. Spacing and the num-ber ofplants per "hole" are given in annex IV.

(iii) During the green period which began five toseven days after planting, a depth of 30 to 50 mm shouldbe maintained. This greater depth of water acts as abuffer against undesirably high or low temperatures.

(iv) During tillering, water should be at such alevel that the tops of the small ridges in the cultivationwere showing. That allowed higher soil temperatures,which increased tillering, and aeration of the soil withimproved fertility.

(v) Middle cultivation was carried out about8 to 12 days after transplanting. Often weeds were buriedby working with the feet in the soil and at the same time"stirring" the soil; fertilizer was also applied. The fieldwas then allowed to dry out for two or three days, stimulat-ing further root development. Irrigation was then resumed.

(vi) At full tillering, the field was again allowedto dry out, the length of time being four to seven days,depending on the vigour of the plants. That process in-creased tillering.

(vii) Water should be applied two to three daysbefore heading, and kept at a shallow depth, 6 to 9 mm,until heading the flowering were completed.

(viii) Conditions at the milking stage were impor-tant for yield. At that stage water should be applied everythree to four days and allowed to drain quickly, followedby drying until the soil would no longer stick to the feet.

(ix) little water was required during the ripeningstage, but watering should not be stopped too early or therewould be premature ripening and an increase in the propor-tion of empty grains. On the other hand, if watering wascarried on too long, there was liable to be an increase


in pests and diseases and a delay in maturing, as well asa waste of water.

126. Reference has been made to the emphasis on develop-ing and maintaining soil fertility. Information on practicesin the application of fertilizer is also summarized in annexIV. In all areas visited, organic fertilizer was regarded as thebasis of soil fertility management. It commonly consistedof a mixture of green manure, straw, pig manure, mud fromthe bed or banks of rivers/channels and miscellaneous wastematerial. Applications in the areas visited ranged up to75,000 kg per ha for each of three crops per year.

127. Management practices for other crops were notobtained in much detail, but some information is alsogiven in annex IV.

128. Only one visit was made in northern China, to theTung Pei Wang commune near Beijing. Of the total culti-vated area of 1,500 ha, 900 ha were used for grain. Twocrops per year were grown, the most common combinationbeing wheat and corn with some wheat and paddy. Allthe cultivated land used for grain had been formed into50 x 25 m plots with facilities for irrigation of each plotindividually, along similar lines to those observed in thesouth. Water-table control was obtained by the 'use ofdeep open drains.

129. Reference has been made to the use of slogans topopularize good practices. The setting of goals or targetsby the Government and by people themselves was alsocommon. Maps and charts showing planned developmentand/or production by 1985 were on display in a numberof places visisted. In various places a time limit was setfor the complete conversion to "Dazhai-type" fields -plots of regular rectangular shape, but with some flexibi-lity in dimensions to suit local conditions, accuratelylevelled for efficient water management, and with faci-lities for irrigation and drainage of each plot independently.Reference was also made to the goal of achieving "tonnagefields" - yields of one ton of grain per mou (15 tons per ha)per year. It appeared that goal-setting played a significantrole in the continuing improvement of productivity.

F. MAIN FACTORS AND TRANSFERABILITY

130. On the basis of observations and the informationgathered, the items listed below, not necessarily in theorder of their importance, were considered the mainfactors which contributed to the effective use and main-tenance of irrigation systems at the farm level in China.They are grouped under three main headings:

(a) Administrative and sociological issues;

(b) Engineering and water management;

(c) Agriculture.

131. It was realized that, for various reasons, not all thefactors listed below could be adopted by other countrieswhile some could be adopted with varying degrees ofdifficulty, and over varying periods of time. For purposesof indicating their transferability, the factors were classi-fied into four groups: (1) those which were already beingcarried out by one or more countries; (2) those whichcould be carried out without any serious obstacle; (3)those which could be carried out but would require sometime for preparations or adjustments; and (4) those whichhad little prospect of adoption.

132. The numbers in brackets after each factor in thelist below correspond to its transferability according tothe above classification. In some cases, a factor was classi-fied under more than one category because of its differentapplicability to different groups of countries, or even indifferent situations in individual countries.

1. Administrative and sociological issues

133. - Motivation and mobilization of people (see para.136);

- Development of plots of land of such size andshape as would lead to efficiency in irrigatedagriculture (3);

- Integration of irrigation with related agriculturalactivities, and of irrigated agriculture with allaspects of rural development (1);

- Use of slogans for dissemination of techniques(2);

- Use of goals or targets set by the Governmentand by the people themselves (1,3).

2. Engineering and water management

134. - Formation of regular blocks of land (1,2, 3);

— Land levelling (1,2);

— Provision of flexible water supply and compre-hensive drainage systems to serve individualblocks and to suit different crop requirements(2,3);

— Conjunctive use of all available water resourcesby meeans of large and small storages, streamdiversions, drainage water and ground water0,2);

— Integration of irrigation/drainage systems with:

(a) Flood protection (1,2);(b) Farm access roads (1);(c) Water transport (1);

— Land reclamation through straightening ofz meandering water courses (2);

II. The Workshop

— Extensive use of appropriate local materials,techniques and experience (1);

— Use of appropriate designs for simplicity inconstruction, operation and maintenance (1,2).

3. Agriculture

135. Use of practices at the farm level based on localexperience to increase productivity and optimize waterand land use, and, in particular:

— Careful application of irrigation water in accord-ance with locally determined plant requirements(2,3);

— Timely use of fertilizers, particularly locallyproduced organic fertilizers, to build up andmaintain soil fertility (1,2);

— Use of seed suited to local conditions (1,2);

— Establishment of research stations and demons-tration farms in the subject areas, linked withextension services (1, 2).

136. It would be noted that the first factor - motivationand mobilization of people - was not placed in any categorybecause there were a number of elements which contri-buted to the successful motivation and mobilization ofpeople, each of which could by itself have a differentdegree of transferability. The elements identified by theparticipants as being specially important are listed belowand have been classified according to their transferability:

(i) Collective ownership of land (4);

(ii) Profit sharing (by work point system) (4);

(iii) Provision of agricultural credit, inputs,storage and marketing facilities (1,2);

(iv) Decentralization of planning and decision-making (3);

(v) Generation of local capital developmentfunds (3,4);

(vi) Production target setting through negotia-tion (4);

(vii) Use of slogans for dissemination of statepolicy (2);

(viii) Stable prices for agricultural products (3);

(ix) Decentralized demonstration farms andextension services (2);

(x) Education of the public concerning achieve-ments in agricultural production (1,2);

(xi) Free and frequent flow of public informa-tion up and down the organization (3);

(xii) Fairly frequent public selection of leaders,

15

direct at the lowest level, indirect at the higher levels,through a system of negotiation and consensus (1,2).

137. Although the first two elements listed above, whichwere considered particularly important, did not seemlikely to be applied directly in other countries, it shouldbe noted that there were other ways, already within theexperience of some countries, by which most of the bene-fits associated with those elements might be achieved.Countries might find different ways, through appropriatelegal and institutional machinery, to achieve most of thebenefits. For instance, various forms of co-operative seemedto offer real prospects of providing the necessary motiva-tion. That type of development called for vigorous pro-grammes for the training of competent leaders, particularlyfor small rural communities, and it was considered thatthat warranted the highest priority.

G. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

138. The conclusions and recommendations of the Work-shop are listed below.

1. Conclusions

139. The Workshop had been a very valuable experiencewhich had contributed to the knowledge of the participantsin the effective use and management of irrigation systemsat the farm level.

140. Most of the technological and agricultural factorsidentified at the Workshop were transferable to other coun-tries with only modest degrees of difficulty.

141. The principal factor contributing to the success ofChina in this field was the effective motivation and mobi-lization of people. That factor comprised a number ofelements some of which could, with minor modifications,be applied to other countries without serious difficulty.Although it was recognized that a number of the elements,being closely related to the institutional arrangementsin China, could not be adopted by other countries becauseof differences in social, economic, cultural and politicalframework, as mentioned in paragraph 137, countriesmight find different ways, appropriate to their own cir-cumstances, by which most of the desired benefits couldbe achieved.

2. Recommendation

142. Having regard to the vital importance of the efficientuse and management of irrigation and drainage systems atthe farm level in increasing the productivity of land andwater resources and improving the well-being of the peopleof the region, it was recommended that the factors insection F be carefully considered and applied to the maxi-mum possible extent, having regard to local circumstances.


Annex I

LOCATIONS VISITED AND OFFICIALS ENCOUNTERED

24.8.1978 Guangzhou, Guangdong Province

Ministry of Water Conservancy and Electric Power

Mrs. CHU Yun-pei Staff member

Mrs. MENG Chih-min Staff member

Mr. HO Sung-han Staff member

Mrs. HAN Ching-cheh Staff member

Foreign Affairs Division, Water Conservancy Bureau, Guangdong Province

Mr. YAO Chang-kuei Deputy Chief

Mr. TENG Lieh-meng Staff member

Mr. WU Pen-cheng Staff member

25.8.1978 Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region


Mr. LOU Fu-li Chief, Farmland Irrigation Division

Bureau of Water Conservancy and Electric Power, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region

Mrs. KAN Ku Director

Mrs. CHEN Miao-ying Technician

Division of Foreign Office of the Region

Mr. LUO Hsieh-san Chief

Mr. CHANG Hsueh-ho Section Head

Mr. HU Chun-feng Interpreter

Miss PAN Hsueh-ling ., . Staff member

Bureau of Water Conservancy and Electric Power, Guangxi Province

Mr. CHANG Chuo-liang . Bureau Chief

26.8.1978 TsingPing Reservoir, Pingyang County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region

Pingyang County Revolutionary Committee

Mr. YANG Ching-su Deputy Chairman, Irrigation

Reservoir Management Authority

Mr, MENG Kuei-fu Director

Reservoir Experiment Station

Mr. WEN Cheu-shou Technician

II. The Workshop 17

27.8.1978 Tsing Ping Reservoir, Pingyang County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region

Kung Tsun Production Brigade, Shing Ping People's Commune

Mr. TENG Chao-chi

Chou Shu People's Commune

Mr. MENG Tse-chian

Mr. WU Chee-chiang

28.8.1978 Travel from Guangxi-Guanzhou-Shanghai

29.8.1978 Shanghai

Shanghai Farmland Capital Construction Headquarters

Mr. FAN Chung-yi

Mr. WANG Cheng-chung

Mr. MIAO Chin-tang

Mr. LU Pao-cheng

Mr. LI Chun-lin

Shanghai Agricultural Bureau

Mr. YU Peng-chun

Mr. YANG Yu-chen

Wu Chiao People's Commune, Feng Hsian County

Mr. LIU Huei-lin

Mr. JI Yong-chun

30.8.1978 Shanghai

Shanghai Industrial Exhibition Centre

Mr. CHANG Chin-ken

31.8.1978 SuzhouPrefecture, JiangsuProvince

Water Conservancy Bureau, Jiangsu Province

Mr. YUAN Hong-Shen

Water Conservancy Bureau, Suzhou Prefecture

Mr. NI Yong-shen

Mr. HSU Hsing-rong

Mr. CHUANG Kuan-yan

Reception Group, Suzhou Prefecture

Mr. YUAN Tsi-on

Brigade Leader

Deputy Chairman, Commune Re-volutionary Committee

Staff member, Commune Revolu-tionary Committee

Deputy Director

Chief, Planning and Design Division

Water Conservancy Engineer

Staff member

Staff member

Technician

Staff member

Vice-Chairman, Commune Revolu-tionary Committee

Head, Commune Irrigation andDrainage Station

Staff member

Staff member

Head

Technician

Staff member

Staff member


Chung Chao People's Commune, Wuhsian County

Mr. SHEN Gi-shin

Mr. CHIENG Chen-tuag

Mr. SUNG Yu-hsin

Lung Chao Production Brigade

Mr. LO Kui-yuan

Mr. WANG Lung-shu

1.9.1978 Kun Shan County, Suzhou Prefecture, Jiangsu Province

Chen Pei People's Commune

Mr. TAO Hsueh-liang

Mr. LI Hsin

Mr. WU Chung Teh

Tong Hsin Production Brigade, Chen Pei Commune

Mr. SHEN Wei-chun

Mr. CHIN Ting-kun

2.9.1978 Wuxi County, Suzhou Prefecture, Jiangsu Province

Wuxi County Bureau of Water Conservancy and Electric Power

Mr. CHENG Yu-sheng

Mr. LU Lin-ken .

Mr. TSU Bo-mieng

Mei Tsun People's Commune

Mr. KAO Hsu-yie

Mr. CHU Ming-wei

Mr. LENG Chung-ying

Mr. SUN Pe-liang

Mrs. CHIAN Fung Chuan

Mei Bei Production Brigade

Mr. CHOU Shen-hsian

3.9.1978 (Overnight at Wuxi - depart for Beijing by train at 12.30 hours)

4.9.1978 Beijing

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Mr. PI Chi-lung

Vice-Chairman, Commune Revolu-tionary Committee

Hydraulic Technician

Agricultural Technician

Deputy Leader

Water Pump Station Manager andProduction Team Leader

Vice-Chairman

Technician, Water Control

Technician, Agriculture

Brigade Leader

Brigade Accountant

Head, Water Control and Agricul-ture Group

Technician

Reception Group

Vice-Chairman

Secretary

Agricultural Technician

Water Conservancy Technician

Sericulture Technician

Brigade Leader

Director, Department of Interna-tional Treaties, Laws and Organiza-tions

II. The Workshop 19


Mr. LI Po-ning Vice-Minister

Department of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Water Conservancy and Electric Power

Mr. YANG Ting-yuan Deputy Director

Mr. CHU Ching-teh Deputy Director

Mrs. TSOU You-lan Interpreter

5.9.1978 Hi Tien District, Beijing

Tung Pei Wang People's Commune

Mr. WANG Chen-hong Vice-Chairman - Education

Mr. LI Yuan-hai Vice-Chairman - Production

Mr. SOON Ting-yi Commune Technician

Mr. LIU Huai-shih Head, Water Conservancy Section

Mr. TENG Tse-fa Well Sinking Team

Hi Tien District Water Conservancy Bureau

Mr. DUAN Sao4iua Technician


Level

State

Province (Municipality,Autonomous Region)

Prefecture

County

Commune

Annex II

INSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY

People's administration

National People's Congress,Standing Committee and StateCouncil

People's congress and revolu-tionary committee

People's congresstionary committee

and revolu-

People's congress and revolu-tionary committee

Commonly, a vice-chairman ofrevolutionary committee hadresponsibility for water con-servancy, and headed communegroup on that subject. A brigadevice4eader might have similarfunctions at brigade level. Onewater manager commonly de-signated by production team.

Government unit

Ministry of Water Conservancyand Electric Power (WCEP)

Bureau of WCEP

Bureau of WCEP

Bureau of WCEP

No unit as such; cadres assignedto work in commune adminis-tration

II. The Workshop 21

Annex III

ORGANIZATION OF TSING PING AREA

People's organizations

Irrigation Area Management Committee(Representatives of communes and townsin the area; head of the Reservoir Ad-ministration Division was chairman of theCommittee)

Government (technical) organizations

-Reservoir Management Division

Distribution canal committees

(Deputy leaders of brigades)

Village water management groups

(Leaders of production teams)

Production teams

Water managementstations (16)

Functional units (5)

AdministrationEngineeringIrrigationMultipurposeHydroelectric


Location

Tsing Ping area

Yangtze delta

Beijing

Tsing Ping

Water

Fertilizer(kg per ha)

Annex IV

AGRICULTURE

Common crop rotations

Rice-rice; some winter "green manure"

Rice-rice-wheat (most common)Cotton-wheat, or green manure (once or twice in three years, in rotation with the rice-rice-wheat

sequence, in one of the areas visited)Cropping intensity 260 and 275 per cent in two areas visited

Corn-wheat (most common)Rice-wheat

Rice-water and fertilizer sequences and applications

For watering sequence see paragraph 125. Total application, two crops, formerly 1,200 mm,currently 600-700 mm. Effective rainfall about 300 mm in addition to irrigation. On experimentstation, total water use, including effective rainfall, was reduced from about 750 mm in 1967(first year) to about 640 mm in 1971.

A Before cultivation, basic fertilizer (ploughed in): 22,500 kg green manure; 15,000 kg organicfertilizer; 225-375 kg superphosphate; 75-120 kg urea.

B "Mid-cultivation" (8-12 days after transplant): 75 kg urea; 11,000 kg organic manure.

C Twenty days after transplant: 75 kg potash; 375-750 kg lime.

Yangtze delta

Transplant Heading Harvest

Shanghai

Water (mm)

Fertilizer (kg per ha)

Recovery Tillering or eanng Milking Ripening

150 45 30

AB C D

A Before ploughing, basic fertilizer;22,500 kg pig manure;45,000-75,000 kg organic fertilizer

B After ploughing375 kg ammonia liquor (17 per cent N)

C One week after transplanting;225 kg ammonium sulphate

D At beginning of earing;75 kg ammonium sulphate

60 150

Total irrigation(mm)

c. 440 excludingnursery

II. The Workshop 23

Transplant Heading Harvest

Suzhou

Lung Chao:

Water applied(mm)

Tong Hsin:

Water depth on soil(mm)

Wuxi:Fertilizer

Recovery Tillering or eanng Milking

1

Ripening

140 60

150 50

210 220(little effective rainfall)

150

Total irrigation(mm)

750-900 exclud-ing nursery

30 Intermittent irrigation until five days 570-940 plus 110before harvest for nursery

Intermittent irrigation was mainly a seven-day cycle with 40-50 mmdepth for five days followed by two days quick draining and drying.Total water varied with temperature and plant variety.

For each rice crop:750,000 kg organic fertilizer ploughed in150 kg ammonium phosphate during transplant150 kg ammonium phosphate one week later

For wheat:Organic fertilizer as above225 kg ammonium phosphate

TsingPing

Shanghai

Wuxi

TsingPing

Two crops:

Shanghai

Grain/year

Cotton

Varieties

Ordinary

Hybrid

Ordinary

Hybrid

Ordinary

Rice transplanting pattern

Plant space

90 mm

120 mm

100 mm

60 mm

80 mm

Yields (kg/hectare)

1966

7,500

pre-1949

2,600

240

1972

12,000

1977

13,400

960

Row space

150 mm

210 mm

130 mm

70 mm

150 mm

1977

12,750

1978(est.j

16,000+

1,320

Plants per "hole"

7-9

1

5 or 6

l o r 2

7


1958 1964 1970 1976 1977

5,700 9,450

6,000

Lower yields in 1977 were associated with very low temperatures.

Beijing

Rice about 5,250 - 6,750 for one crop (600-900 mm irrigation)

Wheat about 4,500 - 5,250 for one crop (90 mm irrigation).

Suzhou

Lung Chao

Grain/year

Tong Hsin

Grain/year

pre-1949

3,600

1,500

15,000

1969

7,500

18,150

13,300

16,000

11,300

Part Two


25

Part Two


I. PROJECT REPORTS

A. TSING PING IRRIGATION AREA

1. Location, size and engineering features

(a) Location and size

The Tsing Ping irrigation area in Ping Yang Countyof Guangxi Province covered seven communes and twotowns. The area was served by one main reservoir and 57small ponds. The originally designed irrigated area was120,000 mou (8,000 ha), which was expanded to 169,700mou (11,313 ha) by the utilization of return flow and theimprovement of engineering facilities and irrigation prac-tices.

(b) Tsing Ping reservoir

This main reservoir was formed by a homogeneousearth dam about 32 m high and 122 m long and fiveauxiliary dams. The catchment area was about 76 km^with an average annual runoff of 68 million cu m and aminimum flow of 0.55 m^/s. The gross and effectivestorage capacities were 76 million cu m and 62 million cu mrespectively. There was a saddle spillway with a dischargecapacity of 2200 m^/s. A hydroelectric power plant withthree units of total capacity of 760 kW was located at thetoe of the dam. The total discharge capacity of the powerplant and irrigation sluice was about 15 m3/s. The maindam was constructed from 1957 to 1959.

(c) Small ponds and pumping stations

Subsequently 57 small ponds had been constructedwith a total storage capacity of 12.24 million cu m. Inaddition, 60 small pumping stations with total capacity of1080 kW and four small hydroelectric powerplants with atotal capacity of 1135 kW diverting water from neighbour-ing streams had been completed.

(d) Irrigation and drainage system

A typical so-called Dazhai - type field was a rectan-gular plot, 20 m wide and 50 m long. Each plot was irri-gated by a field ditch as shown in figure I. In some fields,plots were irrigated and drained by the same field ditch.In others, depending on topography, there were separatefield ditches and drainage ditches. Field ditches weregenerally 40 cm wide and 30 cm deep, while drainage

ditches were generally 60 cm wide and 40 cm deep. Bothwere more or less rectangular in cross-section.

Field ditches were spaced 100 m apart. The distri-butary canals were 200 m apart. They received water fromthe sub-main canal. In some sub-main canals there werecheck structures, which diverted water into the distributarycanal. In other sub-main canals check structures were notnecessary. The control and regulation of water into thedistributary canals were assigned to a staff member of thewater management station.

J

11

1

ocoocoE

J3

<n

100

Distribir

I

JZ

*~X I

X I

T

i i

D-ainage

| Distributary

qoj

X)

ield

100 m

ary canal

JCo

xtX I

<D

I i .

canal

canal

MOJ

X I

ield

u.

tch

1

XI EX . OQ>

O

X I .

ield

Figure I. Typical layout of field ditches

26 Part Two: Reports and observations of Participants

There was a total of 2,428 field ditches having a totallength of 755 km serving the irrigated area. There was atotal of 1,163 gates.

(e) Main drainage channels

In the Tsing Ping irrigation area, some stretches ofnatural meandering streams had been modified to becomestraight drainage channels lined with masonry. They in-creased the hydraulic efficiency, provided protection toadjacent land from inundation, drainage congestion anderosion, and helped to reclaim land for agriculture fromthe original serpentine river bed. In addition, they conveyeddrainage water to lower land for irrigation. Drainage flowfrom neighbouring areas was let into the canalized streamsthrough inlets in the masonry side wall at an appropriatelevel. These inlets prevented retrogression and gully forma-tion which often took place when drainage water flowedover the natural slopes or unlined artificial drains.

One such drainage channel, called the Fight-in-Heaven Canal, was 7.5 km long, 7 m wide and 1.6 m deepwith a slope of 1 in 200 and a discharging capacity of 11m^/sec. It used to be a very small and narrow channelwith 63 bends. The construction, involving 49,000 cu mof earth work, 10,700 cu m of masonry, several bridgesand check gates, was completed by the Chou Shu Com-mune in Ping Yang County in 70 days. The cement wasprovided by the Government and the labour force of385,000 man-days by the commune.

(f) Experiment station

An agricultural experiment station was attached tothe irrigation area. The experimental area was divided into1.5 mou (1,000 m^) rectangular plots. Masonry irrigationand drainage channels with internal dimensions of 20 cmand 25 cm were provided. They ran on two sides of theplots. Water was supplied for irrigation through a gap atone corner, and drained out through a gap near anothercorner into the same channel, by raising or lower thewater level in the channel by the simple operation ofblocking or unblocking the flow with an earthen plug ora small sliding gate. Thus the same field ditch could beused for irrigation and surface drainage.

2. Irrigation water management

(a) General

Over-all responsibility lay with a people's unit, theIrrigation Area Management Committee, comprising theChairmen of the seven communes and two towns benefitingfrom the project, together with the Chairman of the Reser-voir Project Management Division referred to below. TheCommittee met weekly to implement resolutions of senior

authorities, to formulate and manage irrigation plans, andto popularize recommended irrigation practices.

The Reservoir Project Management Division was atechnical body comprising state personnel, and was respon-sible for management, operation and maintenance of thereservoir, distribution and drainage system down to thelevel at which responsibility was assigned to the communes.The Division had five functional units - Office, Engineer-ing, Irrigation, Multipurpose Activities and Hydroelectrici-ty. Sixteen management stations had been set up within thearea as focal points for operation and maintenance of themain, sub-main and distributary channel system. TheDivision (State) assumed direct responsibility for operationand maintenance of the main and sub-main system, the re-mainder being handled within the commune administration.

The distributary canal committees were establishedon a commune basis, and comprised the water conservancymember of each brigade (generally a deputy leader) and arepresentative of the Division. These committees also metweekly, their functions being to implement resolutions ofthe Area Management Committee, to develop ways ofmaking more efficient use of water, and to operate, inspectand maintain the distributary canals under their care(see photographs Nos. 1 -5).

(b) Water regulation and control

As water was a scarce commodity, it was importantthat it should be economically utilized where possibleduring all stages of agricultural production. The basicrules for achieving their were called the "Five Firsts" asfollowing:

(1) All uncontrolled water was to be utilizedfirst. That was the water from natural streams;

(2) If that was inadequate, water should be drawnfrom the 57 ponds and a small reservoir before drawingfrom the main reservoir;

(3) To irrigate first the fields in the higher reachesbefore irrigating the lower areas. This presumably indicatedthat any seepage or infiltration water from the higherareas would find its way to the lower fields which in turnwould need much less water;

(4) To irrigate first large tracks of fields beforeirrigating smaller or scattered areas. This would increaseirrigation efficiency;

(5) To irrigate first areas which needed watermost. For example, areas where crops were in the headingstage or milk formation stage should get higher prioritythan areas under vegetation growth.

Experience in the Tsing Ping project had shown thatfour important relationships should be observed:

I. Project Reports 27

(1) The relationship between irrigation and floodcontrol or prevention. While it was important to removewater to prevent flooding, it was also important that asmuch water as possible should be retained in the area forirrigation purposes during the dry season;

(2) The second relationship was that both thedownstream areas and the upstream areas should have anequitable allocation of water. The normal tendency was forareas upstream to get more water at the expense of thelov/er reaches;

(3) The relationship between big discharges andsmall discharges especially during droughts. For example,during periods of scarcity of water it was better to releaselarge discharges into the canal system for shorter durationto minimize distribution losses. Once that had been

-achieved, the discharges could be reduced. This practice,in addition to reducing water losses, would also minimizecrop damage with the timely arrival of adequate water;

(4) The relationship between power generation andirrigation requirements. As power was secondary only toirrigation requirements power should only be generatedwhen water was required for irrigation purposes.

(c) Operation and maintenance of canal systems

Every year each production team prepared a waterallocation request based on the irrigated area and the cropwhich would be grown. The requests of all productionteams were forwarded to the village water managementgroup comprising a representative from each productionteam. Its functions were to formulate plans in accordancewith farm activities, to regulate the water flows and tosave water through the use of good irrigation practices.Requests for water from individual production teamswere first considered by the Group and, if agreed, wereconsidered and co-ordinated by the distributary canalcommittees, which sought appropriate releases of waterthrough the system.

The main and sub-main canals were maintained bythe State Reservoir Project Management Division, whilethe distributary canals and field ditches were maintainedby the production team.

3. Cultural practices

(a) Nine linkages

Since 1966, agricultural technicians in the countryhad carried out research in cultural practices of paddy onclayey loam soil and after 12 years of research and experi-ment they reached the following conclusions, i.g. the so-called "nine linkages of cultural practices".

First link. To presaturate the fields before transplant-ting. This was to increase soil temperature and to regulatesoil fertility so as to create the best soil condition for therice seedlings. In order to achieve this the fields were firstploughed and water allowed to fill only to about halfway up the ridges, which were about 15 cm high. Waterwas then allowed to dry up before harrowing. Followingthis about 1 0 - 1 5 mm of water was applied and the land,harrowed and puddled two or three times. About 10 to15 mm of water was let in before each harrowing. Theperiod of soaking and land preparation was about 7 to 10days.

If green manure was grown after the second cropit would be necessary to add lime before ploughing. Usual-ly, lime was added twice a year at the rate of 25-50 kgper mou.

Second link. A shallow water layer should be main-tained at seedling nursery. Water was first added at a depthof about 6 to 9 mm. Seedings should be planted on the toplayer of the soil and not too deep, and in straight lineswithout leaving any space.

Third link. A deep layer (30 - 50 mm) of watershould be maintained after recovery of the seedling, whichtook place 5 to 7 days after transplanting. This deep layerof water aeted as a buffer against very high or low tempera-tures. In the case of low temperature, water retained heatand kept the soil warm. The reverse was true when thetemperature was high.

Fourth link. During the tillering stage, the soil shouldbe kept moist, preferably with no water between rows sothat the soil could get more sunshine, better aeration andmaintain soil fertility. Higher temperatures also increasedtillering.

Fifth link. This activity was called "middle cultiva-tion" and was carried out 8 to 12 days after transplanting.The weeds were buried into the soil with the feet and atthe same time the soil was loosened. Irrigation was alsostopped for about 3 days. Fertilizer was applied before thesoil was loosened and the ridges raised to encourage drying,resulting in strengthening of the roots and root develop-ment.

Sixth link. At full tillering stage, the field was ex-posed to the sun and allowed to dry. This increased tiller-ing. Plants growing vigorously should be exposed to the sunfor 7 to 10 days but when there was less vigorous growththey should be exposed for 4 to 5 days followed by irriga-tion.

Seventh link. A shallow layer of water (6 to 9 mm)should be applied about 2 to 3 days in advance of heading.


Photograph 1. Lined main canal Photograph 2. Secondary canal

Photograph 3. Division structure in canal system Photograph 4. Lined tertiary canal

Photograph 5. Brigade canal

1. Project Reports 29

This depth should be maintained until heading and flower-ing were completed.

Eighth link. A milking stage was important for grainbearing. At that stage irrigation should be carried outevery 3 to 4 days with "running" water, that is, the landirrigated and drained quickly so that the soil would notstick to the feet. With this practice, grain weight could beincreased.

Ninth link. During the ripening stage, the soil did notneed water but irrigation should not cease too early. Thiswould result in premature ripening and empty grains. Onthe other hand if irrigation was stopped too late, it wouldresult in increased peat and disease incidence and delayedmaturity.

Where the above practice had been carried out, theannual yield over the preceding 11 years had been morethan 500 kg per mou (or 7.5 tons per ha), and over thepreceding 5 years the yield had been more than 80 kg permou. In 1977 the yield was 848 kg per mou.

(b) Fertilizer application

During the tour, it was observed that organic manure,both in the solid and liquid form, was being used extensive-ly in fields. It was also noted that green manure legume(bird's-foot trefoil) was planted in fields after the secondcrop and ploughed back into the field before the followingcrop. It appeared that chemical fertilizer was only usedto supplement rather than as a basic requirement in mostcases. The basal fertilizer application per mou consistedof 1,500 kg of green manure, 1,000 kg of organic fertilizer,15 to 25 kg of superphosphate and 10 to 15 kg of urea.This was followed by the first application of top dressing,about 8 to 12 days after transplanting, which consistedof 5 kg of urea and 750 kg of organic fertilizer (compost).The second top dressing was then applied, comprising 50 kgof potassium, 25 to 50 kg of lime and 750 kg of organicfertilizer (compost) per mou. Deep ploughing was apparent-ly carried out to plough in the green manure so that thedecaying process would not be harmful to the newlytransplanted seedlings.

(c) Farm management

All farm management activities' were carried out bythe production team as a group wherever possible. Through-out the visit the participants in the Workshop were toldthat all production brigades were endeavouring to con-solidate their fields in accordance with the Dazhai- typefield. The following points were brought up:

Land levelling. This was a basic requirement forproper management and cultural practices. Increased

yield in almost all areas visited was attributed to properland levelling -so that water levels could be controlledaccurately according to the crop requirements and stageof growth.

Manpower mobilization. The system of allocatingpoints according to work done and the teamwork conceptensured mobilization of manpower when and where re-quired.

Agricultural implements and tools. The productionteams were able to obtain basic implements and toolswherever required. The underlying principle was self-reliance and the use of simple tools. In the area visited,ploughing was mostly carried out by buffaloes and oxen.

Planting schedules. In the irrigated area, only twocrops of rice were grown with an additional crop of greenmanure after the "late rice". "Early rice" was transplantedfrom late March to about 5 April and harvested from aboutmid-July to late July.

The "late rice" was transplanted in early August andharvested in mid-November. Green manure was usuallyplanted after harvesting and ploughed into the ground.

Decisions with regard to planting schedules werefirst drawn up as a general plan at the county level and,after consultation and discussion both at brigade and pro-duction team levels, schedules and quotas were decidedupon.

(d) Benefits from on-farm development and intensivecultural practices

Considerable benefits were reported in all areasvisited owing to on-farm development carried out byproduction brigades and teams. For example, the leaderof the Kung Tsun production brigade reported that yieldshad increased from about 250 kg per mou per year toabout 500 kg per mou per year. He attributed the increaseto on-farm development in general and to careful andextensive land levelling in particular.

Similarly, the Chairman of the Chou Shu People'sCommune quoted an increase from about 100 kg per mouper year to about 400 kg per mou per year. That areahad suffered from frequent flooding and waterloggingproblems which had been solved by extensive river canaliza-tion works followed by on-farm development.

4. Organization, management and finance

(a) Organization

The Tsing Ping water conservancy project coveredseven communes and two towns. The organization for themanagement of the project is shown below.


rese

arcn

1

grou

p

Reservoir Area ManagementCommittee

Reservoir AdministrationDivision

Water ManagementStations

Sub-main CanalWater Management

Committee(consisted of all deputy

brigade leaders)

on a

nd

• * - •

&0

h*l _ 4

nanc

e

•i->

• |

S

stat

ion

£-a

urpo

seul

t

'S

s

Village watermanagement group

(consisted of all productionteam leaders)

Production team

Governmental technicalspecialists

People (Farmers)

Based on the information provided, it appearedthat the organizational structure for management mightbe divided into two separate sections, namely, the govern-ment technical specialists on one side and the people, orfarmers, on the other. The close link between the personnelin the Water Management Stations and the Sub-main CanalWater Management Committee consisting of all the deputybrigade leaders was maintained by way of regular weeklymeetings. The structure also reflected the production-oriented management structure: the people were responsi-ble for production and the technical specialists employedby the Government provided the support. A case in pointwas the experimental station, which was located in theproject areas and not situated in some far-off researchinstitute.

(b) Decision-making

The request for irrigation supply is cited here as anexample. All requests for water were channelled throughthe production team via their team manager who was amember of the village water management group. If sup-ported by that group, the request was channelled upwards

to the Sub-main Canal Water Management Committeewhich would in turn submit the request to the ReservoirArea Management Committee which would consider therequests from all other communes. The deputy directorof the Reservoir Administration Division, who was atechnical man, presided over the Reservoir Area Manage-ment Committee as Chairman, hence providing another linkbetween the people and the technical specialist. Afterthe decision was made, it was channelled to the Sub-main Canal Water Management Committee as well as theReservoir Administration Division which would in turninstruct the Water Management Stations. From then on,the Water Management Station personnel would be inclose liaison with the Sub-main Canal Water ManagementCommittee.

The Reservoir Administration Division, besideshaving the Water Management Stations under its control,also had other sections providing specific functions, suchas irrigation research maintenance, adminstration, multi-purpose management and hydroelectric power generation.

Decisions regarding fixing the production quota of


various crops and the planting schedule was a two-wayprocess, viz. "top-down" and "bottom-up". In the caseof crop production, the State would fix the quota for eachcounty which would then estimate the quota for eachcommune, and so on down to production team level. Theproduction teams would evaluate their capacity and suggestmodifications to the figure and their views were then chan-nelled upwards for revision. If the revised figure was agreedby the county revolutionary committee, the new quotaWould be made known to all levels down to the productionteams. As for planting schedules, they were handled anddecided at the brigade level.

(c) Size of organization

The size of the management committees depended onthe size of the water conservancy works, the number ofcommunes, towns, area of farmland, etc. In the Tsing Pingwater conservancy project, the Reservoir ManagementCommittee comprised eight members, the Chairman beingthe Deputy Director of the Reservoir AdministrationDivision and the other seven members consisting of thevice-chairmen of the seven communes. The number ofbrigades and production teams again varied from communeto commune and, in the case of Ping Yang County, therewere 57 brigades. There were 29 production teams in onebrigade and each production team comprised 60 to 100men. Each production team assigned one man to functionas an irrigator and he covered an area of between 100 and150 mou.

(d) Financing

As the Tsing Ping water conservancy project coveredseven communes, the cost of major works, such as construc-tion of dams and hydropower stations, were financed bythe State. However, construction of the sub-main canals,distributaries, drains, and farm ditches was paid for bythe commune and subsidized by the State in kind (forinstance, in cement and steel). Water fees were paid tothe commune by the production teams for maintenanceand future improvement at the rate of 1 yuan per mou(¥15 per hectare).

(e) Project initiation

The project was initated by the State in view of itssize and nature. Also, the project covered seven com-munes. However, for project works below the sub-maincanal, proposals were initiated by the production team andtheir proposals (possibly drawn up with the assistance ofthe technical specialist of the Water Management Stations)were forwarded for approval before construction couldcommence.

B. WU CHIAO PEOPLE'S COMMUNE

1. Location and engineering features

(a) Location and problems

Wu Chiao People's Commune was located in FengHsian County near Shanghai. It had 15 production brigadesand 174 production teams with a total population of24,000 and a labour force of 10,000.

The low-lying areas were subject to flooding fromhigh tides and heavy rainfall. Two thirds of the cultivatedarea was about 3 m above mean sea level, while high tideswere 3.5 to 4.0 m above mean sea level. In addition, thearea suffered frequent droughts, i.e. inadequate rainfall 9years out of 10, on the average.

Before 1949, because of poor drainage and inade-quate water supply, only one crop had been raised per year.Grain yield had been of the order of 2.6 tons per ha andcotton yield had been about 240 kg per ha. Ordinary farmtools had been used by the farmers because of the scatterednature of the holdings and the small size of the farm.Irrigation had been done by hand or animal power.

(b) Engineering features

To control the tidal water and to increase the supplyof irrigation water, a water conservancy project waslaunched in 1964. Various engineering structures and im-provements are described below.

Dikes and locks. Dikes of 3.0 to 3.5 m high werebuilt along the side of main irrigation canals and drains atvulnerable points to stop the tidal flow. Five interlinkinglocks and 16 gates had been installed. These had helpedtwo production brigades in draining 700 ha of tidallyaffected area and had facilitated transportation.

Irrigation and drainage system. The entire communeland was divided into blocks which were further dividedinto plots. Each plot size was 80 m x 25 m. The mainirrigation channels were covered semi-circular conduits1 m wide and 1.5 m high. The branch channels were 60 cmin diameter round cement pipes taking off from the mainat a distance of 175 m.

A separate drainage system was provided. Every250 m there was a 1.2 m deep drain connecting the maindrains or rivers. The river courses had been streamlined,and a new river course of 47 km had been made. Theymainly served as drainage courses as well as supply canalsfor irrigation.

Pumps. In the beginning big pumps were installedto irrigate 470-ha plots, but these were not efficient:


Photograph 6. Covered canal and outlet

, . , • • • » . - . ' ;

Photograph 7. Side view of outlet

Photograph 8. Drawing slowing irrigationand drainage systems

Photograph 10. Covered drain system

Photograph 9. Details of deep drains

Photograph 11. Schematic deep drains forwheat field

Photograph 12. Samples of drain components Photograph 13. Drain plug pulling


because of the extreme length of the canals part of the landcould not be irrigated. These had now been relocated withsmall pumps each for 70 ha of farmland. They were easyto manage and met the need for farming activities. In all,there were 23 pumps with a total capacity of 980 kW.

Near the interlinking locks pumps were installed todrain excessive water and also to pump in irrigation water.With these pumps, even if rainfall amounted to 200 mmper day, no waterlogging would take place.

During high tides the outer lock gates were closed.For navigation and to drain the farmland, the interlinkinglocks were used. The pumps were also used to draw irriga-tion water from the rivers.

Reducing ground-water level Ground-water recessionhad been given high priority. In accordance with the typeof topography, soils and levels of the area, different typesof ditches and canals had been constructed. In two produc-tion brigades, the ground-water level had fallen from 30 cmto 80 cm. Many ground pits had been installed for observa-tion purposes. In another brigade, the ground-water levelhad been brought down to 180 cm below ground level.This had helped the development of crop roots and therebyincreased crop yields (see photographs Nos. 6-13).

2. Irrigation water management (paddy)

(a) For preparation of the field, 80 cu m of waterwas applied per mou for soaking;

(b) During the transplanting period, a shallowwater level was maintained, and 20 cu m per mou of waterapplied;

(c) During the root recovery period, 25 to 35 cu mper mou of water was applied;

(d) During the tillering period, a shallow water levelwas maintained and 20 cu m per mou of water applied inorder to encourage good development of the root system.Care should be taken to keep the plant "population" at500,000 per mou;

(e) After tillering, a plant population of only400,000 to 450,000 should be maintained. During the ear-formation period, 40 cu m of water per mou was appliedand the soil kept wet and dry alternately;

(f) After the milk stage, 100 cu m per mou ofwater was applied;

(g) In case of heavy rain, all the water was drainedout and stored in the ditch.

3. Agricultural practices

(a) Cropping schedule

For an early paddy crop, seedlings required 30 days,while for late paddy they required 35 to 45 days.

An early paddy crop took about 100 to 120 days tomature from seed to seed. For a good crop the transplant-ing should be done in 12 days by the beginning of May. Fora late paddy crop the transplating might be completed bythe end of July or early August. The second crop took130 to 140 days to mature.

One to two seedlings per hill were required for hybridvarieties and five to six seedlings per hill for ordinaryvarieties in order to get a good crop.

(b) Transplanting space

For hybrid varieties, the distance from plant to plantwas 5 cm and the distance between rows 7 cm. For ordi-nary varieties the distances were 10 cm and 13 cm respec-tively.

(c) Fertilizer application

Basal fertilizer. During the land preparation period,1,500 kg per mou of organic fertilizer, consisting of pigmanure and farmyard manure, was applied. The applica-tion of compost (3,000 kg per mou) or night soil (5,000 kgper mou) helped in producing a better crop.

Top dressing. After the first flowering, the applica-tion of liquid ammonia at a rate of 25 kg per mou (nitrogencontent 17 per cent) had proved very useful.

Additional fertilizers. For a good yield, additionalfertilizers were applied during the growing period:

(a) One week after transplanting, 15 kg per mou ofammonium sulphate (containing 20 to 21 per cent nitro-gen);

(b) During the ear-bearing period, 5 kg per mou ofammonium sulphate;

(c) In case the above two applications did notimprove the crop yield during the flowering period, anadditional amount of 1 kg per mou of urea.


(a) Organization

The organizational structure of Fung Hsian Countywas different from that of the Tsing Kng water conservancyproject. The organizational chart of Fung Hsian County,with some details of Wu Chiao commune with regard toirrigation in particular, is shown below:


Municipality(province)

CountyShanghai (10)

iCommune

Wu Chiao (18)

BrigadesWu Chiao (300)

Productionteam

Shanghai Revolutionary Committee

Shanghai Drainage and Irrigation Co-operation

County revolutionarycongress. Wu Chiao (18)

Brigade Rep.Congress (15) Factories (3)

Water, irrigationand Drainagestation (5)

Brigade (15)

Otherspecialstations

Ag;o-scientificstation

pumping station

Representatives

To help the lower hierarchy of the organization, had a structure down to the production team.level. Aneight specialized stations had been established at the organizational chart showing some details is below:commune level. The Water, Irrigation and Drainage Station

Level Shanghai Drainage andIrrigation Co-operation

Commune

Commune revolutionarycommittee

Agro-scientificstation

Han protec-tion station

Water, irrigation& drainage station

Seed-breedingstation

Veterinarystation

Head ofI & D station

1 Technician1 Electrician1 Accountant(3 or 4 peisons)

Economictrust station

Grain purchasingstation

Commune co-operation

station

Pumping-irrigationstation

Head ofpumping station

1 Manager1 Electrician(2 or 3 persons)

Production teamProduction team


The people's commune congress was elected by thevotes of all members aged 18 or over. Provision was madefor reasonable representation of different age groups andof women. Every 60 persons of 18 or above elected arepresentative to the congress. The people's communecongress elected the commune revolutionary committee,which elected its own chairman and a number of vice-chairmen who were assigned responsibility for specificareas of activity. The revolutionary committee carried outfunctions in the nature of a board of management for thecommune, with operational responsibilities decentralizedas much as possible to the production brigades and teams.

The people's commune congress also elected represen-tatives for the county congress. Wo Chiao commune had 18such members in the county congress, out of which 15were from brigades and the remainder were from threefactories. The county congress elected the county revolu-tionary committee. There was no quota for each communeto be represented in the county revolutionary committee.

In the revolutionary committees there might bepersons from specialized cadres assigned from the upperechelons of the organization. These cadres also acquiredtheir positions through the election process. Althoughthe cadres were on transferable assignment, in practice notransfer was effected unless they were disliked by the localmasses or promoted to a higher post.

(b) Initiation and implementation of the project

The project was initiated at the grass-roots level.The whole project was planned and designed at the com-mune level with the help of the cadres assigned from theShianghai Drainage and Irrigation Co-operation. The projectwas approved at the county level.

For execution of the project, each brigade wasassigned to provide manpower in proportion to the areabenefited. The brigade in turn assigned tht productionteams to supply manpower in proportion to the area bene-fited by each of the production teams.

(c) Operation and maintenance

Each pumping station had two or three persons onthe permanent payroll of the brigade to operate and main-tain the pumps. The pumps were operated according tothe irrigation schedule given by the brigade.

Maintenance of the distributary canal system wasarranged at the brigade level by the pump manager. Thelabour required as worked out by the pump manager wasprovided by the production teams in proportion to the areabenefited.

Maintenance of the individual field ditches wascarried out by the respective production team.

(d) Financing of the project

Capital investment for the construction of the irriga-tion system was financed primarily from the accumulatedfund of the production teams. The brigade and communehad also financed the project from their respective capitalfunds, which were built out of their income from subsidiarysources, viz. fish ponds, light industries etc. Wu Chiaocommune received contributions for construction of theproject from Fung Hsian County in the form of suppliesof cement and reinforcement steel rods at subsidizedrates.

In connexion with the formation of a capital con-struction fund at the production team level, it might benoted here that, the production team was the basic ac-counting unit and obtained income from the sale of farmproduce and subsidiary activities. The capital constructionfund was assessed at about 10 per cent of its gross incomebefore deductions for the cost of production including thelabour provided by its members.

The water charges at Wu Chiao commune were col-lected by the brigades from the respective productionteams as the pumping stations and the distributary canalsystems were operated and maintained by the brigades.The current water rate at Wu Chiao was 0.80 yuan permou (or 12 yuan per hactare.)

C. LUNG CHAO PRODUCTION BRIGADE

1. Location and engineering features


The Lung Chao production brigade was situatedin Chang Chao County, Suzhou Prefecture, Jiangsu Pro-vince. The brigade numbered about 1,440 people and cul-

. tivated land amounting to 1,043 mou (or 69.5 ha).

The land, being low lying and close to the estuaryof the Yangtze River, suffered floods caused by high tides.Before 1949 there had been more than 180 hills existingin this area. Because of the irregular shape of the land andthe high ground-water level, only one crop of paddy orwheat had been ground with an average yield of 240 jinper mou (or 1.8 tons per ha).

(b) Land consolidation and engineering features

Land consolidation. In 1964, the State Water Conser-vancy Bureau started improvement of this area with thepeople's participation. It involved 538,000 cu m of earth-work and 110,000 man-days of labour. The entire cultiva-ble land was protected by dikes. All hills higher than 2 m


were levelled and the' low-lying land filled in properly.This task of land-levelling was completed in three winter-spring seasons.

Following the Dazhai type, all land was divided into80 m x 15 m rectangular plots. All the plots were at thesame level and all borders were straight (see photographsNos. 1 4 - 1 7 ) .

Irrigation and drainage system. There were indepen-dent irrigation and drainage systems. Five pump houseshad been built, two for drainage and three for irrigation.By these separate systems the brigade had overcome theproblems of waterlogging, floods and drought as well.

In order to bring down the ground-water level, deepopen ditches were constructed between plots. The lowground-water level was required for the third crop of wheat.Since 1969, two crops of rice and one crop of wheat hadbeen raised each year.

Covered canals had been laid for field irrigation: the10-inch diameter pipe with a capacity of 300 cu m perhour could irrigate about 800 mou. Electric power wasused for pumping irrigation water. There were two kindsof canals: one was made of clay and lime (30 per cent)and the other was of concrete pipe. These undergroundpipes ran the length and breadth of the irrigated plots. Theirrigation outlet was a simple precast structure located atthe intersection of four plots, and opened or closed with amortar plug. Each outlet irrigated four plots.

The underground pipe irrigation system had threeadvantages, as follows:

(i) Good control in releasing water. Late riceneeded a lot of water, while wheat needed much less. Thesystem could satisfactorily meet all requirements;

(if) High irrigation efficiency with low conveyanceloss and high speed of flow;

(iii) Low maintainance cost of less land used for theirrigation system. Tractors and other farm machines couldeasily reach the farmland through farm roads and withstandardized size of plots.

2. Irrigation water management (paddy)

A total of 500 to 600 cu m of water per mou (or7,500 to 9,000 cu m per ha) was applied for each paddycrop. In each crop-growing period the amount of waterapplied was broken down as follows:

(iii) Tillering for 15 to 20 days: 140 cu m per mou;

(iv) Tillering to ear-bearing for 15 to 20 days:140 to 150 cu m per mou;

(y) Earing to the rice ripening stage for 30 to 35days: 100 cu m per mou.

In the plot (measuring 80 m x 15 m), a small channelwas formed in between rows in the middle or round thefield to allow even distribution of water over the plotafter tillering. The following points should be observed:

(i) The proper irrigation should help tillering ofthe rice crop, preventing defective tillering and allowing thecrop to tiller early to attain higher yield;

(ii) During the middle stage of rice growing, thestem should be strong and not thin;

(iii) To attain high yields, the soil should be keptdry and moist alternately at the late growing stage.


(a) Crop pattern and planting schedule

A large percentage of cultivated land produced threecrops a year: two crops of rice and one crop of wheat orgreen manure. In recent years the acreage under early ricehad been 900 mou, late rice 1,043 mou and winter wheat500 mou.

For early rice, the sowing should be done by 25March and the transplanting by the end of April or earlyMay. The crop was harvested by end of July. For thesecond rice crop, the sowing should be done by 10 June,transplanting completed by the beginning of August, andharvesting done by the first week in November.

(b) Green manure

Bird's-foot trefoil was commonly raised in this area.It was sown in the field at the earing and heading stage ofthe rice crop. At the end of April it was cut and mixedwith pig manure and then allowed to ferment till ricetransplanting. A total of 4,000 kg of this organic manurewas usually applied per mou of land.

(i) Soaking (land preparation): 80 to 100 cu m per (c) Crop yieldmou;

(ii) Transplanting to rice recovery, which lastedfor 8 days: 40 to 45 cu m per mou;

Owing to improvement of the irrigation and drainagesystem and improved cultural practices, the annual yield ofcrops had continuously increased as shown below.


Year

1949195819641970

1976

A verage annual yield

Jin per mou

487764

1,2662,044

2,421

Kg per ha

3,585

5,7309,495

15,33018,158

4. Organization, finance and training

(a) Organization

The brigade took full responsibility for water con-servancy work, including operation. This productionbrigade had a team of three persons responsible individuallyfor the operation and maintenance of pumps, canals andthe water distribution system. The lower unit of the pro-

duction team did not assume responsibility for operation ofthe irrigation system.

The country had sent a specialist to undertake theconstruction and operation of the pump house.

(b) Finance

The raising of construction funds was the responsibili-ty of the brigade. The county did not bear responsibilityfor the capital fund, which fact reflected the self-relianceof the brigade in financing its construction works. It waspointed out that 75 per cent of its income came fromindustries, and the balance from agriculture.

(c) Training

An experiment station was operated and administeredby the brigade itself. It was conducting experiments on thevariation of yields of paddy and cotton with differentground-water levels. It had also undertaken research on therelationship between tillering and the amount of waterapplied.

Photograph 14. Commune slogan: "Get upand work hard to carry outthe responsibility of moderntimes"

Photograph 16. Lung Chao production bri-gade in 1974, after landconsolidation

Photograph 15. Lung Qiao production bri-gade in 1964, before landconsolidation

Photograph 17. Lung Chao production bri-gade in 1980, prospective


The lessons learned at the experiment station wereconveyed to farmers through lectures and classes in theevenings. The technical information was also disseminatedby pamphlets and by radio.

(d) Mobilization of labour

It was evident that the success of the scheme under-taken by the Lung Chao production brigade had beenbrought about by mobilizing the entire labour force. Thismotivating factor was the basic factor in making the ideal areality.

D. TONG HSIN PRODUCTION BRIGADE

1. Location, problems and engineering features


Tong Hsin production brigade under the Chen Peicommune was located in Kun Shan County, Suzhou Pre-fecture, Jiangsu Province. In the brigade there were 15production teams and a population of 1,930 in 510 fami-lies. It had a total cultivated land area of 2,800 mou (or187 ha).

The Chen Pei commune faced frequent naturaldisasters and a waterlogging problem. As the area waslow-lying, the low areas were inundated all the time. Theundulating topography made the water unevenly distri-buted. Before completion of the engineering works,droughts had occurred in nine out of every ten years.

Because of the high ground-water level and the clay-loam soil of the area, the roots of paddy and wheat did notdevelop well. Only one crop of rice had been raised eachyear and the yield was only 1.5 tons per ha.


The "four separates" principle. From 1958 theconstruction of engineering works was started in accor-dance with the following "four separates" principle:

(i) To separate the water of the rivers inside thebrigade from the rivers outside;

(ii) To separate the water between high-lyingareas and low-lying areas;

(iii) To separate the irrigation system from thedrainage system;

(iv) To separate the water supplies for paddyfields and dry fields (wheat).

Dikes and drains. To protect the area from flood, atotal length of 11.8 km of dikes had been constructed.Seventeen new river courses with a total length of 3.5 km

had been opened up and a lock built to control the waterlevel. The water was stored in river courses for use duringthe dry season.

Land levelling and irrigation system. The total area of2,800 mou had been levelled and divided into 100 m x15 m rectangular plots. The subsurface conduits carriedwater to the fields. These conduits ran the length andbreadth of the irrigated plots, with each outlet irrigatingtwo plots. The irrigation outlet was a simple structure witha thin mortar gate which fitted into slots. Risers had beenprovided to help in releasing trapped air. Four pumpinghouses had been built.

The total length of the subsurface irrigation conduitswas 13,400 m. The conduits were made of lime and clay.

The breadth of each plot was 15 m, which facilitatedthe use of a tractor, the spreading of manure, and levellingand drainage.

Drainage system. The drainage system was under thesurface. Subsurface drainage and irrigation systems could beoperated independently. The system had been designedmainly for the wheat crop, for which the ground-watershould be well below the surface. The pipe system wasmade up of burnt clay units, each with a cross-sectionof 3" x 3" and a length of 14". The pipe was 1" thick.These units were placed close to touch each other andcovered with straw to allow the seepage to pass through thejoints. The drainpipe ran the length of each plot at 1.2 mbelow the surface as shown in figure II.

I I \i

VL1.2

( L J-F3

Sub - surfact drainoo*

Figure II. Typical layout of sub - surface drainage pipes

Farm roads. Farm roads had been constructed overthe subsurface irrigation conduits to a distance of 100 m.Each road was 40 cm higher than the ground and 3.5 m inwidth.

2. Irrigation water management

The irrigation water requirement for one crop ofpaddy was estimated at 70 to 80 cu m per mou during thenursery period and 380 to 630 cu m per mou duringthe period from transplanting to harvest. The followingsteps should be observed.


(i) Two weeks after sprouting, the field shouldbe irrigated with shallow water of 1 to 2 cm in depth;

(ii) Three weeks after nursery sowing, it should beirrigated with 3 cm of water;

(iii) The water should be kept constant at 3 cm,especially for the early rice crop;

(iv) By the end of April or early May, transplant-ing started. During the transplanting period, the waterdepth was kept at 3 to 4 cm;

(v) After transplanting, 5 cm of water was main-tained;

(vi) One week after transplanting, the water depthshould be reduced to 3 cm. Sunshine raised the fieldtemperature;

(vii) The water depth of 3 cm should be maintainedfor 25 days. In the process, a plant '*population" of600,000 to 700,000 per mou should be maintained. Weed-ing of unwanted plants should be done during this period;

(viii) After tillering, the file should be exposed tosunshine in two ways:

a. By opening the water outlet of the sub-surface pipe;

b. By draining water through field ditcheswhich were 18 cm deep;

This step lasted for six days before irrigation water wasagain applied;

(ix) During the grain formation stage, the soilshould be exposed to sunshine. The leaves should bestraight and new roots given favourable conditions fordevelopment. The leaf colour should not change becauseof over-dryness of the soil;

(x) Six days after draining off the water, the fieldshould be irrigated again;

(xi) The field should/be dried out for anotherseven days, then irrigated with 5 cm of water for fivedays;

(xii) Irrigation should stop for one to two days;

(xiii) Seven days' drying and irrigation should berepeated;

(xiv) If it had rained, excess water should be drained;

(xv) At the earing stage, the field should be ir-rigated and a water depth of 4 to 5 cm maintained forone week;

(xvi) After one week, the field should be irrigatedfor five days and then dried out;

(xvii) Irrigation should stop five days before harvest.


(a) Cropping pattern

Currently, 75 per cent of the farmland producedthree crops a year; the other 25 per cent produced twocrops a year. The first two crops were rice and the thirdwas wheat or rape.

For early and late rice crops the space between rowswas 13 cm, while the space between plants was 10 cm.

(b) Planting schedule and crop yields

In 1964, the annual production from one crop ofrice and one crop of weat had been 6 tons per ha. In 1969,it increased to 7.5 tons per ha with two crops a year. In1976, the annual yield registered at 13.3 tons per ha withtwo crops of rice and one crop of wheat.

During 1976-1977, the approximate planting sched-ule and average yield of each crop were as follows:

Crop

First riceSecond rice

Wheat

Total yield

Duration(days)

100-110120-145180-200

Nursery periodDays

30-40

40-45-

Sowing date

15/4

15/6-

Transplantdate

15/5

25/7

15/10

Harvestdate

10/7

13/10-7/11

31/5-7/6

Yield(kg/mou)

405

270

262

937


(c) Maintenance of atmospheric temperature

The brigade had started an experiment in controllingthe atmospheric temperature at 32°C by means of a sprink-ling operation. As soon as the temperature went abovethat level, the sprinkler started functioning automatically.It had been observed that by maintaining the temperatureat 32°C the formation of defective grain was reduced to7 per cent. The effects on the yield were still under investi-gation.


(a) Organization

The Tong Hsin production brigade had assumed fullresponsibility for operation and maintenance of the en-gineering works and facilities. A nine-member brigaderevolutionary team played the leading role in the opera-tion of those facilities. Four members of the team (thesecretary, vice-secretary, brigade leader and accountant)were nominated by the commune revolutionary com-mittee. The other five members were named by thebrigade after thorough discussion among members. Theterm of the commune revolutionary committee was twoyears, while the term of the brigade revolutionary teamwas one year.

The brigade team selected two persons who distri-buted the irrigation water in the fields according to require-ments. The team also sleeted one operator responsible foroperation of the pumps.

As the project covered the area within the brigade,implementation had .been initiated by the productionbrigade itself. The commune had helped the brigade techni-cally to prepare the plan and had approved its implementa-tion.

(b) Finance and side income

Sixty per cent of the capital cost of the project,which was the cost of construction materials and equip-ments, was borne by the State, while the rest was borneby the production brigade. All the labour requirements forconstruction, operation and maintenance of the projectwere met by the brigade. The benefits from the increasedproduction went to the members of the production teamsof the brigade.

The income of the brigade included the income fromagricultural outputs, from brigade industries and fromoutside occupations of the members. From the totalincome, production costs, for seeds, fertilizers and electri-city, etc. (about 30 per cent) were deducted, also publicaccumulation funds (about 7 to 12 per cent), public welfarefund for education, health and others (about 1 to 2 per

cent) and agricultural tax to the State (3 per cent) —altogether not more than 50 per cent of the total income.The remainder was distributed among the members ac-cording to the work points earned in their respectiveproduction teams.

While the total value of the industries in the brigadewas 200,000 yuan, the annual income was 100,000 yuan.In 1976, the income from agriculture was 640,000 yuan,while the income from side jobs was 85,000 yuan.

E. MEI CHUN PEOPLE'S COMMUNE

1. Location and problems

Mei Chun commune was situated in Wuxi County,Suzhou Prefecture, Jiangsu Province. The total area ofWuxi County was 5,960 sq km. It had 35 people's com-munes and a total population of about 6 million.

The Mei Chun commune had 21 production brigadesand one brigade for fish farming. The area under rice cul-tivation was 29,000 mou (1,933 ha) and the area undermulberry trees was 4,100 mou (273 ha). The population ofthe commune was 30,800, of which the labour forceamounted to about 16,000. Within the commune there wasa dairy farm, a tree nursery and a pig farm. In addition,there was one agricultural experimental farm.

The main problems of the commune before improve-ment had been zig-zag plots of land, high ground-waterlevel and undulating topography. The average groundelevation was about 6.5 m above sea level. During therainy season the ground-water level had been less than1 metre below the ground surface. One rice crop and onewheat crop had been produced per year. The yield ofwheat had only been about 300 jin per mou (2.3 tons perha).

2. Engineering features

(a) Land consolidation

The land surface had been levelled for even distribu-tion of water. More;than 800 mounds had been levelledand 450 depression areas and ponds filled in with earth.All land had been parcelled into rectangular plots 100 mlong and 20 m wide.

(b) Subsurface irrigation and drainage systems

Since 1972 all the open canals had been replaced bycovered conduits for a total length of 157 km. Similarly,underground drains were built. The layouts of the irrigationand drainage systems at the farm and cross-sections of thecovered pipe and sub-main drain are shown in figure IILThe irrigation pipes ran between the plots for a distance of


200 m. There were two gated outlets at one spot with aninterval of 40 m along the irrigation pipe. Each outletsupplied water to two plots of land. The pipes were madeof lime (30 per cent) and soil (70 per cent).

The subsurface drainage pipes were placed 7 mapart 1.2 m below ground level. The inner dimensions ofthe pipes were 8 cm x 7 cm. The sub-main drains wereplaced 200 m apart. Their inner dimensions were 13 cm x13 cm. To facilitate drainage of excess water, the old rivercourses with a total length of 4,700 m were straightened.After completion of the systems, 95 per cent of the cul-tivated area could be irrigated and drained separately.Two pumps, each with a capacity of 2 m^/sec, were usedfor irrigation. Drainage was by gravity.

(c) Farm road

On top of the covered irrigation pipes, a farm roadhad been constructed for tractor mobility and transporta-tion of products, seeds, fertilizers and other inputs. Singlerows of trees had been planted on each side of the road.

3. Agricultural production and subsidiary occupation

(a) Agricultural production

Currently, two rice crops and one wheat crop wereproduced over a large part of the area. A green manure cropwas also produced to enrich the fertility of the soil. In1976, the total yield of the three crops had been of theorder of 1,600 jin per mou (12 tons per ha). During theyear 1977-1978, the wheat yield was 460 jin per mouand the paddy yield was 700 jin per mou.

(b) Subsidiary occupation

In 1977, Mei Chun commune also produced 1,000tons of cocoon and raised 2,000 pigs. In addition, thiscommune operated 13 factories. The value of the productsand net income increased rapidly after 1971, as shownbelow.

YearTotal value of products

(1,000 yuan)Net income(1,000 yuan)

19701971197219731974197519761977

160.21,046.51,467.61,826.62,714.13,023.23,829.54,253.5

26.7483.5507.7528.8782.7

1,020.01,119.31,134.1

(c) Schools and hospital

In the commune there was one middle school and 20primary schools, with a total enrolment of 6,400 studdents.There was also a hospital, and a doctor visited each produc-tion brigade for one day in each week.

4. Organization and management

(a) Mei Chun commune

For the commune, the responsibilities of irrigationand drainage management were vested in 11 persons,namely, the head of management, deputy head, accountant,technician in charge of operation, three technicians incharge of design, measurement and maintenance, and fouroperators of the pumping station and other related instal-lations.

This management team was responsible to the vice-chairman of the commune revolutionary committee. Itwas noted that all of the 11 members were from the com-mune, not from the county. However, the county bureauprovided leadership and carried out periodic inspection.

(b) Mei Pei production brigade

Under the Mei Chun commune, the Mei Pei produc-tion brigade covered an area of 1,300 mou of paddy fieldsand 118 mou of mulberry orchards. The irrigation manage-ment team, consisting of one deputy director and fouroperators, was responsible for the operation and mainte-nance of the irrigation distribution works in the fieldswithin the brigade, including the junction boxes and dis-tribution valves. Only the field drainage needed dailymaintenance and that was done by the respective produc-tion teams.

(c) Project initiation and planning

Projects were essentially initated at the brigade orcommune level, depending on the circumstances. Theorganization concerned prepared the plan in as detaileda form as possible. With that plan the project proposal wassubmitted to the county for approval. The county wouldsend technicians to the commune or brigade, as the casemight be, to examine the technical suitability and detailsof the design. In the absence of a detailed design, thecounty made arrangements to second competent techni-cians to help the brigade or commune. The cost of suchtechnical support service was borne by the county. Suchsupport might continue during the construction periodand even up to the operation and maintenance stage, ifnecessary.

The commune or brigade, on completion of thedesign under the instructions of the county's technicians,


20 m

20 m

Irrigation pipe Sub-main drain

.y Drains

/Irrigation pip*

Irrigate

20 m 20 m

_TL _TL12m iter table

7m 7m 7m 7m

Drainage pipes

7m

1.0m

15-17 cm-thick

20 cm

60 cm

Cross-section ofirrigation pipe

Cross-section of sub-main drain

Figure III. Typical layouts of subsurface inigation and drainage systems


would resubmit the project proposal. This review and re-vision process continued until the project plan was properlyprepared and approved by the county. During the construc-tion period, appraisal of the project was carried out regular-ly by the county.

F. TUNG PEI WANG PEOPLE'S COMMUNE

1. Location, size and engineering features

(a) Location and size

Tung Pei Wang people's commune was located inHi Tien District of Beijing Municipality. It consisted of nineproduction brigades. The total area was 3,300 ha, of whichcultivated land amounted to 1,500 ha. Currently, 900 hawere under grain crops, such as wheat, rice and corn. Inaddition, vegetables, fruits and fodder were grown insmall plots.

The commune had been organized in 1958, with3,700 farm units and a population of 14,000. It had threetowns.


Rainfall in the area was scarce and uncertain. Inorder to raise more crops in a year and to increase yield,irrigation was necessary. To augment the canal water fromthe upstream reservoir, ground-water had been tapped by130 pumping stations. The normal output of one pumpwas 87 cu m per hour. Operation of the pumps was con-ducted by remote control at the headquarters.

By pumping water from underground, the ground-water level had been drawn down from 7-8 m to 20 m. Ithad alleviated the waterlogging problem of the area.

The irrigation distribution network consisted of amain canal, a sub-main canal, a distributor and a field ditch.The sub-main canal served an area of 50-60 ha, while thedistributor served 2-3 ha. The main canal had a capacity of1.8m3/s.

In the Beijing area, there was a total irrigated area ofabout 4 million mou (267,000 ha). About 70 per cent ofthe irrigation water was ground water, while the remaining30 per cent was surface water.

Before the completion of the engineering works,there had been a waterlogging problem. Therefore, drainagechannels had also been constructod to solve this problem.

2. Cropping pattern and application of irrigation water

(a) Cropping pattern

Owing to the cold climate, only two crops of wheatand corn or one crop of paddy could be ground in a year.The approximate sowing and harvesting dates of each cropare listed below:

Crop Sowing Harvesting

WheatCornEarly paddy

Late paddy

20 September20 June

early April(transplanting early May)

late May(transplanting 20 June)

20 June20 Septemberearly October

late November

(b) Irrigation water application for paddy crop

StageAmount or depth

of water

Preparation of field (soaking)

Tillering

Ear bearingMilking

100 cum per mou5 to 6 cmless than 3 cm1 to 2 cm

After tillering, a lot of water was applied; beforeearing, less water. Irrigation was stopped 20 days beforeharvesting.

(c) Irrigation water application for wheat and corn

For the wheat crop, water should be applied six timeswith a total amount of 50-60 cu m per mou. For corn itshould be applied once if there has been no rainfall.

3. Application of manure and fertilizers, and yields

On an average, 5 tons of organic manure, 50 kg ofsuper-phosphate (18-20 per cent P2O5) and 50 kg ofnitrogeneous fertilizer (17 per cent nitrogen) were appliedper mou of land.

As a result of the improvements in irrigation anddrainage techniques and improved agricultural practices,crop yields had increased considerably, as shown below.

Jin/mou Ton/ha

WheatCornEarly paddyLate paddy

600-700600

800-900700

4.5-5.34.5

6.0-6.75.3

4. Experimental and demonstration farms and others

There was an experimental research farm with an areaof 30 mou (2 ha). About 10 per cent of the cultivated areahad been used as a demonstration farm. The commune alsohad a farm mechanization unit for manufacturing farmimplements and tools, material supply stations, one hospitaland two dispensaries.


II. OBSERVATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS AND RELEVANCE TODEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Observations Relevance to developing countries

A. ADMINISTRATION, FARMERS' PARTICIPATION AND FINANCING OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS

1. Administration and farmers'participation

(a) The organizational structure in China wasdesigned and functioned in such a way that thepeople of the society, starting from productionteam up to commune/county level, were moti-vated to initiate and execute water conservancyschemes. This had immense value in achievingthe ultimate objective of irrigated agricultureand farm management. The organizations belowcountry level were all "local government" innature, having maximum statutory decentralizedauthority necessary to plan and execute theirschemes. Those bodies did not take any decisionbefore long-term consultation-dialogue and moti-vation of the people of the concerned area. Assuch, the mass also had confidence in the acti-vities of the production team, brigade or com-mune, as the case might be. This mutual trusteliminated a lot of bottle-necks in administrationand simplified the decision-making process.

(b) The integration of the activities of both theMinistries of Water Conservancy and ElectricPower and agriculture at the commune levelwas noteworthy.

(c) It was noted that the system in Chinaprovided for decentralization and responsibilitieswere being clearly delegated at the various levels.In the planning of water conservancy projects,the Government at higher levels only providedthe leadership and policy guidelines. This wouldmake the officials at the lower levels feel respon-sible.

(d) The considerable flow of consultations upand down and the procedure for fixing quotasof grain production were again interesting.

(e) Constant tying-up of the objective of self-reliance and political doctrine would appear tobe the central theme for the masses to strive forand this was one of the motivating forces to keepthe masses moving and striving together.

(a) The organization pattern and decision-making processwere quite different in most countries of the ESCAPregion. Most of the decisions were taken more or lessarbitrarily and the general masses were somewhat imposedupon by the administrative organs of the Government.However, in recent years efforts had been made to encour-age people's participation in the decision-making processthrough intensive co-operative activities. The result'wasnot very encouraging as the responsibility of the co-operative institutions without authority had apparentlyfailed to bring about the desired result, particularly in theirrigation sector.

Under the existing institutional framework of theGovernments, application was not possible. However,research and field application of new techniques werealways being tried to find methods to encourage people'sparticipation in decision-making processes at the villagelevel.

(b) That philosophy was being planned and adoptedin some countries of the region.

(c) The decentralization approach was certainly veryinteresting and the views of the Workshop partic^antswould be put forward to their Governments for considera-tion.

(d) This procedure would make all strata aware of theobjectives and policies of the nation. But in differenteconomic systems the quota procedure was inapplicableto other ESCAP countries.

(e) The concept of using a central theme to propagateto the masses had been adopted in some countries of theregion.

A



(f) Group decision and agreement in the selec-tion of leaders at the grass-roots level was note-worthy.

(g) The integrated planning of supporting ser-vices in each commune was noted, such as work-shops for repairs of farm machinery, brick-kilnsand small factories.

(h) Collective ownership of land and landreform were the main factors which facilitatedthe planning, design and construction of on-farmirrigation works with land levelling.

2. Financing of construction works

(a) In China the social system ensured appro-priate wages to individual farms through a "workpoints" award system. The production teamshad a built-in system of putting aside 10 per centof their gross income for construction works fortheir farmland.

B. ENGINEERING AND WATER MANAGEMENT

1. Land consolidation

(a) Land consolidation work, including landlevelling, had been completed in all projectsvisited. Some plots were 15 m x 100 m largeand some 20 m x 100 m, depending on the typeof soil.

(f) This technique was being applied in some countriesof the region.

(g) This concept would be useful to most countries ofthe region.

(h) Collective ownership of land in the form practisedin China would not be applicable in most countries of theregion, but a modified form of land reform could beadopted by enacting suitable land reform laws.

(a) Because of different economic systems, it was impos-sible to adapt this practice in most developing countries ofthe region.

(a) Land consolidation work had been started in manycountries of the region. It should be promoted in all coun-tries for intensive cultivation and to facilitate better mana-gement of irrigation water and modern agricultural tech-niques.

2. Canal system and main drains

(a) A main canal, sub-main canal and distribu-taries for irrigation systems had been constructedmost systematically and in places these had beenlined.

(b) In some reaches, twisting and meanderingnatural streams had been converted to straightdrainage channels lined with masonry, thus re-claiming land from the original stream beds,improving hydraulic efficiency, improving drainageand providing protection against floods and riverbank erosion.

(c) The irrigation and drainage canal density inall the areas visited was estimated to be over95 m per ha. This high intensity incorporated intothe design facilitated on-farm water management,

(a) This was adaptable in most countries of the region,but the lining of canals might not be economical.

(b) Straightening of natural drainage channels involvedtremendous cost and should be taken up after economicevaluation. Land acquisition procedures would also createproblems and delays.

(c) Provision of high canal density was currently beingundertaken in some countries of the region, but wouldnot reach the stage of the projects visited for economicreasons.



encouraged good farm management practicesand saved water, e.g. 70 mm of reservoir waterused in the Tsing Ping irrigation area, thus enablingan extension of the irrigated area by 40 per cent.

3. Farm ditches and drains

(a) Irrigation-cw/K-drainage canals were run withthe water level well below ground level. Thisfacilitated drainage from adjacent areas, butrequired numerous check gates to feed irrigationchannels at the field level. These irrigation chan-nels ran for considerable lengths and functionedas drainage collectors in the upper reaches. Inthe lower reaches, they were able to commandand irrigate farm land.

(b) In the delta of the Yangtze River, theground-water table was very high. To lower thewater table, clay-baked pipes were installed 1.2 mbelow the ground surface at 20 m intervals de-pending upon the type of soil. In loamy clay soilthey were placed only 7 m apart.

(c) A sufficient number of check structureshad been constructed in China to lead the waterto the farthest fields easily and in accordance withcrop requirements.

(a) In most countries of the region, irrigation canalswere constructed with the water level above ground level.The canals were constructed balancing the depth of cuttingand filling. Check gates were fewer, though more werebeing introduced while modernizing the systems. Theadvantages and disadvantages of the Chinese practiceneeded to be examined further.

(b) Introduction of subsurface drainage systems wouldhave to be considered seriously as the cost would be veryhigh.

(c) In most developing countries of the region thenumber of check structures was usually inadequate tominimize the initial investment.

4. Use of local materials and simple design of outlet and other structures

(a) The use of local materials and techniques inconstruction was very impressive. The simplicityof the design in facilitating operation and main-tenance was again praiseworthy. Ample examplescould be found in the design of lock gates, electri-cal pumping, stations, and in lime-earth stabilizedsoil for subsurface irrigation conduits. Owing toits simplicity, the extensive use of human labourwas another case in point.

(a) This was adaptable by improving measurementdevices and operating practices.

5. Water management at the farm level

(a) The farmers use,d water in accordance withcrop requirements. In most places, water measure-ment devices guided farmers and irrigators byusing water to the required extent.

(a) This was adaptable bydevices and operating practices.

improving measurement



(b) Since the amount of water applied to theplots could be controlled and regulated, an inter-mittent irrigation method had been adopted inChina. As shallow water was maintained a largepart of seepage loss could be saved.

(c) It was noted that extensive use of recycledwater was being incorporated into the system.Storage ponds were constructed by digging in lowlying areas. Water stored in the ponds was recycledinto the irrigation system by pumping.

(d) Water management in the field was carriedout by an irrigator for every 300 mou (20 ha)of farmland. With experience, and facilitated bylevelled fields, the irrigator could supply everyplot of land evenly and quickly. It was reportedthat each plot of land could be irrigated in threehours in the Tsing Ping Irrigation areas.

C. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE

1. Soil management and organic manure

(a) It was observed that in all areas visited, as aresult of good soil management, marginal soil,such as lateritic soil, could be turned to highproduction soil. The benefits of the use of greenmanure and compost were evident. Also, extensiveuse of lime, to neutralize the acidity formed whenusing organic manure, had been noted.

2. Cultural practice

(a) The period of land preparation (ploughingand harrowing) ranged from 7 to 11 days in thecase of Tsing Ping irrigation area, which was muchshorter than in other developing countries of theregion.

(b) A combination of hand weeding and rotaryweeding was practised in China. Manual weedingeffectively loosened soil and promoted aeration.

(c) Rice was planted to a density of 9 millionto 10.5 milion plants per ha. By using moreorganic manure and dense population, the yieldhad been increased.

3. Use of mechanical equipment and implements

(a) In spite of the availability of a large labourforce in China, it was noted that extensive farm

(b) This was adaptable with improved facilities'at thefarm level.

(c) This technique could be utilized on condition thatthere was a cheap source of electric power in the ruralareas.

(d) The manpower requirement for water managementin China confirmed current thinking on manpower require-ments for a good irrigation system in the developing coun-tries of the region.

(a) Techniques of soil management could be adopted inthe developing countries. The use of night soil as a formof fertilizer might not be readily acceptable for someobvious reasons.

(a) This operating practice should be adaptable in othercountries of the region.

(b) Manual weeding should be advocated.

(c) In view of the different varieties of rice, the advant-ages of dense "population" should be further studied.

(a) In some developing countries of the region, variouskinds of farm machinery had been promoted. However,



mechanization was being carried out and farmmachinery being developed. In all the areas visited,farm roads were provided for easy access of farmmachinery.

4. Agricultural experiments

(a) It was interesting to note that the agri-cultural experiments in rice cultivation were car-ried out and financed by the brigade and com-mune, rather than the research institutions as inmost developing countries of the region.

in other countries this had not been adopted owing tounavailability of machinery and poverty of the farmers.

(a) Currently, the applicability of this practice to thedeveloping countries of the region was doubtful.

III. Analysis of the observations

III. ANALYSIS

Important features observed

OF THE OBSERVATIONS

Adaptability to participants'

(a) (b) (c)

countries

49

(d)

A. ADMINISTRATION, FARMER'S PARTICIPATION ANDFINANCING OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS

1. The organizational struxture in China was designed andfunctioned in such a way that the people of the society,from production team up to commune and countylevel, were motivated to initiate and execute waterconservancy schemes. The system provided for decen-tralization and responsibilities were being clearly dele-gated at the various levels. In the planning of waterconservancy projects, the Government provided onlythe leadership and policy guidelines.

2. The integration of the activities of both the Ministriesof Water Conservancy and Electrical Power and agri-culture at the commune level was noteworthy.

3. The integrated planning of supporting services in eachcommune was noted, such as workshops for repair offarm machinery, brick-kilns and small factories.

4. Group decision and agreement in the selection of leadersat the grass-roots levels was noteworthy.

5. Collective ownership of land and land reform were themain factors which facilitated the planning, design andconstruction of on-farm irrigation works with landlevelling.

6. The social system ensured an appropriate wage to theindividual farmer through a work point system. Tenper cent of gross income was deducted for the capitalconstruction fund.

7. The setting of a production target or quota by theGovernment and by the people was an important factorfor making progress.

B. ENGINEERING AND WATER MANAGEMENT

1. Main canal, sub-main canal, distributaries for irrigationsystems had been constructed most systematically withhigh density and in places had been lined. •

2. There was a sufficient number of check structures tolead the water to the farthest fields easily and as perrequirement of crops. Intermittent application ofwater was practised for paddy.

1 (a) Those which were already being carried out by one or more countries; (b) Those which could be carried out without any seriousobstacles; (c) Those which could be carried out but would require some time for preparations or adjustments; and (d) Those which had littleprospect of adoption.


Important features observedAdaptability to participants' countries

(a) (b) (c) (d)

3. Pumping stations had been constructed to lift waterfor irrigation. The drained water could be recycled intothe irrigation system.

4. Field plots were all rectangular and of uniform size.Most field plots had been very well levelled.

5. All outlets were constructed and planned properly forrequirement of plots.

6. In the deltaic area, the ground-water level was very high.The underground water table was lowered by installationof baked clay pipes underground at intervals from 7to 12 m depending on the type of soil. With controlof the water table, paddy and upland crops could beraised on the same plot in different seasons. Drainagewas a separate system.

7. With the integrated reservoir system; ponds and pumpingplants to supply irrigation water appeared to be ade-quate for all seasons.

8. In some reaches, meandering streams had been con-verted to straight drainage channels lined with masonry,thus reclaiming land from the original stream beds,improving hydraulic efficiency, improving drainage andproviding protection against floods and river bankerosion.

9. Low land was protected from flooding by dikes allround with regulating gates.

10. Locally available materials and techniques were usedin construction, such as the lime-earth stabilized soilfor subsurface conduits.

11. The design of various facilities was kept simple tofacilitate operation and maintenance, such as lock gates,electrical pumping station, farm turnout, etc.

12. Water management in the field was carried out by anirrigator for every 150-300 mou (10-20 ha) of farm-land. Through experience and facilitation of the levelledfields, the irrigator could supply every plot of landevenly and quickly.

C. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

1. As a result of good soil management, marginal soil likelateritic soil could be turned to high production soil.The benefit of the use of green manure and compost wasevident. Also, the extensive use of lime, to neutralize

III. Analysis of the observations 51

Important features observedAdaptability to participants' countries

(a) (b) (c) (d)

the acidity formed as a result of the use of organicmanure, was noted.

2. Agricultural experiments were carried out and financedby the brigade or commune.

3. Extensive farm mechanization was being carried outand farm machinery being developed. In all the areasvisited, farm roads were provided for easy access offarm machinery.

4. With abundant manpower and scarce land, farmerscultivated land intensively, with three crops a year insome areas.

5. Large amounts of organic manure and green manurewere applied.

Part Three


53

Part Three


A. SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN BANGLADESH:A STUDY OF PROBLEMS AT THE FARM LEVEL*

1. Introduction

Irrigated agriculture was not a very old feature.inBangladesh. There had been casual and supplementaryirrigation through indigenous methods to protect cropsin case of droughts. But no organized irrigation on a con-siderable scale had been practiced prior to the early 1960s.Earlier, the country had been more or less self-sufficientin food supply and irrigation schemes had not been giventheir due priority in national planning as theywere nowbeing given. Only during the early 1950s, when foodproduction started becoming critical and failed to copewith the country's growing population, did everybodystarted thinking about irrigation.

2. Existing systems

In the course of the last few years, different typesof irrigation projects/schemes had been developed in thecountry. These schemes might be classified into threemajor groups:

(a) River-water diversion projects,

(b) Low-lift irrigation projects,

(c) Ground-water irrigation projects,

(a) River water diversion projects

In this category of irrigation projects, river waterwas diverted and pumped to obtain head for gravity distri-bution of water within the project area. Normally thesewere multipurpose projects where, along with irrigation,flood control and drainage were also ensured by cons-tructing flood embankments surrounding the area and byproviding necessary drainage facilities for the excessivemonsoon rain water. The Ganges-Kobadak project, designedoriginally to provide supplemental irrigation to 350,000acres of land, and the Dacca-Narayangonj-Demra floodcontrol and irrigation project, were of this type. The

* By M.R. Chowdhury, Chief Engineer, Bangladesh AgriculturalDevelopment Corporation, Dacca.

Dacca-Narayangonj-Damra project was designed to irrigatea total of 14,500 acres of agricultural land, out of whichover 10,000 acres were protected from monsoon floods.Other projects of this category were the Chandpur irriga-tion project, which had just been completed, and theBarisal Muhri and Karnapuli irrigation projects, whichwere gravity-cum-pump irrigation projects and were stillunder execution. Considering their magnitude, theseprojects should be classified as major irrigation projectsand kept outside the purview of this paper.

(b) Low-lift pump irrigation projects

Under this category of irrigation schemes, smalllow-lift pumping sets were provided to pump water fromdifferent kinds of sources: rivers, canals, depression areasand even ponds. There was no fixed plot of land irrigatedby these pumps and normally no permanent irrigationcanal existed for providing irrigation water to the farm.Since the average land holding in the country was undertwo acres and as these were fragmented and could belocated in a number of places, even for the smallest low-liftpump a grouping of farmers was necessary to have a reason-able command area for the pump. These were hired outby the Government to a group of farmers, normally a co-operative group, on production of satisfactory evidencethat the group was a viable one and would irrigate theland if a pump was allotted. The average size of a low-lift pump was 2 cubic feet per second, driven by a diesel-operated engine which was normally of 15 hp capacity.There were electrical pumping sets also and those wereprovided to groups which were more or less permanentin nature and which had the electrical facilities.

During the 1977/78 irrigation season, 36,700 pumpswere fielded throughout Bangladesh. Out of these, about1,000 were electrically operated. It was estimated thata maximum of about 55,000 sets of 2 cu ft/sec pumpscould be used in the country without affecting navigationand fisheries. That number of pumps would initially serveabout 2.2 million acres of land and it was expected that,with improved efficiency of water use, the service areawould be increased to a total irrigated area of 2.75 millionacres at some later stage.

54 Part Three: Country papers submitted by participants

Although there was an abundant supply of surfacewater in Bangladesh, and the whole, country was criss-crossed with rivers and canals, there were limitations inlifting water from surface-water sources for irrigationbecause a minimum flow of water in the river had to bemaintained during the dry season in order to preventsaline water intrusion from the Bay of Bengal and also tosafeguard against adverse effects on ecology, navigationand fisheries.

(c) Ground-water irrigation projects

In view of the limitations to the use of low-liftpumps where surface water was not readily available orits use uneconomical, ground-water development projectswere receiving high priority in the country. Ground waterfor tube-well irrigation was readily available in most areasof the country that would benefit from irrigation. Nearlythe entire area of Bangladesh was believed to have under-ground deep water-bearing aquifers with a depth of 3,000feet or more. Suitable aquifers for construction of irrigationtube wells were quite deep in most parts of the country,particularly in the north-west and central north areas.

The availability and suitability of ground water forirrigation was dependent on three major factors provideda good aquifer was available at economic depths for installa-tion of irrigation wells, namely:

(i) The proximity of the water table to the surface,influencing the cost of pumping;

(ii) The amount of annual recharge in the basin,determining the quantity of water that could be safelyabstracted each year;

(iii) The water quality, indicating its suitability forthe crops.

The depth of the water table at most places in thecountry varied between 0 and 30 feet depending on thelocation and the season. The average depth of ground waterwas 12 feet and it reached the surface in most areas aftermonsoon rains.

Recharge of ground-water supplies was mainly fromrainfall and floods which were considered sufficient tosupport full development of irrigated agriculture for theentire area to which surface-water supplies were not readilyavailable. Studies indicated that ground water was availableover an area of about 16 million acres, some of which hadalready been irrigated with surface water.

As regards water quality, the ground water of thewhole country was quite suitable for crop production,except close to the sea where the water was saline.

Depending on the characteristics of the particular

area and aquifer conditions, alternative irrigation prospects,farmers' demands, suitability of land for irrigation andother factors, a deep tube well, shallow tube well or hand-pump tube well was sunk.

Deep tube wells. In deep tube-well irrigation pro-jects, a tube well was sunk usually to a depth of between120 and 300 feet. The diameter of a standard size deeptube well in Bangladesh was 6 in or more. The usual dis-charge from such a tube well was about 2 cu ft/sec. Sincethe aquifer conditions of the north-west and the centralnorth were more favourable than in any other areas of thecountry, the tube wells were mostly concentrated in thoseareas.

The command area for a deep tube well was usuallyabout 60 acres and required quite a large number of farmersorganized into a group. A tube well was usually sunk in anarea where a group had been formed beforehand, and thefarmers' request to the Government for a deep tube wellmust indicate willingness to pay a part of the capital costin the form of rental and the cost of operation andmaintenance.

Currently, 11,049 deep tube wells had been installed,of which 7,453 were used to irrigate 338,474 acres ofland during 1977/78.

Shallow tube wells. These.were smaller and weresunk usually within a depth of 150 feet. These tube wellswere usually 3 or 4 in in diameter with a discharge capacityof 0.5 cfs to 0.75 cu ft/sec. Since they were operated bycentrifugal pumps, the suction lift of the pump limited thearea where the shallow tube-well irrigation could irrigateduring the dry season. They were sold to the fanners cashdown, or on an instalment basis.

A total of 12,449 shallow tube wells had beeninstalled. On average, each of them irrigated about 8 acres.A total area of 99,600 acres was covered. It was possibleto irrigate up to 12 acres of land with one shallow tubewell.

Hand-pump tube wells. Unlike other means ofirrigation explained above, hand-pump tube wells weremanually operated, less expensive, easy to operate anddid not involve any grouping of farmers. The price wasalso within the reach of small farmers. These were 1.5-indiameter wells sunk usually up to 40 to 60 feet wherethe static water level was very close to the ground surfaceduring the irrigation season. Therefore, they could beowned and operated by small farmers and could irrigate0.5 acre of land. Since they did not involve any sophis-ticated technology in installation and operation, a hand-pump tube well could be installed by farmers themselvesand put into operation immediately. There were currently

A. Small-scale irrigation systems in Bangladesh 55

about 90,000 such hand-pump tube wells. Projects forthe installation of another 300,000 were under execution.

3. Irrigation requirements and development trends

In Bangladesh, about 22.5 million acres of landwere now being cultivated for one season or another.There were no significant areas of virgin land to be openedup, so the increased production that was needed to meetthe food shortage must come from land that was alreadybeing cultivated. Of those 22.5 million acres, about 12.0million acres were under one crop, 8.4 million acres underthree crops and only 1.34 million acres under three crops,giving a total crop acreage of about 33 million acres withan average cropping intensity of about 150 per cent. Itwas estimated that about 11 million acres could be culti-vated for additional crops if irrigation facilities could beprovided.

The following table shows the development trendsof different irrigation methods for the last 16 years.

It could be seen that the low-lift pump was usedover 45 per cent of the total irrigated area. Traditionalmethods, which contributed quite a considerable per-centage to irrigation in Bangladesh, had no further scopefor expansion. Under this system, farmers on their ownlifted water from nearby rivers, canals, wells and evenponds using baskets and other local indigenous manual

•methods. This was not an organized irrigation programme.

4. Problems

The irrigation coverage shown in table 1 was far fromsatisfactory in so far as irrigation efficiency was concerned.At least 3 million acres of land could be irrigated with theexisting irrigation facilities. The reasons for low irrigationefficiency in small-scale irrigation projects consisting oflow-lift pumps, deep tube wells, shallow tube wells andhand-pump tube wells were as follows.

(a) Institutional and social problems

Malfunctioning of the group. The performance of

Table 1. Development of tube wells, shallow wells and low-lift pumps in Bangladesh

Year

1962/63

1963/64

1964/65

1965/66

1966/67

1967/68

1968/69

1969/70

1970/71

1971/72

1972/73

1973/74

1974/75

1975/76

1976/77

1977/78

Percentage1977/78

Large-scaleirrigationby gravity(thousands

of acres)

-

-

21.8

46.9

104.1

147.4

155.5

148.9

63.3

91.2

97.6

92.3

111.0

112.0

138.0

4.67

Deep

Number

-

-

-

-

186

386

990

997

906

1,237

1,583

2,699

2,648

5,983

7,453

tube wells

Thousandsof acres

_

----4.1

16.0

32.1

47.8

29.3

66.7

69.4

118.0

152.1

256.0

338.4

11.43

Shallowtube wells

Number

_

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

389

-

998

1,029

2,241

6,545

12,449

Thousandsof acres

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

7.6

42.0

84.0

2.84

Low-liftpumps

Number

2,024

2,477

2,238

3,420

3,990

6,558

10,852

17,884

24,481

24,235

32,917

35,343

35,534

36,383

28,381

36,731

Thousandsof acres

133.0

156.7

131.1

173.5

225.5

316.9

415.8

613.0

875.9

883.9

1,329.9

1,330.8

1,379.0

1,430.6

1,101.2

1,357.0

45.80

Hand pumps

Number

-

-

-

-

-

-

2,000

8,000

9,000

15,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

90,000

Thousandsof acres

-------

4

5

8

15

20

25

30

45

U l

Traditionalmethods

(thousandsof acres)

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

33.75


many irrigation groups using low-lift pumps and deep tubewells was not satisfactory owing to lack of co-ordinationamong the group members. Group rivalry, power tusslesand other social factors, including lack of interest in co-operative practices or malpractice with co-operative faci-lities, led to malfunctioning of the groups.

Equity problems. The co-operative activities of adeep tube well or low-lift pump group were dominatedby comparatively rich or influential farmers. Poor farmerscould not afford to purchase shallow tube wells and there-fore became receptive to the idea of co-operative groups.Even if they participated individually in the co-operativeactivities, they were deprived of due benefits.

Lack of co-operation. Successful irrigation requiredinvolvement and co-ordination between various agenciesresponsible for providing inputs and other services. InBangladesh about a dozen institutions were involved insuch activities and sometimes the efforts of all such orga-nizations were not well co-ordinated.

Extension services and social motivation. Know-ledge regarding improved agricultural inputs and practices,such as use of high-yielding variety seeds, fertilizer, pesti-cides and efficient water management, was essential forproper farm management. Extension services at the farmlevel were not always available for the small and illiteratefarmers, who needed them most.

Credit. As most farmers were poor and many werelandless, credit facility was one of the prerequisites forefficient operation of irrigated agriculture at the farmlevel. The availability of credit to poor and landless fannerswas ' extremely limited because of resource constraintsand other factors. On the other hand, even if the creditwas available, it was sometimes misused, consequentlymaking the farmers appear unworthy of credit for thesubsequent period. Although arrangements existed forsupervised utilization of credit, because of the innumerablecreditors, it was extremely difficult to enforce properdiscipline. One of the major reasons for an impropercredit system was the absence of proper marketing faci-lities at the farm level.

(b) Technical problems

Type of equipment. Most irrigation equipment wasmore or less similar in specifications. Therefore, the effi-ciency in the field of such equipment varied according toconditions. A pump for a constant head operation wasnot suitable for operation at variable heads. But, in prac-tice, because of the limitations of maintenance facilities,the pump sets were required to be of standard capacity.The farmers' groups who operated the pumps at a differenthead were therefore deprived of the benefits they could

expect from peak efficiency, particularly in respect offuel cost.

Repair and maintenance schedule. Low-lift pumpswere repaired and serviced every year by the BangladeshAgricultural Development Corporation (BADC), theoperating agency of such pumps, and were hired outagain during the following irrigation season. All the 37,000pumps now being operated had to be returned to thefield service stations on or before a particular date everyyear for annual maintenance. As pump repair wasdependent on timely return by the farmers' groups, some-times it was not possible to repair them on schedule, whichcould result in the non-fielding of some low-lift pumpsrequired by the farmers. Ultimately the farmers' workschedule, as well as the production schedule, was badlyaffected if pumps were not returned on schedule.

Quality and timeliness of maintenance. Owing tothe factors explained in the preceding paragraph, thequality of the repairs was not always up to the acceptablestandard and the farmers' groups naturally suffered duringthe irrigation season when the irrigation equipment brokedown, especially when major overhauling was involved.

Field maintenance and supply of spare parts. Most ofthe engines used for driving pumps were imported. Thesupply of spare parts was therefore dependent on regularprocurement from abroad and that could not always beguaranteed. Even though there was provision for somereserve pumping sets for replacement in such cases, whenlarge-scale dislocation was faced the situation could get outof control. There were cases where a pump group could notbe supplied with a replacement pump even in 15-20 days.

Fuel supply. For the operation of about 37,000diesel-operated low-lift pumps, 10,000 deep tube wells andabout 12,000 shallow tube wells, approximately 12.5million gallons of diesel fuel had to be procured and distri-buted to the farm level by BADC, the operating agency.All fuel, along with the necessary lubricants, had to beimported. Occasionally there were isolated shortages offuel affecting the smooth operation of the pumps, causedby a dislocation in the local, regional r>r national transporta-tion systems.

Inefficient water distribution system. Althoughall care was taken before selection of a particular schemefor installation, there were cases where pumps or tubewells were wrongly sited because of local inefficiency orfor other reasons. The bad site might be either because thelevel of the land did not allow free flow of water by gravityor because the soil was not suitable for irrigated agriculture.However, whenever possible, lining of the canal or a changein the cropping pattern.was recommended to improve thesituation.

A. Small-scale irrigation systems in Bangladesh 57

(c) Miscellaneous and other related problems

As an irrigation system was a relatively new featurein Bangladesh, the farmers of the higher reaches are not atall used to irrigated agriculture. However, with the intro-duction of irrigation during the last few years, the farmerswere showing an interest in irrigation. For the systematicdevelopment of irrigated agriculture, proper use andmaintenance of irrigation equipment was essential at thefarm level. Some steps had already been taken in the way

of training schemes at the farm level and more were beingplanned on a larger scale.

During recent years, the price of agricultural inputshad increased while the prices of farm products had notincreased to the same extent. That was primarily due tothe gradual withdrawal of subsidies by the Government onone side and escalation of the price of farm inputs on theinternational market on the other side. The situation hadaffected small-scale irrigation to a great extent.

B. USE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM AT THE FARMLEVEL IN THE PROJECTS COMPLETED BY THE BANGLADESH

WATER DEVELOPMENT BOARD*

1. Introduction

Bangladesh was a generally flat, deltaic country atthe confluence of three large rivers - the Brahmaputra,the Ganges and the Meghna - with an area of 55,000 squaremiles, one third of which was flooded annually. The alluvialplains of the country rose with very low gradient fromthe Bay of Bengal in the south to the foothills of the Assamhills in the north-east. The climate was tropical with amonsoon season from May to September and a dry seasonfrom October to April. Rainfall varied from 50 inches inthe west to over 200 inches in the north-east. The averageannual rainfall was about 70 inches, 80 per cent of whichoccurred between June and September and caused wide-spread flooding, whereas drought or near drought condi-tions existed for the rest of the year. The monthly meantemperature hardly fell below 60°F and the climate wastherefore favourable for crop growth throughout the year.The ground-water table over most of the country was high.Approximately 22.5 million acres of land were undercultivation and the average farm size was o.ily 2 acres.

The current population was estimated at about 75million, but by 1985 it might exceed 110 million at thegrowth rate of 3 per cent per annum. A large part of thepopulation lived below subsistence level; 90 per cent ofthe population was rural, 80 per cent of whom wereengaged in agriculture. As it was not possible to expandappreciably the cultivated area, intensive use of the existingcultivated land was the main objective for providing jobsand food to the increasing population.

The economy of Bangladesh was traditionally andpredominantly agricultural and agricultural outputaccounted for about 55 per cent of the gross domestic

* By A.K.M. Taherul Islam, Chief Engineer, North-EasternZone, Bangladesh Water Development Board, Dacca.

product directly and for an additional 17 per cent indi-rectly. Over 80 per cent of the foreign exchange earningsof the country were generated from agriculture. Theannual consumption of foodgrains was 13 million tons,of which 1.5 to 2 million tons were imported. Agriculturaldevelopment was therefore essential to the country.

2. Prospects for agricultural development

The country had substantial agricultural resources.The soils were productive and had sustained continuouscropping for centuries. As the climate was suitable for year-round production, two or even more crops could be grownif proper technology was applied, thus effectively multi-plying the crop acreage. However, the dry season restrictedwinter crop production except where soils had excep-tionally good water-holding capacity or where irrigationfacilities were available. The major objective was to increasethe yield of foodgrains from current levels by 2 to 2.5per cent to a sustained growth rate of 3 per cent per annumso as to reach self-sufficiency in food supply by 1985. Theproduction of the major food-crop rice, along with otheragricultural crops, was increasing gradually with theconstruction of more water control and irrigation projects,use of more inputs and introduction of new high-yieldingvarieties (HYV). The agricultural input programme hadalso developed rapidly since 1965; fertilizer consumptionhad increased by 23 per cent a year. Co-operatives hadbeen set up, using new patterns developed and tested atthe Academy for Rural Development at Comilla, to en-courage formation of farmer groups and to distributesupervised short-term credit and inputs through co-operatives.

3. Irrigation projects

In the past agriculture was dependent only on themonsoon and hence subservient to its vagaries, but after


the establishment of what was now the Bangladesh WaterDevelopment Board, some major irrigation projects hadbeen taken up, some of which had since been completed.These were the Ganges-Kobadak project, Kushtia unit,the Dacca-Narayangonj-Demra project, the Thakurgaontube-well project and the low-lift pump irrigation projectin the northern districts.

(a) Ganges-Kobadak project

The Kushtia unit of the Ganges-Kobadak project wasdesigned to supply water for irrigation to 350,000 acresin Kushtia and Jessore districts. The project had twoparts; the first, costing Tk 227.20 million/ was completedin 1969/70, and the second was scheduled to be completedby 1980/81 at an estimated cost of Tk 375.0 million.It was mainly a lift-cum-gravity flow irrigation project,the River Ganges being the main source of water. Waterfrom the Ganges was being carried through an intakechannel to the pumping plant with an installed capacityof 5,400 cu ft/sec through 3 large (each 1,300 cu ft/sec)and 12 small (each 125 cu ft/sec) pumps. The waterpumped into the main canal was supplied to the farmers'fields through a network of canals detailed below:

Main canal

Secondary canal

Tertiary canal

Field channels

- 120 miles

311 miles

- 637 miles

- 3,511 in number

Besides the irrigation canals, a network of drainagechannels had also been constructed to prevent water-logging and also for reclamation of swamps, etc. The areacommanded by the project had been made flood-free byconstructing flood protection embankments along theRiver Ganges and its branches and other spill channels.

With the introduction of HYV rice, which neededmore water than the local varieties, the available watercould only irrigate about 120,000 acres of the projectarea during dry months. On the other hand, for supplemen-tary irrigation during the monsoon for the Aman crop(IRRI-20), only about 250,000 acres could be coveredunder the first and second phases and therefore the entirecommanded area could not be irrigated. Water managementat the farm level was still to be developed. As the landswere not properly levelled and there were no bunds asboundaries and no field channels, water wastage wasconsiderable. However, attempts were being made tomotivate the farmers to build field channels throughco-operatives.

Village-based primary co-operative societies hadbeen organized at the primary water-source level, underthe Thana (police station) co-operative societies called

Thana Central Co-operative Associations. Distributionand management of water at the farm level was done bythe primary co-operative societies. The Thana CentralCo-operative Association arranged training and providedinputs, namely, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, credit, etc.,under the supervision of the irrigation extension servicepersonnel who guided and supervised activities of theprimary societies.

There were five Thana Central Co-operative Associa-tions and 588 primary societies in the whole project area.

The responsibilities of the societies were as follows:

(i) Excavation and maintenance of field channelsand plot channels with the help of farmers through theirown lands;

(ii) Construction of plot boundaries;

(iii) Maintenance and repair of all civil workswithin the area of a field channel;

(iv) Preparation of an irrigation rotation chart;

(v) Preparation of crop patterns and supervisionof production;

(vi) Preparation of an integrated programme forrequirements in the way of seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, andensuring timely distribution of the same to farmers;

(vii) Determination of agricultural credit forfarmers and preparation of a seasonal production plan;

(viii) Training of all its members.

The above work was done by the primary co-operative societies with the advice and assistance of theextension and engineering staff of the Bangladesh WaterDevelopment Board. The societies worked out their respec-tive programmes before a working season and submittedto the Project Co-ordination Committee, headed by theDeputy Commissioner of the district and comprising headsof different departments in the district as members. TheCo-ordination Committee, after approval, sent the pro-gramme to the respective societies for implementation.The respective agency made arrangements for supplyingseeds, fertilizer, pesticides, etc., in accordance with theapproved programme, for distribution to the farmersthrough the dealers or the co-operative societies.

Problems. Among the problems being faced wereunsatisfactory water management; lack of co-operationamong farmers; non-levelling of lands, which caused lossesof irrigation water; unwillingness of the farmers to digplot channels; absence of border ridges in plots; high see-page loss; inadequate drainage; and silting of the intakecanal.

1 Taka per US dollar (period average):797/ 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 19787.761 7.595 7.742 8.113 12.019 15.347 15.375 15.016

B. Use and maintenance of the irrigation system at the farm level in the projects completed by the Bangladesh 59

Table 2 shows the commanded area, crop area andirrigated area of HYV rice from 1965/66 to .1977/78 ofthe Ganges-Kobadak project (first phase).

Table 2. Commanded area, total crop area and HYVrice area of the Ganges-Kobadak Project

(first phase) (in acres)

Year

1965/66

1966/67

1967/68

1968/69

1969/70

1970/71

1971/72

1972/73

1973/74

1974/75

1975/76

1976/77

1977/78

Commandedarea

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

120,000

Total croparea

191,400

194,786

199,863

213,550

223,313

221,450

193,206

185,820

189,976

194,397

189,499

216,824

266,340

Total irrigatedHYV rice area

-

4,250

1,227

1,742

12,300

17,070

10,636

31,700

36,441

42,703

45,801

56,378

(b) Dacca-Narayangonj-Demra project

A pilot project near the metropolitan city of Daccawas a flood control, drainage and water managementproject completed by the Board in 1969 at a cost of Tk23.30 million. The project area was divided into twoparts, known as area I and area II, having a net cultivablearea of 10,100 acres and 4,900 acres respectively. Area Iwas fully protected from floods and was supplied withirrigation water round the year. Area II was not protectedfrom floods and became submerged to a depth of between5 and 15 feet during the monsoon. A pumping plant withfour electrically driven axial flow pumps, with a capacityof 128 cu ft/sec per unit, pumped water into the projectarea from the River Lakhya for irrigation during the drymonths and pumped water out for drainage during themonsoon. Roads and railway embankments around thearea served as flood protection dykes approximately 19.5miles in length.

The irrigation system comprised a 7-mile long maincanal, 9 lateral canals with a total length of 19 miles and13 sub lateral canals totalling 5 miles in length, 9 directturnouts and 159 outlets. There were 125 miles of fieldchannels and 144 miles of plot channels. The drainagesystem consisted of both improved natural channels andnewly excavated ones. The total length of the drainage

channels in areas I and II was 21 miles and 5.2 miles res-pectively. The drainage channel in area I passed out excessrain water to the pumping plant from where it was pumpedout to the River Lakhya or to the main canal. The drainagewater from area II flowed by gravity into the natural drains.

So far, about 12,000 acres had been brought underirrigation in areas I and II taken together, 80 per cent ofwhich were covered by HYV crops. A cropping intensityof 202 per cent had been attained, compared to the pre-project crop intensity of 97.8 per cent. The ultimatetarget was 270 per cent.

Problems. Though the main canal could hold waterthat could be drawn by pumps up to the full capacity of512 cu ft/sec, the distribution system was designed for 250cu ft/sec only. As the area of HYV rice in the project areaincreased, the water supply had become inadequate andonly 70 per cent of the area could currently be irrigated.Steps were therefore being taken to increase the capacityof the distribution system so that the whole project areacould be brought under irrigation for HYV cultivation.

During excessive rainfall, a considerable amount ofland in area I went under water to a depth of 3 to 5 feet,damaging the standing crops. The silted-up drainagechannels were therefore being re-excavated.

The canal embankments had settled in places, withthe result that the crest level had sunk below the designedwater level. Owing to the lower water level, considerableland remained unirrigated. Steps were being taken tostrengthen the canal embankment and raise its crest level.

All outlets did not have gates, and even where gateshad been supplied they disappeared owing to non-co-operation among farmers. An adequate number of checksand fall-boards were needed to raise water for irrigatinghigher land. Arrangements were being made to improvethe situation.

Co-ordinating bodies. Water management and distri-bution of irrigation water in the project area was beingdo.ne through the following committees:

190);(i) .Outlet committee: 150 (number of outlets,

(ii) Canal committee: 9;

(iii) Central canal committee: 1;

(iv) Primary co-operative societies: 59.

Functions of the co-ordinating committees. Thefunction of the outlet committee was to excavate, remodeland maintain the field channels through the farmers anddevelop the area under its command. The function of thecanal committee was to develop the area under its


command by adhering to the approved cropping patternand to draw up and follow the rotational irrigation pro-gramme. The function of the central canal committeewas to help attain full development of the project areawith the co-operation of the project authorities and themembers of the canal committee.

The functions of the primary co-operative societieswere to obtain short-term and medium-term loans fromthe loan-giving agencies to purchase agricultural inputs andimplements, and to encourage saving among their members.

Rotational irrigation water distribution. Outletcommittees acted as leaders of the area under their com-mand for efficient water use. The local farmers of an outletelected representatives, called model farmers, who wereresponsible for distribution of water and crop development.Requests for water were made by the Board's extensionagent, according to which water was supplied to the plots.The model farmer maintained close co-ordination withgovernmental departments under the guidance of theextension agents. He attended training classes organizedby the extension personnel and learned about the latesttechniques in applied irrigation and agronomy. The modelfarmer in turn taught the farmers under his command. Asmall amount of money was paid as honorarium to themodel farmers.

Table 3 shows the commanded area, crop area andirrigated HYV rice area of the project from 1965/66 to1977/78.

Table 3. Commanded area, total crop area and HYVrice area of the Dacca-Narayangonj-Demra project

(in acres)

YearCommanded

areaTotal crop

areaTotal irrigatedHYV rice area

1965/661966/67

1967/68

1968/69

1969/70

1970/71

1971/72

1972/73

1973/74

1974/75

1975/76

1976/77

1977/78

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

14,732

16,082

16,319

20,370

29,200

27,644

27,725

28,110

26,240

24,029

26,676

24,438

24,659

26,889

--

410

4,479

. 8^30

11,355

14,568

14,641

10,494

27,296

14,705

13,672

13,625

(c) Thakurgaon tube-well project

A total of 380 electrically driven deep tube wells,each with an average capacity of 2.5-3 cu ft/sec and anaverage depth of 300 feet, had been installed in Thakurgaonin the district of Dinajpur with a loan from the FederalRepublic of Germany to provide irrigation facilities to68,800 acres. The project was completed in 1969 at a costof Tk 98.80 million. An average length of 2,000 feet oflined canal had been provided to each tube well throughwhich water was carried to the fields.

Farmers' primary co-operative societies had beenorganized for which a training programme and agriculturalinputs were arranged by the Thana Central Co-operativeAssociation under the guidance and supervision of theirrigation extension service personnel of the Board. Distri-bution and management of water at the farm level werecarried out by these co-operative societies in accordancewith the project. The area irrigated by the tube wells wasfast decreasing, i.e. from 61,733 acres in 1969/70 to 10,100acres in 1977/78, because of various factors but parti-cularly damage during the independence war of 1971.Currently, 66 tube wells were completely out of order.

Problems. Water management and control at thefield level were not yet fully developed. There was also alack of extension and other promotional activities. Thetube wells were also out of order often and the spare partsfor electrical and mechanical equipment were not alwaysavailable. There were occasional power failures andshortages of power also. Remedial measures were beingtaken to improve the situation.

Table 4 shows the commanded area, crop area, andnumber of tube wells in the Thakurgaon project from1965/66 to 1977/78.

(d) Low-lift pump irrigation scheme

The project was initiated in the districts of Rajshahi,Rangpur, Dinajpur and Bogra by the Board in 1962/63;594 pumps, each of 2 cu ft/sec capacity were installed in94 stations scattered all over the area. The main purposeof the scheme was to withdraw the perennial river flow ata low cost through pumps, lined canals and field channels.The distribution of irrigation water in each of the pumpstations was done by outlet committees under the chargeof the canal committees. The extension personnel, jointlywith the chairman and secretaries of the canal committees,prepared a water rotation programme, according to whichthe limited supply of irrigation water was distributedamong fanners in parcels and not all at one time. Thewater rotation programme depended on the moistureretention capacity of the soils, varieties of crops to begrown, etc. Since rice was the main crop and the soil was

B. Use and maintenance of the irrigation system at the farm level in the projects completed by the Bangladesh 61

Year

1965/66

1966/67

1967/68

1968/69

1969/70

1970/71

1971/72

1972/73

1973/74

1974/75

1975/76

1976/77

1977/78

Table 4. Commanded area, total crop area and number of tube wells workingin the Thakurgaon tube well project

Commanded Total cropped Total HYV ricearea area irrigated

(acres) (acres) (acres)

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

68,800

93,967

90,107

117,149

136,637

144,354

90,507

98,451

120,045

10,400

118,657

111,434

149,515

-

2,140

6,789

12,506

33,175

14,451

11,876

19,155

11,451

2,155

11,178

22,941

Total HYV wheatirrigated(acres)

-

604

2,407

2,561

4,903

659

2,538

3,277

-

11,771

5,910

17,683

Number of tubewells installed

292

312

362

362

377

377

377

377

377

377

377

377

377

Number of tubewells working

114

312

343

362

366

315

45

255

318

231

241

293

299

mostly medium to heavy textured, 6-10 days' rotation wasgenerally adopted. The farmers of each outlet were entitledto receive irrigation water according to the water rotationroster. The timely and proper use of water depended,therefore, mainly on co-operation among the farmers.

Implementation of the scheme had not been verysatisfactory, for various reasons. Although theoretically a2-cu ft/sec pump should be able to irrigate over 100 acresof Boro paddy, the records indicated that the maximumarea irrigated by each pump was only 38.5 acres.

Low operation hours of pumps, inefficient distribu-tion system, lack of co-operation among farmers and co-ordination between various agencies, and want of spareparts and proper repair facilities for pumps, were someof the factors responsible for such poor performance ofthe scheme.

Table 5 shows the total commanded area, crop areairrigated and number of pumps in the low-lift pump irriga-tion scheme.

4. Conclusions

On analysis of the methods of use and maintenanceof irrigation systems at the farm level and the problemsin the above completed projects, it appeared that thefactors responsible for under-utilization of facilities ofthe projects might be summarized as follows:

(a) Non-levelling of lands, absence of high borderridges on plots and plot channels;

(b) Insufficient number of checks, regulating struc-tures, gates and measuring devices at the farm level;

(c) Inadequate drainage facilities in the projectarea;

(d) Insufficient spare parts and inadequate mainte-nance facilities of equipment and machineries;

(e) Agriculture through artificial irrigation beingnew to most of the farmers, there was a lack of interestand unwillingness to adopt irrigated agriculture;

(f) Non-existence of proper co-operation amongfarmers in the use of irrigation water; ,,

(g) Inadequate water management at the farmlevel;

(h) Lack of training of farmers in applying correctquantities of water for different crops and at differentstages of growth and also in the frequency of irrigationneeded for each;

(i) Adoption of flood irrigation in lieu of furrowirrigation;

(j) Lack of consolidation of holdings to economicand uniform size;

(k) Improper maintenance of project works.

Action had already been taken by the executingagencies of the projects to solve these problems but alot more had to be done for the full development of theseirrigation projects.


Year

1965/66

1966/67

1967/68

1968/69

1969/70

1970/71

1971/72

1972/73

1973/74

1974/75

1975/76

1976/77

1977/78

Table 5.

Commandedarea

(acres)

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

39,900

40,800

Commanded area, total crop area, and total number of pumps workingin the low-lift pump irrigation scheme

Total croparea

(acres)

72,555

80,264

78,229

70,577

84,531

78,415

50,600

67,279

81,422

81,174

65,675

75,593

97,077,

Total HYV ricearea irrigated

(acres)

-

911

1,644

2,952

5,481

968

3,178

3,469

3,471

2,884

3,526

5,163

Total number ofpumps installed

407

458

538

594

668

668

668

668

668

668

668

668

668

Total number ofpumps working

149

156

258

214

214

213

30

157

161

137

145

158

119

C. PROPOSED MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THE PANLAUNGIRRIGATION PROJECT IN BURMA*

1. Introduction

Agriculture, including crops, livestock, fisheriesand forestry, dominated the economy of Burma as itprovided 40 per cent of the gross domestic product, 70per cent of employment and 90 per cent of export earnings.In addition, much of manufacturing, transportation andtrade involved the processing, handling and distributionof agricultural commodities. Rice was the major crop,accounting for 65 per cent of the cultivated area and halfthe export earnings from the agricultural sector.

The predominant agricultural area was the centralbelt formed by the Chindwin, Irrawaddy and Sittangvalleys and the Irrawaddy delta. Forest covered nearly75 per cent of the land area and contained the richesttimber stands in Asia. Livestock was spread throughoutthe country, basically for draught purposes, and fishingwas an important activity for many families. The Burmeseeconomy had suffered severely from war damage andagricultural production did not recover pre-war levelsuntil the mid-1960s. The Government had, until 1974,

* By Ba Chit, Executive Engineer, SEDAWGYI MultipurposeDam Project, Irrigation Department, Rangoon, and Sein Win,Deputy Divisional Manager, Divisional Agricultural Corporation,Mandalay.

attached a low priority to agricultural development inthe preceding decade, only 11 per cent of its total capitalexpenditure being devoted to that sector, with the trenddeclining during that period both relatively and absolutely.The adverse weather conditions of some years finallyprecipitated the complete overhaul of the economic planwhich had emphasized mining and industry. The Govern-ment had now given high priority to agricultural invest-ment to raise production.

For that purpose a considerable amount of invest-ment was being made in the agricultural sector, with theemphasis on the development of irrigation projects andwater management works.

Nyaunggyat multipurpose dam and irrigation projectwas one of the water management projects to be imple-mented with a loan from the World Bank, and whichinvolved the proposed improvement works for the existingPanlaung irrigation system.

2. Project area

(a) Location

The project area was located between latitudes 20°Nand 22°N and longitudes 96°E and 97°E. It was situated


in the dry zone of central Burma. It covered part ofKyaukse, Myittha, Tada-U and Windwin townships ofMandalay Division. Mandalay, the second largest city inthe country, was situated at about 50 miles from thecentre of the area.

The irrigable area covered the present Panlaungirrigation tract of 86,913 acres and about 115,000 acresof currently rain-fed land in the Samon River valley whichwas adjacent to the Panlaung irrigation area.

(b) Climate

The climate in the project area was tropical. Monsoonrains usually started in the middle of May and lastedtill October. The heaviest rains occurred during Septemberand October. The rainfall was not evenly distributed.The average annual rainfall did not exceed 32 inches(813 mm).

The mean monthly temperatures in the project areaare shown below:

Months

Degress inFahrenheit

Jan.

71.4

Feb.

77.0

Mar.

85.8

Apr.

91.2

May

87.8

June

87.1

July

86.9

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

84.9 84.0 82.0 77.5 71.6

Extreme minimum temperatures were observedduring December (descending to 44.6°F) and maximumtemperatures occurred during the month of April (reaching109.9°F).

The average relative humidity during the wintervaried between 50 per cent and 60 per cent. It was around40 per cent in March and April. In the monsoon season itrose as high as 84 per cent.

The maximum wind velocity in May, blowing in asouth-south-east direction, was 40 miles per hour.

The maximum monthly evaporation in the areaoccurred in the month of April, reaching 14 inches (356mm)

(c) Existing irrigation and drainage works

The Panlaung irrigation system was currently com-posed of four diversion works, namely, Kinda weir,Nathlwe weir, Kyime weir and Htongyi weir, with theirintegrated canal networks irrigating 39,858 acres, 13,545

acres, 30,341 acres and 3,169 acres respectively, makinga total irrigated area of 86,913 acres.

As the irrigation water could be supplied in accord-ance with river flows and not in accordance with cropwater requirements, and since the two frequently did notsynchronize, the yield of crops in the area was low.

The following table shows the average monthlyrun-off of the Panlaung River:

Month :

Mean monthlyinflow, thou-sand acre-feet

July Aug.

111.2 200.7

Jan.

: 44.9

Sept.

225.1

Feb.

35.6

Oct.

216.0

Mar.

37.0

Nov.

104.8

Apr.

30.5

Dec.

59.1

May June

48.6 91.9

Total

12,05.4

Irrigation supply was distributed by a network oflateral canals and farmer-built distribution systems. Themain canal, laterals and other structures needed rehabilita-tion. Additional structures would be needed to providebetter water control, especially for dry-season crops.There was a limited number of lateral drainage channelsof large capacity that crossed the area, with the resultthat drainage conditions were poor during the wet season.All-weather access roads in the project area were alsolacking; the transport of agricultural produce and inputswas, therefore very difficult during the monsoon season.

The field irrigation and drainage system in the areawas inadequate for modern agricultural practices. Therewere not enough farm ditches, with the result that manyfarm units had to receive irrigation water from adjacentfields, making it difficult to grow crops other than paddy.Field-to-field irrigation caused considerable wastage ofwater and an unequal distribution, resulting in shortageswhen water was scarce. In that way, many fields receivedtoo little water or no water at all and the water arrived toolate at the lower end of the fields. Inadequacy of thedrainage system caused flooding, resulting in poor watermanagement and, consequently, low yields.

Poor accessibility to the fields owing to lack offarm roads caused delay in transportation of agriculturalproducts and inputs, poor water management and poorcrop attendance by farmers.

Uneven topography made for excessive water re-


quirements for paddy cultivation and uneven distributionof water within the plot, resulting in low yields.

Land fragmentation, caused by subdivision of indi-vidual holdings through inheritance, and also by construc-tion of public works such as irrigation and drainagechannels, roads, railway lines, etc., divided the fields intounder-sized plots and irregular shapes, which had an adverseeffect on the efficiency of farm operations.

(d) Soils

Six types of soil were predominant in the projectarea: light brown soils, light brown diluvial soils, meadowcinnamon soils, red-brown savanna soils, dark compactsavanna soils and meadow soils.

Light brown soils were found on the slightly highplain level. The texture was light and the structure crumby.Yellow and reddish plots were found in the soils, whichindicated the presence of iron compound. The soil reactionwas neutral. The humus content was low.

Light brown diluvial soils occupied the higher andlower slopes near the dry forest. The texture was light andsometimes even sandy horizons were seen. The soils in theupper horizons were nutty; the lower horizons possesseda crumby structure. The humus content was low and thesoil reaction slightly alkaline.

Meadow cinnamon soils had developed on recentcreek deposits. The texture was heavy to medium loam.The humus content was 4.62 per cent. Carbonates werefound in the lower horizon. The soil reaction was weaklyalkaline. The upper horizon was cloddy. The clay contentwas over 50 per cent.

The red-brown savanna soils were characterized by alight texture. The upper portion was mostly structureless,porosity space being big and aeration good. The water-holding capacity was low. The content of humus was low,ranging from 0.34 to 1.23 per cent.

The dark compact savanna soils were on the flatalluvial plain. The structure was cloddy and the textureheavy. In the dry season cracks appeared and in therainy season soils were sticky and adhesive. Heavy textureand large quantities of clay minerals (Montmorillionite)were responsible for the soils swelling. The soil reactionwas alkaline.

The meadow soil developed mainly in river creeksand depressions. Typical meadow soil was brownish greyin colour, cloddy in structure and the texture was heavyloam. The soil was characterized by alkaline reaction.

(e) Agricultural production and cropping patterns

As the project area was situated in the dry zone ofcentral Burma, prevailing high temperatures and favourablesoil conditions favoured cultivation of many crops in thearea throughout the year. However, current crop yieldswere generally low, because irrigation water supplies fromthe diversion weirs had to depend on the streamflows andgenerally could not meet the water requirements. Hence,only 70 per cent of the total irrigable area was irrigated.Since the streamflow in winter was low, extensive doublecropping was not possible. The present second crop coveredabout 51.0 per cent of the total area.

With the water supply assured through the construc-tion of the Nyaunggyat dam project and intensive cultiva-tion using high-yielding varieties, fertilizers and improvedagro-techniques, a cropping intensity of about 200 per centwas envisaged with sustaining high yields.

(f) Labour availability and farm size

The Mandalay Division was administered through 25townships. Total population in the project area was over190,000 with a growth rate of 2.8 per cent per annum.

Current labour availability in the project area wassufficient for peak labour requirements for harvesting ofmonsoon crops and for land preparation for the secondcrop in October and November.

There were two main types of land in the projectarea, based mainly on the availability of irrigation, thoughsome paddy grown close to rivers was in rain-fed condition.The other main class of land was known as ya, whichimplied rain-fed conditions and was often at slightly higherlevels than the paddy land. Settlement was denser on paddylands and consequently paddy farms were smaller thanya farms. The average paddy farm size was 8 acres andthe average ya farm 10 acres. Nearly 40 per cent of thepaddy farms and 28 per cent of the ya farms were 4 acresor less in size. Seventy per cent of the paddy and ya farmswere below the average size. The average size of a farm plotwas 0.6 acre in the existing area (mostly paddy farms)and 1.35 acres in the currently non-irrigated area (mostlyya farms).

(g) Communications

The main highway from Rangoon to Mandalaypassed through the project area. Kume was on this high-way. Myittha was on a road that branched off from thishighway and went west to Myingyan. A road from Kyaukseto Tada-U skirted the northern boundary of the project.An unpaved road along canal banks connected Kinda tothe main highway. Another such road connected Kindato the main highway. Yet another further north connected


the Lungyaw farm to the main highway. Unpaved roadsto most villages could not be used after heavy showers asthey were not on embankments.

(h) Land tenure

All land belonged to the State. Cultivators wereregarded as tenants of the Government since the enact-ment of the Tenancy Act of 1964. They could not trans-fer land to anyone else and their heirs could not possessthe land as a matter of right. When a farmer died, thevillage land committee might distribute the land to anothercultivator if he left behind only minor sons, or if his sonswere in non-farming occupations. They might even takeaway all or partof a farmer's land (under Section 38of the Land Nationalization Act of 1953) for failing togrow a prescribed crop.

Land ownership in this context meant, only the rightof usufruct. The pattern of ownership was highly skewedin the project area, as in all of Burma. In the existing area,40 per cent of the farms were less than 4 acres in size, buttheir total area was only 11 per cent of the farm land.On the other hand, farms over 10 acres in size comprised20 per cent of the number of all farms but contained48 per cent of the farmland. In the ya land, distributionwas slightly more skewded.

3. Proposed irrigation development

(a) Engineering structures

The works proposed on the Nyaunggyat multipurposedam and irrigation project were the construction of a stor-age dam located 9 miles upstream from the Kinda diversionweir, which would regulate the runoff of the PanlaungRiver, the rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems,and the construction of new systems on currently non-irrigated land in the extension area.

The total net irrigable area of 201,500 acres wassubdivided as follows:

Rehabilitation of the existingPanlaung system

Construction of a new systemfor the extension area in theSamong River valley

86,913 acres

114,587 acres

The following were some of the salient features ofthe storage dam:

Type of dam

Installed capacity

Firm power

Annual output

Total

Firm

Zoned roll-filled dam

40 MW

26 MW

175 million kWh

65 million kWh

Catchment area

Dam height

Dam length

850 sq mi

250 ft

2,000 ft

No canal linings were proposed for the irrigationcanals of the existing and new systems. Soils in the existingarea were mainly clayey loams (90 per cent) and sandyloams (10 per cent). The proportion was 60 per cent and40 per cent in the extension area.

(b) Rehabilitation of the existing area

The proposed works included desilting of canals,repair and replacement of canal structures, constructionof farm ditches within the irrigation blocks, drainageimprovement, flood protection and road improvement.They were aimed at improving the current irrigation struc-tures by remedying existing short-comings and deficien-cies.

In the past, desilting works had not been sufficientto keep the maximum capacity of the canals up to itsdesign value of 1 cu ft/sec for 47 acres (1.5 1 /s/ha). The fullcapacity of the canals would be needed because a more in-tensive crop pattern was proposed. Peak monthly demandsoccurred in April and August with maximum crop waterrequirements of 8-9 inches.

Replacement of the outlets to the irrigation blocksby new gated outlets was proposed as the main measurefor improving water control. Additionally, measuringflumes would be installed at the head of distributariesand check structures would be equipped with stoplogsfor better control of the head at offtakes.

The existing natural drainage network would beimproved by deepening and upgrading existing canalsand the construction of supplementary drains. The capa-city of the drainage system would be 1 cu ft/sec per 25acres (2.8 1/s/ha), which would be enough to evacuatethe one-day rainstorm of 1 in 10 years' occurrence. Theminimum depth of the drains would be 5 feet.

The existing access to the irrigated area would beimproved by providing a main road 16 feet wide, andgravel surfaced roads on a 22-feet wide and 2-feet highembankment which would be superimposed as muchas possible on the existing road networks of the muni-cipalities. Service roads along the main canals would bewidened to 16 feet, and along other canals to 8 feet wide.

66 Part Three; Country papers submitted by participants

Flood protection embankments would provideprotection against the Panlaung flooding between theNathhve weir and the Htongyi confluence with the river.The Panlaung River discharge downstream of Kume wouldbe reduced by increasing the flow diverted into the PaukChaung flood channel, which, in turn, drained into theSamon River. The Pauk Chaung channel should also becontained within flood embankments as well as the SamonRiver downstream of the Pauk Chaung. In the case of thelatter, the embankment would protect low-lying areason both sides of it. The Pauk Chaung escape weir capacitywould be increased by replacing the existing weir, whichhad a high-level fixed crest, with a new structure withradial gates. The low-lying crest of the new structurewould provide better evacuation of the Panlaung bed loadwhich caused silting up of the Panlaung and the canalofftakes (sama, Mezebintha canals) downstream fromthe escape weir.

Drain outlets into the embanked sections of therivers would be provided with outlet structures equippedwith automatic no-return flow gates. Flood embankmentshad a crest width of 10 feet, 1.5 to 1 per cent slopesand were located at a distance of at least 170 feet fromthe river bank.

Within the irrigation blocks, distribution of waterwould be improved by tripling the length of the watercourses. As was presently the case, the water courseswould be used alternatively for irrigation and drainage.The average distance between two ditches would be 400feet. The bed level of the water courses would be 3-4feet below ground level, in order to keep ground waterlow, and could eventually be increased to 5 feet in badlydrained areas. Check structures in the water courses wouldbe provided, consisting of earth dams equipped with12-inch concrete pipes to drain the water courses at thebottom.

(c) New extension area

The irrigation system was designed to have the samecapacity as that of the rehabilitation works in the existingareas, with 1 cu ft/sec supplying about 47 acres.

The distributaries would be laid out along the slopeand would be equipped with drop structures where theslope of the terrain exceeded permissible longitudinalcanal slopes. Minors would be laid out across the slopesand spaced about 3,300 feet apart. Outlets would serveirrigation blocks of 100 acres. Cross regulators would beprovided at the takeoff of distributaries and minors.

Drains would be relatively small as the width of thearea did not exceed 5 miles. As in the existing area, theywere designed to evacuate a one-day rainstorm of once

in 10 years' occurrence (5.05 inches). Ground water wassufficiently deep in most of the area not to create anyproblems for the moment. Secondary drains would be laidout parallel to the distributaries along the slope. Dropstructures would not be provided. Some bed erosion wouldbe accepted. Slopes of the smallest canals were not toexceed 0.4 per cent. Tertiary drains were located imme-diately above minors and would drain into the secondaryones. An interceptor drain would catch runoff from thearea above the diversion canal and evacuate it to naturaldrains.

The main road network consisted of one main roadrunning along the proposed main canal for the extensionarea which would be connected with the existing Rangoon- Mandalay highways and some additional links. Serviceroads ran along the distributaries and access tracks betweenthe minors and the tertiary drains. Access to the irrigationblocks would be provided by a concrete culvert (24 inches)across the tertiary drains.

Flood protection embankments would be constructedalong the Samon River starting from the Pauk Chaungconfluence down to the Panlaung confluence. Drain outletswith no-return gates would be provided where drainscrossed the'embankment.

Proposed land development works comprised clear-ing, land shaping, bunding and construction of watercourses. Land clearing, shaping and smoothing would berequired for the whole area. For land shaping purposes,the area was subdivided into land with general slopes(1:2,000 scale map) of less than 0.25 per cent (60 percent), 0.25 to 0.50 per cent (27 per cent) and 0.5 to1 per cent (13 per cent), with a proposed water-coursegrid of 330 feet spacing, alternately, an irrigation ditchand a drainage ditch both running along the slope. Theproposed dimensions for the basins varied between 130feet x 330 feet (1 acre) for less than a 0.25 per cent slopeand regular relief to 65 feet x 165 feet (1/4 acre) for a0.5 to 1 per cent slope and irregular relief.

4. Difficulties in the development of the project

Though there were not expected to be any difficul-ties in solving the engineering problems, it was envisagedthat some difficulties would be encountered with regardto the following problems.

(a) Land consolidation and reparcellation works

In land consolidation works, about 5 per cent of thepresently cultivated lands would be lost owing to theconstruction of irrigation, drainage and road networks.Some exchange of lands among farmers would also have to


be made in land reparcellation work so that individualholdings of land would fall into a rearranged unit block.

It was hard to convince the fanners that the advan-tages to be gained through land consolidation and repar-cellation works were far greater than the cost of the verysmall percentage of land they were going to lose.

It had therefore been decided to start the land con-solidation and reparcellation works in the extension areawhere there would be less objection to it. But for the exist-ing service areas, like the Panlaung irrigated tract, it wasplanned to start with a pilot area covering about 3,000to 4,000 acres of land, just to demonstrate to the farmersthe works involved in the land consolidation and repar-cellation and the advantages that would facilitate them intheir farming operations.

(b) Persuading farmers to change their farming practices

It would be very difficult to persuade the farmers inthe project area to switch from their old traditional farmingpractices to modern agricultural techniques. The introduc-tion of new improved seeds, usage of heavy dosages ofchemical fertilizers and pesticides, and weeding, requiredmore labour and higher fanning costs, which were the

factors hindering the farmers from readily switching farm-ing practices. It had been planned, therefore, to set upsome demonstration farms in the project area and alsoincrease the extension services to educate the farmers.

5. Conclusion

Implementation of the Nyaunggyat multipurposedam and irrigation project would only improve the physicalconditions for increasing the agricultural production.

It was foreseen that full benefits from the projectwould not be realized unless the technically improvedfacilities were put to use properly and measures to raisethe farmer's capability for increasing agricultural pro-duction and their incentives to do so were undertaken.

It had been decided, therefore, to undertake mea-sures such as improving the irrigation and agriculturalorganizations and management, training irrigation per-sonnel, guiding the fanners in irrigation techniques, devel-oping institutional support to the farmers in credit supply,marketing, processing, storage and supply of agriculturalinputs, and to carry out research on crops, irrigation andcultivation practices simultaneously.

D. USE AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN INDIA*

1. Introduction

A developing economy demanded full exploitation ofits resources in order to provide an economic base forbalanced growth in other sections. With few exceptions,the dominant resources requirement was wcter. Agriculturewas the mainstay of India's economy and water was one ofthe very basic inputs for agricultural production whichneeded to be stepped up continuously to meet the ever-increasing requirement of food and fibre for the country'slarge population. In large countries such as India, watersupplies were ill-distributed in space and time. Because ofthe ever-increasing requirement for water for intensive/extensive cultivation and industrialization, the gap betweenthe demand and supply was likely Jo increase to unex-pected levels sooner rather than later.

In order to achieve the accelerated pace of develop-ment, provision of additional irrigation facilities had beenan important feature of the over-all national economicdevelopment programme. The country's irrigation potentialhad increased from 22.6 million hectares in 1950/51

to over 53.8 million hectares in 1977/78. Table 6 indicatesthe additions of irrigation potential from major, mediumand minor irrigation works in the various plans.

Table 6. Additional irrigation potential in thevarious plans (in million ha)

* By N.L. Shankaian, Director (Irrigation), and Pritam Singh,Member (Floods), Central Water Commission, Ministry of Agri-culture and Irrigation, New Delhi

Period

Pre-plan(1950-1951)I Plan(1951-1956)DPlan(1956-1961)III Plan(1961-1966)Annual plans(1966-1969)VPlan(1974-1975)1975-1976

1976-19771977-1978(tentative)

Total cumulative potentialirrigated area

Major and Medium

9.7

12.2

14.3

16.5

18.1

21.5

22.523.525.0

Minor

12.9

14.1

14.8

17.0

19.0

24.3

25.226.228.8

Cumulative totalpotential at the

end of the period

22.6

26.3

29.1

33.5

37.1

45.8

47.749.753.8


The irrigation projects in the country were classifiedunder three categories, i.e. major, medium and minorprojects. Whereas earlier the classification had been basedon the cost of the project, now it was on the basis of cul-turable command area (CCA). According to the latestclassification of irrigation projects, projects having CCAup to 2,000 ha, up to 10,000 ha and more than 10,000 hawere categorized as minor, medium and major projectsrespectively.

Out of the increased potential from 1950-1951 to1977-1978 of 31.1 million ha, 15.3 million ha and 15.9million ha had been contributed by major/medium andminor projects respectively. The major/medium schemesinvolves large financial outlays and took comparativelylonger "gestation" periods than minor projects. However,the coverage by individual major/medium schemes wasmuch wider than the minor schemes. These projects calledfor involvement of larger sections of the rural communityand provision of infrastructural facilities for developmentof irrigation. This potential, created at huge cost to thenational- economy (in terms of money as well as labour),had to be utilized efficiently in order to achieve the ex-pected benefits. Therefore, it was necessary that all-outefforts be made to ensure the proper use and maintenanceof irrigation systems.

However, in view of the limited availability of waterresources, the irrigation potential could not be infinitelyincreased to meet the increasing demands. Thus, it wouldbe of interest to review the available resources of waterof India before discussing the use and maintenance ofirrigation systems in detail.

India had good rainfall and its rivers contributed5 to 6 per cent of the total surface-water flow of the world.However, nearly two thirds of India was either arid orsemi-arid. The Ganga and Brahmaputra were the two bigriver systems of India. The Ganga accounted for nearly493,360 million m-̂ of waters. The Brahmaputra accountedfor 555,030 million m^ of water. The third largest riversystem was the Indus, of which about 49,336 million m^of water were available for use in India; the balance wentto Pakistan. In India, although the over-all quantity ofwater was sufficient, it was unequally distributed witherratic rainfall patterns. Assessment of the country'sutilizable water potential was still an exercise. However,in 1976 the National Commission on Agriculture assessedthat out of 180 million ha m available, within the presenttechnological development, only 35 million ha m and 70million ha m of average annual water resources would beutilizable from the ground water and surface water res-pectively by the year 2025. Out of that, 28 million ha mwould be for uses other than irrigation. Against that,taking the various factors into account, the ultimate irriga-

tion potential for purposes of broad assessment had beentaken as 110 million ha. This would be 52 per cent of thesown area of 210 million ha in the year 2025. Thus, inorder to cover the whole sown area of 210 million ha withirrigation facilities, it was extremely important that irriga-tion systems were made use of in the most efficient man-ner.

Broadly speaking, the concept of good use and main-tenance of irrigation systems could be categorized asfollows:

(a) Minimizing losses at storage and diversionstructures and in the canal system (from head works upto the field outlet);

(b) Maximizing the use of water in the farmers'fields;

(c) Economic and administrative measures toimprove over-all efficiency;

(d) Other measures:

(i) Command area development authorities;

(ii) Institutional arrangements for credit tofarmers;

(iii) Modernization of existing irrigation pro-jects;

(iv) Miscellaneous.

2. Minimizing losses at storage and diversion

; structures and in the canal system

(a) Reservoir losses

In a storage irrigation scheme there was considerableevaporation loss from the reservoir. The loss from unitwater surface area varied from place to place and monthto month. The loss in the month of May and June wasgenerally two to five times more than in the winter monthsof December and January. The annual evaporation variedfrom a maximum of 300 cm (120") in parts of Rajasthanto a minimum of 50 cm (20") in parts of Assam andJammu and Kashmir. It was a well recognized fact thatfor a given quantity of impounded water the loss would behigher if stored in a shallow reservoir than in a deep one.The manner in which the storage reservoir was operatedalso had a bearing on evaporation loss. The smaller thequantity of water in the reservoir during this period, thelower the evaporation loss from the reduced water surface.In view of the heavy evaporation losses during the hotseason, the economics of the mode of reservoir operationsshould be carefully examined. It had been suggested thatnurseries for paddy etc., if raised in compact blocks,


preferably in the head reaches of minors on a commercialscale, either by the Government or by co-operative socie-ties, could ensure economy in the use of water for thenurseries, as only the portions of channels serving thoseneed be run. From the agricultural experiments recentlyconducted in the country, it had now been confirmed thatit was not necessary for nurseries to be close to the fieldswhere paddy was required to be transplanted, becauserice seedlings could stand a couple of days of transportand handling without injury. Thus, utilization of thestored water to the maximum extent before the onset ofthe hot season favoured reduced evaporation loss andhelped in achieving a degree of economy in the use ofstored waters.

(b) Diversion works

Absence of mechanical arrangements for lift crestshutters, of the type that fell back in position immediatelyafter the floods had receded, had been a problem on theexisting weirs. Better efficiency in the use of availablewaters could be achieved by installing either mechanicallyor electrically operated gates on diversion structures.

(c) Canal and distribution system

Generally two types of losses, conveyance lossesand operation losses, as detailed below, occurred in acanal system.

Conveyance losses. A considerable amount of waterwas lost through evaporation and seepage in the canalsystem from the head of the canal up to the outlet wherethe waters were diverted to the farmers' water courses.The losses occurred because of seepage in the canal, eva-poration and evapotranspiration of weeds present eitherin the flowing water or on the canal banks. The commonlyaccepted figure for such losses in alluvial soils of northIndia was approximately 45 per cent of the discharge at thecanal head. This included 17 per cent in the main canal andbranches, 8 per cent in distributaries and 20 per cent inwater courses. However, the general practice was to adoptthese losses at 8 cu ft/sec per million sq ft of the wettedperimeter of the canal. In order to reduce such losses, themeasures adopted were lining of vulnerable reaches, roster-ing or separate channels, growing similar crops under oneoutlet, adequate provision of canal regulators and propermaintenance of the irrigation system by provision of suf-ficient funds and adequate time during which canals wereclosed for maintenance.

Most of the outlets feeding the waters to fields weregenerally not gated. These uncontrolled outlets were notonly a source of wastage of irrigation waters but alsotended to create problems like waterlogging, soil salinity,etc. It had now been conceded that it was uneconomic to

install ungated outlets since the benefits accruing from thewaters conserved by gated outlets outweighed the addi-tional cost of providing gates. In many operating projects,because of insufficient allocation of funds for maintenanceof canal systems and continuous running of the canalswithout sufficient closure periods, there was deteriorationin the over-all efficiency of the canal systems. It had nowbeen accepted that by not allocating suitable funds, muchcostlier repairs had to be undertaken at a later stage. Inview of the importance of keeping canal systems in efficientworking order, an amount of Rs 50 per ha-' of gross irri-gated area had been recommended for the expenses ofoperation. Secondly, unless a complete shutdown each yearof the canal for maintenance and repairs was insisted upon,there could be no assurance that operation and mainte-nance and repairs would be accomplished as needed toensure full realization of benefits. Thus, proper operationand maintenance on a continuous basis was a necessity ifthe system was to yield, without interruption, the fullanticipated benefits.

Operational losses. Operational losses in the canaloccurred owing to deliveries to turnouts and escapes andalso when the demand for water was abruptly decreasedbefore the flow in the irrigation canal was reduced. In ordereffectively to check these losses, efficient communicationfacilities, such as a wireless system, approach roads, etc.,had been proposed so that controlled flows let into thecanals and distribution system would be made more res-ponsive to changing conditions of demand in the commandarea. Secondly, much of the losses occurred during thenight because many farmers had not got used to the ideaof irrigation at night. This was particularly so in caseswhere irrigation water delivery systems were not kept inproper shape. Whenever there were some breaks or cuts inthe system during the night, these were not discovered andrepaired early with the result that substantial increasesin operational losses occurred. In that connexion, farmerswere being educated through various agricultural extensionprogrammes so that they would go for night irrigationwhich indirectly would also reduce canal breaches occuningat night and allow for quicker repairs of those that didoccur.

3. Maximizing die use of water in die farmers' fields

Whereas management of water delivery right fromthe planning of water resources projects to constructionand operation of storage and water conveyance structureswas purely the work of the engineer's organization, the on-farm management was agro-technical in nature. The objec-tives of irrigation management were optimum crop yields,maximum water use efficiency and minimum damage tothe soil. It consisted in managing the application and use

I Rupees 8.193 = $US 1.00 (1978 period average).


of water, not in isolation but in its environmental complex,chiefly water-soil-plant-atmosphere complex.

(a) Selection of crop pattern

Cropping patterns in the country had been adopted,in the past, on ad hoc recommendations. However, nowit was realized that a suitable cropping pattern and cropcalendar based on agro-climatic conditions prevailing in thecommand area were basic prerequisites to achieving ef-ficient use of irrigation water in the fields. The differentsoil and land classifications in the command area had tobe considered with regard to:

(i) Behaviour of soil in the changed water regimesbrought about by the introduction of irrigation;

(ii) Delineation of land suitable for irrigation;

(iii) Suitability of the soil for a particular cropproposed, etc.

(b) Depth and frequency of irrigation

Crop growth and water input relationship was almosta linear one up to a certain point. To realize optimum cropyields, the irrigation should take place while the soil waterpotential was still high enough so that the soil could supplywater to meet the regular atmospheric plant demandswithout placing the plant under a stress that would reducethe yield or quality of the harvested crops. Frequentapplication of more irrigation water than was required,instead of benefiting the crop and its' yield, resulted inwasteful use of water. Inadequate depths could not coverthe entire root zone and might also not be able to keepthe soil salts below harmful levels. That could be avoidedby determining the moisture retention property of the soils,the actual moisture available in the soil (by lysimeter, etc.)and the effective depth of the soil profile for a particularcrop.

(c) Distribution of irrigation supplies

It had been observed that water requirements ofcrops varied with their stage of growth. The term "criticalstage" was commonly used to define the stage of growthwhen plants were most sensitive to shortage of water.Each crop had certain stages at which, if there was shortageof moisture in the soil, yields and quality were "adverselyaffected. It was therefore now being considered that, inorder to extend the benefits of the created potential in anefficient way and to larger segments of the society, theirrigation supplies might be distributed so that crops didnot face shortage of soil moisture at their critical stage ofdevelopment.

(d) Crop and soil management practices

Water use efficiency (crop yields/evapotranspirationof crop area) was influenced by crop and soil managementpractices. Water use efficiency was not closely dependenton the water available, if the supply was within evapo-transpiration limits, even though the crop yields dependedupon the adequacy of the water supply. The storage ofmore water in the soil profile increased the water useefficiency of grain crop grown under conditions of limitedwater supply. Similarly, letting an irrigated crop like wheator maize run out of water at the critical stage of its growthmight cut into yields and thereby water use efficiencywithout lowering appreciably the total seasonal evapo-transpiration. It was therefore, considered essential thatcrop water requirements be worked out properly andprovisional arrangements made to supply the same sothat irrigation waters would be found adequate when theywere required.

(e) Minimizing field losses

It had been assessed that about 17 per cent of thedischarge at canal head was lost in the field. This lossoccurred owing to adoption of faulty irrigation methods,permeability properties of the soil, improper land shaping,grading and levelling, etc. Measures such as construction ofa suitable number of field channels and proper land shapingwere therefore recommended for adoption. Generally, ithad been the experience that construction of field channels(carrying waters from water courses to the individualfields) always posed a problem in effectively making useof the irrigation waters. Planning Commission (unionGovernment) directives only stipulated that constructionof field channels had to be done by farmers, and survey,alignment and supervision of the construction had to bedone by the governmental authorities. Farmers themselvesdid not generally have the financial resources or the interestto construct these field channels. In order to meet thesituation, it had now been suggested that the field channelsmight be constructed by the state authorities or projectauthorities and the cost thereof recovered from the farmers.However, that had to be done within the existing irrigationcodes and acts of the state governments.

(f) Drainage

Drainage of command areas was essential in order toachieve optimum production. Proper drainage not onlyincreased crop yields by providing aeration space to thepores of the soils but provided better cropping systemsand resulted in better utilization of soil and water re-sources. Field drains, trunk drains and main drains werea necessity in any efficiently managed command area ofan irrigation project.


Other equally important methods of maximizingthe use of waters in the fields included adoption of aproper crop growing season, selection of a suitable irriga-tion method, plant species adaptation, tillage, plantingpattern, application of fertilizers, and weed, pest andinsect control measures.

4. Economic and administrative measures toimprove over-all efficiency

(a) The Economic approach

The economic approach was based on the idea ofattacking the problem of efficient water use throughwater pricing. By employing an adequate price policy itwould be possible to discourage wasteful use of water bythe farmers.

There was growing thinking in government circlesthat the current system of charging water rates to cultiva-tors, on a crop area basis did not provide much incentivefor economy in the use of water. Knowing that a fixedrate was to be charged irrespective of the quantity ofwater consumed, farmers indulged in excessive irrigationwhich proved harmful to their crops and land and resultedin wasteful use of irrigation water. However, the adoptionof water charges on a quantity basis would involve sellingwater to an individual consumer by means of an accuratemeasurement of the quantity supplied.

(b) Administrative approach

This approach was based on an effective administra-tive control system supported by proper legislation with aview to effecting far-reaching iimprovements in the watersupply and distribution system. It included making availa-ble the basic inputs of irrigated agriculture, such as seeds,fertilizers, pesticides, water, at a reasonable price andpricing of agricultural produces at fixed floor prices.

Generally the dam or the diversion structure in anirrigation project was completed earlier than the entirecanal system. Farmers whose lands were located in thehead reaches of the canal system then tried to make useof the available waters in adopting high water-consumingcrops and irrigation techniques which used irrigation watersextravagantly. Subsequently, when the entire canal systemwas completed and the waters had to be equally distri-buted over the entire command area, those farmers resistedany curtailing of their supplies. Just by curtailing theunauthorized use of irrigation waters in the head reachesin earlier years of operation, the potential could be ex-tended to the tail reaches more effectively.

Some activities such as construction and maintenanceof water courses, field channels, field drains, land shaping

etc., helped in reducing the gap between the potentialcreated and utilized and thus improved the efficiency ofthe irrigation system. Farmers were now actively invitedto form associations such as water users' associations anddrainage district associations, which helped promote publicparticipation in the efficient operation and maintenanceof irrigation projects. By involving the farmers, a sense ofcontributing to the over-all efficiency of water use wascreated in them and they themselves felt responsible forits proper use.

5. Other measures

According to the provisions of the Constitution ofIndia, development of water resources was essentially aState matter and, therefore, the responsibility for investiga-tion, formulation, implementation and operation of irriga-tion projects was vested mainly in the respective stategovernments. The central Government could be entrustedwith the regulation and development of inter-state riversand river valleys only to the extent to which such regula-tion and development under the control of the union wasdeclared by Parliament by law, to be expedient in thepublic interest. The powers of control and regulationexercised by the central Government were thus mostlyadvisory in nature.

Many steps had now been undertaken to increasethe efficient use of irrigation systems in the country.Some of these measures are described below.

(a) Command area development authorities

With the large step-up in the creation of irrigationpotential, steps had also been taken to utilize the createdpotential. The most important of these was the establish-ment of command area development authorities for anumber of irrigation projects in the country. These autho-rities were entrusted with the responsibilities of construct-ing field channels and field drains, land levelling and landshaping, assistance to fanners in getting necessary inputsof seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, etc. They had, underspecial circumstances, also been assisting the farmers ingetting the requisite credit from banks and other financialinstitutions. Currently, 51 command area developmentauthorities were operating in the command areas of themajor irrigation projects in the country.

(b) Institutional arrangements for credit to farmers

The engineering works of irrigation projects had tobe financed from government resources and, except forwater courses,-^ executed, operated and maintained there-from. Field channels and on-farm development works wereto be executed by the beneficiaries themselves and, alongwith water courses, maintained at their own cost. In India,

2 A water course is a channel feeding a block of 40 ha (100acres) of the command area from the canal system.


where land holdings were generally small, a single outletserved the lands of scores of farmers and on-farm develop-ment works presented difficulties. In addition, the farmers,being poor, were not able to generate financial resourcesin order to purchase improved varieties of seeds, agricul-tural implements, fertilizers, etc. Financial institutionsand co-operative societies were being set up in the ruralareas in order to help the farmers to obtain loans at reason-able rates of interest. These loans were repayable once thecrop had been harvested. However, in some of the States,it has been seen that processing of the loan applicationof a farmer was cumbersome as he might not have a cleartitle to the land or the land might not be registered in hisname in the land revenue records. Steps to improve andupdate the land revenue records were therefore con-templated.

(c) Modernization of existing irrigation projects

One of the most urgent and immediate tasks in theoperation of irrigation projects was to modernize existingold schemes; particularly those built in the last centuryand the earlier part of the present century. These systemswere very old and their usefulness was limited by structuralhandicaps like outmoded headworks, absence of silt-excludifig devices, absence of sufficient numbers ofregulators, and wear and tear on the canal. Modern agri-culture, particularly after the introduction of new hybridand high-yielding varieties, demanded more exactingirrigation supplies. Unless the systems were modernizedwith better regulation and control facilities, it would notbe possible to provide irrigation supplies for optimumresults. State governments had therefore been obligedto make a complete review of these old projects expedi-tiously and prepare a systematic programme for theirmodernization in a phased manner. Some of the worksfor which modernization had been undertaken were:(i) the Okhla and Tajewala weirs on the River Yamuna,the Jobra weir on the Mahanadi River (these weirs werebeing replaced by barrages); (ii) old canal systems such'as Bewar Branch, Farukhabad Branch, Mat Branch of theLower Ganga Canal, Upper Ganga Canal, Sarda canals andTrebeni canals.

(d) Miscellaneous

Another aspect that had been receiving the attentionof the Government was the efficient use of available irriga-tion supplies and proper operation of the irrigation systems.The" First Conference of State Ministers of Irrigation, heldin July 1975, recommended that operational programmesfor supply of water in command areas of major irrigationprojects be formulated and reviewed periodically by theState authorities with the assistance of a central team.Thus, a central team comprising irrigation engineers, anagronomist, ground-water and water-management specialistshad been constituted by the Union Department of Irriga-tion. State governments had also been requested to set upsimilar teams with similar composition for the purpose.The central team, in consultation with the State teams,provided necessary help to the State or project authoritiesin regard to water conservation and utilization and drawingup of operational programmes of the irrigation projects.The team had inspected many projects in the countryand given its recommendations in so far as the engineering,agronomical, administrative and legislative aspects wereconcerned.

One of the major steps recently taken by the UnionDepartment of Irrigation was to set up a strong centralmonitoring organization in the Central Water Commission(under the Department of Irrigation). Three chief engineerswith supporting staff had been appointed to visit variousprojects under construction, review progress made andadvise the State governments with regard to timely andcorrective action so as to achieve the anticipated targets.As part of monitoring and modernization, one of theimportant aspects had been the phasing of constructionin such a way that the canal systems were constructedblock by block and distributary by distributary, so thatas and when waters were made available they were putto use immediately.

A central co-ordinating committee had also beenestablished, under the chairmanship of the Secretary ofthe Department of Irrigation, with senior officers of theconcerned departments or ministries, to review the progressperiodically and take necessary action to assist the projectauthorities.

E. WATER MANAGEMENT AT THE FARM LEVEL IN INDIA*

1. Introduction

Water was the elixir of life and its use was vital tomodern civilization. Population put the emphasis in food

* By K.B. Singh, Deputy Commissioner, Water Managementand Agronomy, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agricultureand Irrigation, New Delhi.

production on the development of water resources andtheir better management. Irrigation was not a single, self-contained activity, but included soil physics, soil chemis-try, agricultural chemistry and plant chemistry, agri-meteorology, plant physiology, soil engineering, crophusbandry and economics. The farmer was not the least


but most important in the whole management. The manage-ment of irrigation water for successful irrigated agriculturerequired development of information through research,dissemination and creation of an enlightened farmer'sattitude. To have a clear-cut idea of management of irriga-tion water, a knowledge of climatic conditions of the dif-ferent parts in the country was necessary.

(a) Diversity of climate and weather

The extent of the diversity of weather and climate inIndia was perhaps greater than in other areas of similar sizein the world. Assam in the east and Rajasthan in the westpresented extremes of wetness and dryness. The averageannual rainfall in the Thar Desert was less than 15 cm,whereas at Cherrapunji in the east it was more than 1,000cm. There were variations from year to year in weatherconditions, region-wise and country-wise. Some parts of thecountry were subject to those variations to a greater extentand with greater frequency than others.

(b) Distribution of rainfall

The average annual rainfall in the Indian plains hadbeen estimated to be 105 cm. Its distribution varied widelyfrom one part of the country to another: very heavy rain-fall of over 400 cm over the southern slopes of the Khasi-Hills, the Brahmaputra Valley and the Western Ghats, heavyrainfall amounting to over 200 cm over the whole of Assamand the western coast of the peninsula, and low rainfallof less than 40 cm over western Rajasthan, with a portionreceiving less than 20 cm. Nearly one third of the countryreceived less than 75 cm of rain.

Meteorological subdivision

Punjab, Delhi, Haryana

Rajasthan (eastern)

Rajasthan (western)

Saurashtra and Kutch

Royalseema

Interior Karnataka (northern)

Broad area-wise distribution

Rainfall (cm)

0 - 75

75 - 125

125 - 200

Above 200

Normal annual rainfall(cm)

63

70

31

48

68

68

of rainfall

Area (percentage)

30

42

20

8

(c) South-west monsoon (June to September)

Every part of India outside Assam and the adjacentStates faced the probability of a drought at least once infive years, and some regions, such as Gujarat, Rajasthan,Royalseema and Telengana were liable to drought once inabout three years. The aberrations were maximum in theareas of low rainfall, but where monsoonal rainfall is above100 cm the frequency of abnormal monsoon was compara-tively small. Prolonged breaks in the monsoon were causedwhen the normal trough of low pressure in the south-westmonsoon season, which extended from Rajasthan to Orissa,shifted towards the Himalayas and persisted there forseveral days.

(d) North-east monsoon (October to December)

This was of land origin, orginrting from the Siberianhigh pressure system. The rainfall from the north-eastmonsoon was less dependable than that from the south-west monsoon. The precipitation in northern India inwinter was associated with the passage of western dis-turbances which varied from year to year.

(c) Irrigation in India

Out of a total geographical area of 328.78 millionha in India, an area of 304.34 million ha was reported to beunder various land utilization. The net area sown was142.24 million ha, and the total cropped area was 171.16million ha (1975-1976). As a result of efforts put in till theend of 1977-1978, irrigation potential created was of theorder of 52.3 million ha from various sources. The netirrigated area and gross irrigated area at the end of 1975-1976 had been of the order of 34.45 million ha and 42.94million ha respectively. During the 1978-1983 Five YearPlan period, it was proposed to create an additional poten-tial of 17 million ha (8 million ha from major and mediumand 9 million ha from minor irrigation). The total irrigationpotential would be about 30 per cent of the gross sownarea of about 173 million ha at the end of 1977-1978.

2. Command area developement

An Irrigation Commission report in March 1972observed that a series of co-ordinated measures were calledfor to optimize benefits from irrigated agriculture. Em-phasis was laid on scientific crop-planning, consolidationof holdings, land shaping and land levelling, supply ofinputs at the appropriate time, gearing up of agriculturalresearch and extension activities. Attention was also drawnto the need for construction of roads, markets, and storageand other infrastructural facilities in the command areas.For the integrated development of command areas, the


Commission suggested establishing a special administrativeagency.

In August 1972, a committee of ministers was set upto look into the reasons for under-utilization of createdirrigation potential and suggest remedial measures. Thecommittee visited several projects and analysed the prob-lems and recommended the following measures to ensurefull utilization of created irrigation potential:

(i) Provision of irrigation facilities, extending rightup to the field;

(ii) Land levelling, shaping and preparation prior tocreation of irrigation potential;

(iii) Conjunctive use of ground and surface water;

(iv) Provision of inputs such as improved seeds,fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides;

(v) Provision of infrastructural facilities such asfarm implements, marketing, processing, communicationand storage;

(vi) Education, demonstration, training and exten-sion facilities for cultivators;

(vii) Credit facilities.

The committee felt the need for a broad-based areadevelopment authority for every major project witha command extending over 100,000 ha, to be responsiblefor comprehensive development of the command area.

In May 1973, the Planning Commission requested theStates to look into inefficient utilization of created irriga-tion potential by the major and medium irrigation projectsand laid emphasis on an integrated and well co-ordinatedapproach to irrigated agriculture for optimum production.The Commission drew attention to the need for field chan-nels and drainage in the command areas of irrigation pro-jects. This was followed by communication of the Union

•Ministry of Agriculture to the State governments, and aseries of discussions were held with the State governmentson the following points:

(i) Instead of taking up various developmentalprogrammes in isolation, there was clear need for adoptingan area development approach, emphasis being given, ofcourse, to schemes aimed at improved water utilization ineach command through the improvement of water deliveryand drainage systems and the execution of land-levellingand land-shaping works;

(ii) The programme of integrated development inthe command areas should deal with modernization and ef-ficient operation of the irrigation system, development ofmain drainage, development of field channels and field

drainage systems within the farmer's block, land shaping,exploitation of ground water, fixing and enforcing of asuitable cropping schedule, preparing a plan of input, sup-ply of credit, seeds, fertilizers, tractors and sprayer services,arranging the inputs and services, planning and arrangingnecessary marketing and processing facilities and the com-munication system for maximum benefits to the farmers,preparing individual programmes of action for small far-mers, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers, and buil-ding implementation into the master plan;

(iii) A unified organization with a direct line ofcommand could exist in so far as departments of irrigation,agriculture, soil conservation and co-operation were con-cerned;

(iv) There should be a land development corpora-tion or a farmer's service society to meet the requirementsof funds for various on-farm works. Such a corporation orsociety should have an investment programme with its ownfunds as well as funds obtained from various financinginstitutions;

(v) Proper arrangements should exist for executionof on-farm works on behalf of the beneficiaries.

The Government approved the Central Sector Schemefor Command Area Development Programmes in December1974. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976)had made known the various aspects of command areadevelopment programmes and laid great stress on develop-ment of land in the command area in an integrated mannercomprising:

(i) Laying out of plots and common facilities suchas water courses, field channels, drains and farm roads;

(ii) Consolidation of farmers' scattered plots intoone or two operational holdings;

(iii) Construction of water courses and field chan-nels;

(iv) Construction of field drains where necessary,linking them With connecting drains;

(v) Provision of farm roads;

(vi) Land formation to suitable slopes.

The Commission suggested that land formation wasequally important in the commands of minor irrigationprojects. The Commission recommended that every attemptshould be made to carry out the work in the field for themaximum number of days in a year even by giving suste-nance loans to farmers for missing a crop in the process ofland formation operation.


So far, command area work for scientific land andwater management was being carried out in India in 16States spread over 121 revenue districts.

(a) Land formation

As mentioned earlier, the rainfall had a wide variabili-ty on the Indian subcontinent so the technique of landforming varied from place to place depending upon landconfiguration and the thickness and nature of the soil.The broad purpose was to create optimum environmentsfor equalizing moisture distribution first in the seedbed andthen in the crop-root zone for uniform plant growth. Thismight be accomplished by land levelling, by forming ter-races or by making furrows, or by a combination of allthree. Where the available irrigation supplies were relativelyscarce, as in most arid and semi-arid areas, one of the im-portant objectives of land forming was also the resultingeconomy in water use, enabling larger areas to be providedwith irrigation supplies and reducing the cost of drainageoperation.

(b) Providing field channels and water control andregulatory structures

The construction of field channels was the respon-sibility of beneficiary cultivators who tried to bring irriga-tion water without field channels (i.e. field to field) fromthe outlet head and used much more than the requiredamount of water. The water control and regulatory struc-tures in the field could prevent the execessive use of waterat the head reach and improve availability at the tail end.

Several types of lining material had been tried in differentirrigation commands and been found suitable under dif-ferent conditions.

The lined field channel, including division box,drops, road crossing and cross drainage structures, saved50 per cent of irrigation water wasted at the outlet, reducedseepage loss occurring in elevated sections of earthen chan-nels, distributed irrigation water evenly and efficiently,reduced drainage problems, created additional irrigationpotential up to 45 per cent in the raM season and 20 to 30per cent during the kharif season, reduced annual mainte-nance cost and increased production.

3. Summary

Efficient water management at the farm level neededmore attention than dry land farming. New techniques tosolve the problems present in the irrigation command areawere coming up and the command authority was workingtowards improving future scope for optimum agriculturalproduction.

Training of farmers and technicians at the farm level hadprovided adequate confidence to the people engaged in thecommand area development work through the active co-ordination of irrigation, agriculture, and co-operativeorganization. More employment for the local farmers wasbeing generated through multiple cropping, and fannerswere more confident they would obtain the yield they hadplanned for through efficient water management practices.

F. ON-FARM WATER MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA:CURRENT PROBLEMS AND EFFORTS*

1. Introduction

Irrigation in Malaysia had been provided up to thepresent time for paddy fields only. It was believed that ricehad been grown for at least 2,000 years in Malaysia, andearly cultivators depended either on rainfall alone or onwater diverted into paddy fields by constructing rudimen-try structures, such as brushwood dams across streams.It was interesting to note that some canal systems had beenin existence even before the British administration ofMalaysia. The most noted canal was the Wan Mat SamanCanal in Kedah, which was completed in 1888 and wasstill in existence. Irrigation development per se only beganto take place at the turn of the century, mainly because of

1 A water course is a channel built at government expense toconvey water from an outlet to, for example, a 40-ha block. A fieldchannel is a channel built by cultivators beyond the water courseto serve the various fields within the block.

the need to be less dependent on other countries for rice -the staple diet of the nation.

In the late 1950s a serious shortage of rice was ex-perienced. The Government at that time became aware ofthe need to meet the possible recurrence of such situationsby the development of potential rice areas in the countryand by the intensification of rice cultivation where possible.

With the introduction of double cropping of rice,and the need to increase rice production to self-sufficiencylevel as well the advent of the high-yielding varieties(HYVs), there was a growing awareness of the need forproper water management and control at the farm level,not only to achieve a favourable water regime for the cul-

* By S.H. Thavaraj, Assistant Director General (Planning),Drainage and Irrigation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia;and Teoh Tiaw Seang, Head, Division of Engineering, Muda Agri-cultural Development Authority, Malaysia.


tivation of rice but also to optimize the rapidly diminishingwater resources in the country. This might be regarded asthe logical outcome of the irrigation development thathad taken place in the country recently.

2. Early irrigation systems

In the traditional mode of cultivation, the plantingof paddy had been so timed that the growing period coin-cided with the monsoon season and the harvesting periodwith the dry season. Moreover, the paddy varieties plantedthen were photo-period sensitive and thus the yield hadbeen influenced by the rainy season. Farmers had only beenable to carry out subsistence farming with this method oftraditional wet rice cultivation.

Traditional methods of rice cultivation were highlysusceptible to the vagaries of nature and partial or totalcrop failure often resulted when the anticipated monsoonrains failed to come. It was therefore recognized that inorder to forestall crop failures and ensure production, aneffective form of water control was necessary.

After 1932, with the formation of the Drainage andIrrigation Department, the area provided with irrigation anddrainage facilities in the country increased steadily. Watercontrol in those areas in the majority of cases was effectedthrough the drainage and irrigation facilities.

The majority of the irrigation schemes were con-structed to enable one crop of paddy to be cultivated in ayear. The crop was planted during the rainy season and theschemes were designed to supplement the rainfall and en-sure provision of a reliable water supply throughout thegrowing season.

Owing to varying conditions of topography, soil,rainfall and water, different methods of irrigation systemswere developed over the years. Broadly, the distributionof irrigation water over cultivated land could be classifiedinto three categories, namely, controlled drainage, supple-mental irrigation and inland riverine schemes.

(a) Controlled drainage schemes

In this type of system, irrigation depended on theconservation of direct rainfall. If there was inadequatestream-flow for a paddy area, or if it was considered un-economical to construct long conveyance canal systems todeliver water to the area for the cultivation of a single cropof paddy, a system of drains was alternatively constructedand equipped with drainage controls, as shown in figure IV.When water was required, the weir-type drainage controlgates would be shut down and water levels in the drainsallowed to rise above ground level and inundate the adja-cent paddy fields to a required depth. Any excess water was

, I-B"

FSL3.05,

e-

L«g»nd

^ r— Dralnogt control got*

« ^ ^ ^ B * Drain

FSL Full supply Itvtl (rMfrtt)

Contours (mstrct)

Figure IV. Controlled drainage scheme

allowed to spill over the drainage control gates, thus allow-ing reasonable control over the water in the inundated area.

(b) Supplemental irrigation schemes

Most irrigation schemes existing .along the coastalareas came under this category. In these schemes, water wasgenerally available from a diversion dam or pump for asingle crop of paddy which was planted during the wetseason. This water was required to be maintained at a pre-determined depth in the fields and, in order to do so,some degree of controlled drainage was also used. Thisprevented excessive loss of irrigation water and enableddrainage to take place to the desired levels prior to theharvesting period. A typical system is shown in figure V.

f

(c) Riverine irrigation schemes

Further inland and away from the coastal belt, smallpockets of paddy fields were irrigated by irrigation systemssimilar to those described previously; however, the conve-yance canal ran along contours and was located on bothsides of the valley. There was usually no drainage system,provided and any excess water found its way to the riverat outlets downstream of the scheme. A typical schemeof this type is shown in figure VI.

F. On-farm water management in Malaysia 77

HtadworKs

Irrigation canal

Drain

Irrigation offtake

Drainage control gate

Figure V. Typical supplemental irrigation system

Figure VI. Typical riverine irrigation scheme

3. Rice production and the role of water management

The total land area in Peninsular Malaysia currentlyunder rice cultivation was about 1,000,000 acres (404,700hectares). This represented some 12 per cent of total arableland in the country. Since the early 1930s, sustained effortshad been made in the systematic provision of irrigationfacilities in order to increase rice production.

The social and economic development envisaged inthe provision of those facilities would benefit the livelihoodof the rural farmers, thus contributing towards povertyredressal in a section of the Malaysian economy which wasgenerally regarded as being among the most economicallydepressed. The development was further expected to makea significant contribution towards the national goal of self-sufficiency in rice production.

In the past 15 years massive investment had beenmade in irrigation projects. In addition to heavy expendi-ture on irrigation works, the introduction of the short-term,high-yielding varieties of paddy, together with increasingapplication of farm inputs (such as fertilizers and insecti-cides), had contributed towards the recent remarkableincrease in rice production. In spite of this increase, thenational average yield was far below the potential of thehigh-yield varieties.

A key factor for increasing current yield levels layin improvement of the standards of management and con-trol of water at the farm level. In view of the sensitivity ofthe high-yielding varieties to adverse physical conditionssuch as drought and flooded conditions, in order to havethe high yields, they demanded timely water applicationand better water control, improved cultural practices andadequate agricultural inputs.

4. Problems encountered in water managementat the farm level

As elaborated previously, most irrigation schemes inMalaysia had one independent system to supply the irriga-tion water to the fields and another independent drainagesystem to drain off excess rainfall, as shown in figure VII.

As was typical of irrigation systems in the country,the main canals functioned only as conveyance systems,whereas the secondary canals had the dual role of con-veyance and distribution. Water in the secondary canal wasusually maintained at about 30 cm above ground level andwater was let into the adjacent fields through a number ofunregulated offtake pipes. The spacing of secondary canalsor distributaries varied with topographical conditions.The distance between a distributary and a drain in a rela-tively flat paddy area varied from about 0.5 km to 2.5 km.


Each distributary in such an area usually supplied waterto about 200-500 ha.

(a) Inadequate distribution systems

There may be as many as 10 to 15 farm lots ownedby different farmers in the area between a distributary anda drain. Water from the distributary supplied through theunregulated offtake pipes passed from field to field, eachfield being demarcated by field ridges or bunds whichplayed the role of water conservator as well as forming aboundary between individual holdings. Figure VII showsthe passage of water from a typical distributary across farmlots. In such a system, water was supplied continuously toall parts of the field at the same time and the field offtakepipes were requried to deliver the high water requirementduring the pre-saturation period at the beginning of theirrigation season. After pre-saturation, the supply was re-gulated at a rate just sufficient to make good any losses.Distribution of water in the fields was left entirely to thefarmers and often was not carried out in an organizedmanner.

The topography of the area within an irrigation blockcould often be undulating, so that the depth of water in afield varied. Thus, high areas might receive very little or noirrigation water and depend mainly on rainfall, and undersuch circumstances the field ridges were well placed to

conserve water. With regard to water control, little difficul-ty was experienced in supplying water to low fields, but forhigher fields there might be difficulty in maintaining therequired depth of standing water. This could lead to lowfields being waterlogged and sometimes flooded to a greaterdepth of water than was required in order to supply thehigher areas. The consequences of this were excessive wateruse, delayed irrigation supply to higher fields and water-logged conditions persisting in lower areas. The prevalenceof such adverse conditions would lead to low yields.

When the irrigation supply was commenced duringthe off-season (dry season), the water took a long time tosaturate the farthest fields, with the time lag being as longas 30 days in some projects. Consequently this led to a lagin cultivation activities within an irrigation block, the fieldsnearest the distributary being ready for harvest and there-fore requiring no water while those farthest away from thedistributary were being irrigated for the still-growing crop.A conflict in water use was thus created between fanners ina block.

Another instance of conflict of water use arose fromthis method of continuous irrigation which caused the for-mation of the "cascading wedge". Thus when water movedacross a field from the distributary to the drain end of theblock, there existed a head loss across every field bundopening. Where the crossfall or gradient across the field was

0 8 km to 1.2 km

IBund

Irrigation /MX Evapotranspirationcanal

Infiltration

Evapotranspiration

Infiltration

Figure VII. Flow of water over farm lots


relatively steep, downstream water levels might not affectthe upstream water level; however, where the gradient wasrelatively flat, downstream levels influenced upstream waterlevels, creating a wedge of water which was deeper near thedistributary end and shallow towards the drain end of theirrigation block. This wedge might drown newly preparednursery beds which were near to the distributaries and, toavoid this situation from arising, farmers often illegallysealed the offtake pipes, thereby preventing the irrigationwater from flowing into the other farmers' fields down-stream of the distributaries.

(b) Uneven topography

Generally, although most of the irrigated paddy areasin Malaysia were on flat ground, they were not sufficientlyflat for water to flow properly from higher to lower areas,towards the drain. High ground, surrounded by depressions,hindered proper water control and distribution. This led toirrigation shortages in the shadow area of settlements orin areas of high ground. The size of the irrigation blocksand the numerous small-holding farmers cultivating themmade land-levelling work too expensive. Uneven topo-graphy therefore led to excessive water losses and lack ofwater control which had adverse effects on yields andproduction.

(c) Infield drainage problems

Just as inadequate distribution systems caused watercontrol and management problems, lack of drainage facili-ties resulted in flood conditions. Pockets of low-lying areasoften became permanently waterlogged in the absence offield drains. In such ill-drained areas, the harvesting of cropsin standing water resulted in poor farm practices, leading tolosses of grain, high moisture content and rapid deteriora-tion of the havested grain.

Poor drainage conditions also made mechanical har-vesting difficult. Studies had shown that repeated tractorploughing of rice fields under prolonged saturated con-ditions resulted in the progressive weakening of the soilbearing capacity to such an extent that continued mechani-zation of farm activities became impossible.

of storage reservoirs and large pumping stations involvingmajor engineering works. In the control drainage schemes,the rudimentary facilities were upgraded to modern systemsthrough the construction of conveyance and distributioncanals. In other areas, where drainage and irrigation facfii-ties were already provided to supplement rainfall for thesingle cropping of paddy, the existing reticulation systemswere improved and enlarged as well as provided with addi-tional facilities to irrigate both the dry season and wetseason crops.

The double cropping developments and the extensiveuse of high-yielding varieties gave rise to an urgent need toovercome the problems of poor water control and manage-ment if the expected high yields and increased farmer in-comes were to be realized.

(a) Development of on-farm facilities

Proper water management at the farm level couldonly be practised by providing adequate irrigation anddrainage facilities for effective water distribution andcontrol. Current efforts at irrigation development inMalaysia had therefore been directed towards the provisionof on-farm facilities in existing irrigation schemes. In allinstances, terminal irrigation facilities in the form of ter-tiary and quaternary canals and drains with proper checksand control devices had been and were being constructed.Farms roads and other access facilities had also been cons-tructed to provide the necessary transport facilities for thefarmers.

With the introduction of on-farm facilities, croppingintensities had also greatly increased, from about 165 percent to about 195 per cent, computed on both space andtime frames. The gradual lag in cropping schedules from theplanned cropping schedules owing to poor water deliveryand drainage systems could cause many areas to miss thecultivation of one crop in about four to five years in doublecropped areas. On the other hand, with the timely deliveryof water and supported by the necessary organizationalstructure, the occurrence of such cultivation failures mightbe prevented.

5. Efforts to improve on-farm water management

With the introduction of double cropping, the maineffort in irrigation development was directed at ensuring anadequate water supply for the second crop (dry seasoncrop). During this season, the rainfall was much less andriver discharges were correspondingly lower. This greaterneed for water had in recent years led to the construction

(b) Comparison of infrastructure densities

A comparison of the densities of existing infrastruc-tures in some parts of the Muda irrigation project to that ofdeveloped countries such as Japan, in metres per hectare,is shown below:


Some areas Asian Deve-*»'*« Japan 'opmentMuda Bank recom-project mendation

(metres per hectare)

Infrastructure

Irrigationcanal density

Drain density

Farm roaddensity

10

9

8

80-120

80-120

80-120

50-80

50-80

50-80

Studies had shown that provision of a higher densityof canals and drains was a requisite for optimum water andfarm management practices.

Experience in Malaysia had shown that the provisionof on-farm facilities required only a relatively modestincrease in financial investment and that investment in turnbrought attractive returns to the farmers in terms of addi-tional yields and net income.

As mentioned earlier, improved on-farm watermanagement had been brought about by the constructionof tertiary and quaternary canals fed from secondarycanals. Where existing paddy fields had been parcelled outin regular rectangular shapes, on-farm development waseasily achieved. Where the farm lots were very irregular inshape and size, as was generally the case in Malaysia, on-farm development became more difficult. In the absence ofland consolidation, the establishment of a layout of irriga-tion drainage and farm road network would have to takeinto account the existing arrangement of farm lots (to beimpartial in the acquisition of the land and minimize socialdiscontent) and the topographical features within theblocks to avoid large-scale land levelling.

The Drainage and Irrigation Division of the Ministryof Agriculture was currently using various materials andmethods of construction of tertiary and quaternary sys-tems. While some canals constructed by the cut and fillmethod were generally less expensive to construct, othersrequired more land, which became progressively morevaluable, and at the same time these" canals were moreexpensive to maintain. Canals constructed with importedearth could be designed in hydraulic sections and con-structed as "floating canals". Glass-reinforced polyester(GRP) structural flumes or conduits had recently gained inpopularity owing to increased speed of construction andthe minimal amount of land used. The selection of theproper type of material to be used for the construction ofthe canal system was based on economic, technical andsocial factors.

(c) Size of terminal units

After implementation of the tertiary and quaternarysystems in a paddy area, the irrigation blocks were dividedinto service areas, irrigated by independent tertiary canals.These service areas were further divided into smaller con-tiguous and manageable units to which water could besupplied from a single irrigation turnout serving a smallgroup of farm lots. For example, in the Muda irrigationproject, it was proposed to establish such service areas toencompass some 80 ha to 200 ha. These irrigation serviceareas were further divided into four or more irrigationservice units, each unit having an area of some 20 to 25 ha.

Being small, contiguous and independent, these unitswere made more amenable for the practise of better watercontrol and management. The size, of the units was conve-nient also to facilitate the organization of farmers in eachirrigation service area into work groups to carry out farmactivities that required group action.

(d) Measuring devices in irrigation systems

A requisite for proper water control and manage-ment was the installation of measuring devices in offtakesand other structures to facilitate control and regulation ofthe irrigation supply to the fields according to require-ments. The incorporation of such measuring devices formedan integral part of on-farm facilities in all new projectsimplemented in the country.

(e) Training facilities in water management

The provision of additional facilities to enable moreefficient water distribution and control would not by itselfbenefit an irrigation project unless the facilities wereutilized and the functions understood by farmers, extensionworkers and irrigation staff responsible for the operation ofthe scheme. Moreover, the full utilization of the irrigationproject facilities required integrated and co-ordinatedaction between engineering agencies and those responsiblefor agricultural development.

In order that the total benefits of the on-farm de--velopment work be realized by the users, a national watermanagement centre was currently being established in theKemubu scheme area. This centre would undertake thetraining of engineers, agriculturalists, technicians and ruralleaders. The centre was equipped with full training facili-ties, including several pilot farms and one demonstrationfarm. The training programmes would be supported bysuitable studies which would be conducted at the trainingcentre and would include:

(a) Water management for rice and other crops;

(b) Water management techniques, including irriga-


tion systems operation and management and related agricul-tural practices, including farm mechanization;

(c) A practical improvement programme for variousexisting irrigation and drainage systems in the region;

The centre was being established under a joint tech-nical co-operation programme with the Government ofJapan.

6. Conclusion

Malaysia had seen defects in irrigation systems inthe past and if left unremedied these defects would extend

their effects over time. It thus became essential to improveirrigation system in order to increase food production inthe country to cope with the increase in population and tocurb heavy dependence on imports.

Land suitable for rice cultivation was getting scarce inMalaysia owing to topographical and soil conditions, but atthe same time the development of additional land costmore and took a long time. Hence, the solution lay inincreasing yield, which was best brought about by thepractice of proper water control and optimum farmmanagement.

G. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF INFORMATION PROJECTSIN NEPAL*

1. Introduction

(a) Agriculture as the backbone of the national economy

The predominance of the agricultural sector in thenational economy could be seen by the fact that it wasthe major source of livelihood of 94 per cent of the popula-tion (12.6 million) and accounted for about two thirds ofthe gross domestic product and 80 per cent of exportearnings.

Cultivated land in the country amounted to 1.98million ha, which was only 14 per cent of the total landarea, of which about 38 per cent was in the hilly andmountainous regions and about 62 per cent in the Teraiplains. On the other hand, 62 per cen: of populationresided in the Terai plain belt.

With regard to land distribution, 75 per cent of thehouseholds had holdings of less than 1 ha and accountedfor about 25 per cent of the cultivated area. Conversely,a mere 8 per cent of households owned holdings in excessof 3 ha and accounted for about 39 per cent of the culti-vated area. Per capita land holding had declined from0.20 ha in 1961 to 0.17 ha in 1971 and 0.16 ha in 1975because of the expanding population.

Owing to topographic limitations, the cultivatedarea could not be increased and the only alternative, inorder to feed the increasing population as well as to con-tinue export earnings, was to. increase agricultural produc-tion per hectare. In that context, the role played by irriga-tion was significant.

* By N. Ansaii, Deputy Director-General, Department ofIrrigation, Hydrology and Meteorology; and R.C. Mishra, Chief,Agricultural Division, Narayani Zone Irrigation Project.

(b) Importance of irrigation in agriculture

Irrigation was the basic factor in agricultural produc-tion. Other inputs, such as improved seeds and fertilizers,could have effects only with the adequate supply of water.It had been found that with the simple application ofregulated water, production increased considerably. Thus,irrigation facilities played a great role in boosting theeconomy of Nepal.

2. Water resources and irrigation development

(a) Water Resources

Surface water was a variable resource both in timeand quantity. This was especially true for Nepal, wherea south-west monsoon of four months' duration wasfollowed by an eight-month dry period. River dischargesvaried widely during the year, being high during themonsoon and low in the dry season. The major river basinswere the Karnali in the far western part of the country,the Narayani (Gandaki) in the central region and theKoshi in the eastern part of the country. These threemajor rivers drained 135,000 sq km of the country. Therewere other, medium-sized rivers and innumerable smallstreams criss-crossing the country. The average annualrainfall in the catchment systems of the three major riverswas 900 mm, 2,000 mm and 1,790 mm respectively. Theannual rainfall of Nepal was 1,516 mm, i.e. about 61inches. The average annual runoff coefficient within Nepalwas about 78 per cent and about 169 x 10 cu m of waterwere annually drained from the river basins, which workedout to about 5,360 cu m per second of average flow. Thehydrological data of the three major rivers were as follows:


RiverDrainage

area(km2)

Max. Min.discharge .discharge(m^/sec) (m^/sec)

Karnali 42,890 10,190 214

(at Chisapani)

Gandaki (at Tribeni) 38,800 20,000 230

Sapt Kosi (at Chatra) 59,500 23,000 300

Nepal had ground-water basins, mostly in the Teraibelt in the south. The thickness of alluvium of this beltwas from 125 to 150 feet. It consisted of porous andimpervious strata making the Terai belt one of the majorground-water reservoirs. The heavy annual precipitationprovided a good recharge to these aquifers. Therefore, ifproperly developed, it could prove to be an inexhaustibleresource. Up to the present, ground water had not beenextensively developed in Terai. Some areas had shownpromising results and pockets of artesian belts had beenfound where tube-well irrigation projects were beingimplemented.

(b) Irrigation development

The temperature and amount of sunshine were quitefavourable for growing different crops throughout theyear in most parts of the country. Also, the average rainfallin most areas was sufficient to meet the total moisturerequirements of most monsoon crops, such as rice andmaize. However, there was moisture deficiency for wintercrops. And the distribution of rainfall was very erraticand uneven throughout the growing season, with inter-mittent drought from two to four weeks. In some rainshadow areas in the hills and mountains, the annual rainfallwas inadequate for growing rice, the staple food. In the hillsand in Terai inigation was therefore required for cultivationand to grow a second or winter crop.

The total irrigable area in Nepal had been estimatedat about 1 million ha, which was nearly half of the totalcultivated area. Though abundant water resources wereavailable, a meagre 14,700 ha of land had been irrigatedwith facilities from government-built projects before1951. In 1951 the Irrigation Department was created underthe Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Irrigation. Theirrigated area had increased to 144,000 ha by the end of1977. A further 64,051 ha had been targeted to be broughtunder irrigation by the end of the current fifth five-yearplan (1976-1980). It was also estimated that some140,000 ha of land were being irrigated from the irrigationchannels built by the farmers' groups themselves. All addedtogether, the irrigated area by the end of the fifth five-yearplan would be 17.5 per cent of the total cultivated area.

The main constraints for not achieving the targets of theplan were insufficient data for planning and design, andlack of skilled technicians.

The development of irrigation schemes by theGovernment was started with the launching of Nepal'sfirst five-year plan in 1957. During that plan period (1957-1962), several medium and small schemes were undertakenin Kathmandu, Pokhara Valley, as well as in the Teraiplain. A total of 11,725 ha of land were brought underirrigation during the period. During the subsequent three-year plan (1962-1965), some 6,670 ha of land were broughtunder irrigation.

During the third five-year plan (1965-1970), majorstress was laid on the implementation of minor irrigationschemes, several of which were in Terai. The idea behindminor schemes as a crash programme was to build irrigationfacilities quickly at a reasonably cheap investment costbut with quick returns. A separate Minor Irrigation Depart-ment was created in 1967 but it was amalgamated withthe Irrigation Department by the end of 1971 in order todevelop small schemes side by side with major and mediumprojects under one department. The contribution fromthese projects during this plan period was 37,835 ha.

According to topographical conditions and geogra-phical distribution of arable land, planning aimed at devel-oping major and medium irrigation projects in the Teraiplain while small schemes were taken up in the valleys andhilly regions. Similarly, tube-well irrigation schemes werebeing developed in the Terai plain for year-round intensivecultivation which was not possible with surface-waterschemes owing either to scanty supplies of water in theriver or to non-existence of surface-water resources. TheIrrigation Department was planning irrigation schemesunder this strategy.

During the fourth five-year plan (1970-1975) al-location was made for the creation of irrigation facilitiesfor a total area of 183,000 ha, but up to the end of thatperiod only 52,463 ha could be provided with irrigationwater. The details of the accomplishment of irrigationprojects for all plan periods are summarized below:

Project

1. Irrigated area prior to 1956

Chandra canal (Saptari)Judha canal (Rautahat)Jagadishpur reservoir(Taulihawa)Pardi dam (Pokhara)

Planned area(ha)

10;0001,000

600490

Actual irrigatedarea (ha)

13,000810

400320

Subtotal 14;530

G. Operation and maintenance of information project in Nepal 83

Project Planned area(ha)




2. Irrigation projects completedduring first five-year plan(1957-1962)

Tika Bhairab (Lalitpur)Mahadw Khola (Bhaktapur)Jhaj (Rautahat)Sirsian Dudhaura (Bara)Tilawe (Persa)Phewatal (Kaski)Vijaypur (Kaski)Gokarna (Kathmandu)Other small schemes(Kathmandu)

Subtotal

3. Irrigated projects completedduring second three-year plan(1962-1965)

Hardinath (Dhanusa)Dundwa (Banke)Manusmara (Rautahat) Phase IKathku (Lalitpur)Godavari (Lalitpur)Bosan (Kathmandu)

Subtotal

4. Irrigation projects completedduring third five-year plan(1965-1970)

Khageri (Chitwan)Tokha (Kathmandu)Pasupati (Kathmandu)Sangepatyani (Tanhu)Sisaghat (Lamjung)Minor irrigation projects

Subtotal

5. Irrigation projects completedduring fourth five-year plan(1970-1975)

Oedhgaon tar (Nawalparasi)Pathraiya (Kailali)Chaurjahri tar (Rukum)Chatra canal (Sunsari-Morang)Gandak East canal(Bara, Parsa, Rauthat)Chepetar (Gorkha)?abai (Kapilvastu)Pushaha (Nawalparasi)

1,620940

4,3001,3504,300

3201,890

400

2,160

1,9401,9402,000

810810960

6,000390100500200

36^20

3502,000

40067,000

31,400100400300

400275

2,9001,5004,300

320325375

1,330

11,725

2,0001,2502,700

360100260

6,670

400200

7530040

36,820

37,835

2402,133

60030,000

11,70060

400300

Mahakali (Kankai)Chakhu (Khola, Bhaktapur)Pipaltar (Dhading)Gajuri tar (Dhading)Pithua (Chitwan)Tube wells (Sirha, Sarlahi,Bara, Parsa, Rupandehi)

Minor irrigation schemes

Subtotal

5,00010060

100170

2,0002,000

3,00010060

100170

1,6002,000

52,463


Area completedby 1977 (ha)

6. Targets of fifth five-year plan(1975-1980) and work completedby end of 1977

Kankai (Jhapa)Tika Bhairab No. 2 (Lalitpur)Gowang (Sindhuli)Bishambhara (Bhaktapur)Battar lift irrigation (Nuwakot)Kamla (Dhanusa - Sirha)Hande tar (Lamjung)Ramgha tar (Lamjung)Genyandi tar (Parbat)Banganga (Kapilvastu)Projects of agricultural yearpublic channels renovationPublic channels renovation

8,000230100200560

25,000270220100

6,000

3,4002,000

Tube well projects (Kailali,Kanchanpui) 600Narayani Anchal (irrigationadditional) Bara, ParsaChitwan irrigation project(Chitwan)Lumbini tube wells(Rupandehi)Manusmara, second phase(Sarlahi)Western Kosi canal in additionto Chandra canalKhutiya (Kailali)Marchawar lift irrigation(Rupandehi)Pokhara water conservancyProject (Kaski)

Subtotal 83,880

1,340

230

45200424

3,000

270

220

100

4,500

3,4001,200

400

5,000

(12,400)

7,000

3,000

(11,000)5,000

(10,000)

1,200

—

500

-

_

-

-

-

20,829


3. Irrigation projects under construction

The earlier irrigation projects were generally designedfor supplementary irrigation of rice crops through diversionworks on rivers. But now attention was being paid toimplementation of projects which would provide year-round irrigation. In recent years, financial assistance hadbeen obtained as soft loans from the Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) and the International Bank for Reconstructionand Development (IBRD) for some such projects. Consul-tants were generally employed for feasibility studies andsupervision of construction. Such projects included thefollowing:

(i) Kankai irrigation project (Jhapa) in easternNepal would provide year-round irrigation for 5,000 ha;

(ii) Chitwan irrigation project in inner Terai wouldirrigate 12,400 ha. This was mainly a lift irrigation scheme;

(iii) The World Bank and the Government jointlyhad undertaken the Narayani intensive irrigation projectin Bara Parsa and Rautahat districts of central Nepalfor year-round irrigation of 31,400 ha;

(iv) The World Bank had been assisting the Lumbiniground-water project (Rupandehi) in western Nepal whichwould irrigate for multicropping over an area of 7,000 ha.There would be 63 deep tube wells of 3 to 4 cu ft/seccapacity;

(v) The World Bank had recently agreed to assistin the improvement of Chatra irrigation project (Sunsari-Morang). This was also an intensive agriculture schemefora 67,000 ha area.

Besides the above projects, there were several othermajor projects under construction with government re-sources, viz., Kamla irrigation project (Dhanusa-Sirha),25,000 ha; Banganga irrigation project (Kapilvastu), 5,000ha; Khutiya irrigation project (Dhangarhi), 5,000 ha. Andseveral small schemes in the valleys and tars of hilly regionswere under construction or under study. In the currentyear, a United Nations Capital Development Fund granthad been made available for the Marchawar lift irrigationscheme of Rupandehi (10,000 ha). Similarly, a majorproject in the hills, the Pokhara water conservancy project,was being implemented, with the assistance of the Govern-ment of China, which would irrigate 1,200 ha of landbesides producing 100 kW of hydropower.

Obviously, owing to the rugged nature of the coun-try, the possibility of constructing medium- or even small-scale irrigation schemes in the hills was very limited. Theinner and outer Terai, with more favourable topographyand large areas of suitable soil, were most favourable forirrigation extension. In these extension projects, fourmajor items were stressed for the development of successfulirrigation schemes:

(i) Improved design and planning for major works,including desilting works, water-measuring devices forproper flow control, and better design of the main canalto meet peak water requirements and to reduce seepage;

(ii) Inclusion of tertiary canals and on-farm devel-opment with drainage infrastructure, a communicationnetwork, etc., in the plans for year-round irrigation;

(iii) Improved operation and maintenance of thesystem;

(iv) Guidance and training for the farmers in year-round irrigation farming through the establishment offarmers' irrigation associations.

Great efforts were therefore needed at present in therehabilitation of existing schemes for year-round irrigation,as well as undertaking the construction of new schemes.

4. Maintenance and operation of irrigation projects

(a) Need for proper operation and maintenance

A successful irrigation project depended not only ongood planning, design and construction but also on properoperation and maintenance after construction. Without asuitable operation schedule, the project could not be ex-pected to produce maximum benefits, and good mainte-nance was the key factor in allowing the project to runsmoothly and last long.

In Nepal, it had been observed that a project of lowconstruction cost usually demanded high maintenance andoperation costs. This had happened in the case of earlyprojects with an investment cost of NRs 3,000 per ha /The unit cost of ADB and IBRD projects had been high, atNRs 15,000 to 16,000 per ha. With higher standards ofconstruction, the operating costs would come down.

(b) Co-ordination between agriculture and irrigation

It had now been recognized that the full impact ofirrigation development on food production could not berealized unless a co-ordinated programme of agriculture,irrigation, co-operatives and extention services at the farmlevel was launched. Agricultural extension and researchservices were provided by the Agriculture Department.Under agricultural research, there were 18 stations through-out the country working mainly on the selection of seeds,their multiplication, and optimum use of fertilizer. Mostof the research was conducted under irrigated conditions.Studies had been carried out on cropping patterns, varietytests, fertilizer requirements and consumption of water bythe main crops, i.e. paddy and wheat. Many research sta-tions, for instance, Parwanipur, Janakpur and Bhairwa,were also carrying out experiments on the same lines. Field

1 NRs 12.083 = $US 1.00 (1978 period average).


extension services were provided in 51 districts, of which28 were intensive agriculture development districts. Theprogramme was directed at the district level by the DistrictAgriculture Development Offices (DADO). At the farmlevel, junior technicians and assistants carried out extensionwork to the farmers on improved cultural practices, suitablecropping patterns and use of fertilizers. DADO also helpedthe farmers to apply for credit from suitable loan-givingagencies, such as the Agricultural Development Bank.

(c) Organization for operation and maintenance

At present irrigation projects in Nepal were mainlymaintained and operated by a government agency, i.e. theIrrigation Department, through maintenance divisions andsubdivisions. However, like some countries of the region,such as Japan, the Republic of Korea, SH Lanka and thePhilippines, operation of some irrigation systems was beingtried by water-users' associations. As an experiment, thesewater-users' associations were being formed for the opera-tion and maintenance of systems at the farm level while themaintenance of major parts of the project was still under-taken by the Irrigation Department. A detailed descriptionof such organizations and their functions will be describedlater in this chapter. These organizations were essential,not only to make the farmers feel that schemes and projectswere their poperty but also for their participation inmodern agricultural practices so as to reach food produc-tion goals. In the past, irrigation projects had been providedwith only main works such as diversion structures, mainand secondary canal systems, and they had been maintainedby the Irrigation Department. Tertiary canal systems, fieldchannels and terminal structures required to lead waterinto farms had been the responsibility of the farmers.The farmers did not have any organization to deal with thedistribution of water to individual fields. They would notprovide all of these facilities on their own and irrigationcould not achieve the expected results. It had now beenensured that on-farm development works were included inall the projects. Also, wherever possible, such works werenow being incorporated in all old projects although suchworks would raise the cost of the whole project.

For the construction of medium and small irrigationschemes as well as for operation and maintenance of com-pleted projects, the Irrigation Department had created fourRegional Directorates since 1972. This had made it easier toexecute and supervise project works by timely checkingand close attention by the Directorates. For example, aftercompletion a medium project was operated and maintanedby a subdivision having one assistant engineer, two or threeoverseers and a few gate and turnout operators with a gangof dhalpas. The dhalpas looked after the general repair ofthe main and secondary canals. Recording of actually ir-rigated areas was done by one or two amins (land sur-

veyors) also in the subdivision who prepared records ofirrigated lands under each crop with the help of cadastralmaps. A subdivision covered an area from 3,000 to 6,000ha. Whereas for a small project commanding 150-500 haonly, an operation and maintenance unit was establishedheaded by an Overseer (junior engineer), a division com-prising several subdivisions was headed by a DivisionalEngineer who was an administrative head as well as beingresponsible for preparing the budget for operation andmaintenance of all projects under the division. He was res-ponsible to a Regional Directorate.

(d) Operation and main tenance ofNarayani zoneirrigation development project

Narayani zone irrigation development project hadtwo irrigation components (surface and ground water)!which are described below.

Surface irrigation system. Nepal eastern canal, whichwas one of the main distributaries of the Gandak maincanal, had an irrigation command area of 28,700 ha in theBara and Parsa districts of the project. The whole commandarea of the canal was divided into 12 blocks, each blockconsisting of an area of 1,900 to 2,500 ha. Remodellingof the NEC main canal, construction of branch, secondaryand tertiary canals, and a drainage system in each block,improvement of the main •canal road, branch channel roadsand other approach roads and other improvements wereincluded.

Ground-water irrigation system. The total irrigationcommand area under the ground-water system was 2,750ha. The ground-water irrigation scheme included fixing uptransmission lines, installing submersible pumps, construc-tion of distribution and drainage systems, and constructionof pump houses for 14 old tube wells and installation of14 new tube wells with all the above improvements.

Along with improvement of the irrigation system,agricultural development activities both for the total irri-gation command area of 31,430 ha and the non-irrigatedarea of the whole of Bara and Parsa districts was carriedout under the project. The project had a well organizedagriculture extension structure down to each villagePanchayat level. The training and visit system of extensionemphasized regular training of field staff to upgrade theirtechnical ability and dissemination of improved agriculturetechnology among farmers through regular scheduled visitsby extension workers to the contact farmers.

Description of on-farm facilities. From each secon-dary canal several tertiary canals carried water to the farms.Each tertiary canal, which covered 1540 ha of farm land,had several division box turnouts each covering 5-12 ha inarea. The irrigation water was released to the fields through


these division boxes. The project was constructed as fardown as the tertiaries and division boxes. After the divisionboxes, the construction of field channels for efficient dis-tribution of water in the fields was done by the farmersthemselves under the water-users' association. The projectprovided technical help to the fanners in constructing fieldchannels and helped them to start and run smoothly awater-users' association for each tertiary.

Distribution of water in each block. The fannerswhose fields fell under the command of a tertiary canalformed a group called a water-users' team. The fannerswhose fields fell under the command area of a division boxin the tertiary formed a subgroup and elected a "subleader"of the division box.

All subleaders formed an executive body of the asso-ciation for the tertiary. The subleaders of the tertiaryelected a leader from among themselves who acted as themain leader for the tertiary. Construction of the fieldchannels from division boxes by individual farmers wasorganized by the subleader of the division box under theleadership of the main leader. The routine release of waterthrough division boxes in a tertiary was controlled by themain leader, while distribution of water after the divisionbox was controlled by the subleader for the box. Generally,the subleader considered the degree of urgency for water inindividual fields when deciding distribution. Under theproject, a leader for each secondary canal had to be electedto regulate the routine release of water for the tertiaries.

For each tube-well area a water-users' association wasformed. All the farmers whose fields fell within the com-mand area of the tube well were included in the water-users' team. The whole command area of the tube well wasdivided into between three and six blocks according to thenumber of division boxes in the main distribution channel.All farmers whose land fell within the command of a divi-sion box formed a subgroup and elected a subleader. Allthe subleaders formed an executive committee for theassociation. They elected a main leader from among them-selves for operation of the tube well. Construction of fieldchannels after the division box was organized by the sub-group leader of the block with the help of project technicalstaff as necessary. For each tube well, a monthly water dis-tribution schedule was prepared by the Agriculture Officerin charge of the tube well based on the recommended crop-ping pattern in different blocks. The water to each blockwas distributed according to this schedule under the closesupervision of the main leader and the Agriculture Officer.In the block, the distribution of water in individual fieldswas decided by the subgroup leader of the block.

5. Problems encountered in proper operation andmaintenance

(a) System built by the fanners

Dams built by farmers in the hills were easily washedaway. But they were easily rebuilt. A permanent structureof masonry would be too costly for fanners. The entranceand channel became silted up. It was now realized that con-struction of regulator gates at the entrance was advan-tageous. If properly operated, e.g. closed during peakfloods, they would reduce maintenance work. However, thefine silt deposited in the fields was advantageous in increas-ing fertility.

A considerable number of main canals passed throughpermeable soil and lost much water. Such sections neededlining with rip-rap, or medium-sized stones with cementmortar, or tamped clay.

Higher-lying lands were generally very permeable andthe people there had chosen to grow rice which neededlarge volumes of water. In such fields, alternative cropswhich consumed less water should be grown.

The dry season flow of streams was not properlyused and was generally wasted. On low-lying basins a foddercrop should be grown after the wheat harvest. This requiredtraining in irrigation practices and agricultural extensionservices wliich at present lacked sufficient field workers.

(b ) Govemmen toperated projects

For proper water management, land had to be gradedto lead water into field channels and drain ditches. Wherethe land involved was not extensive, levelling could be donemanually. Mechanized levelling could also be tried wherefarms were accessible by road. But in most cases that wasnot possible as the farms were in the centre of many fieldsand away from road. One of the biggest problems in Nepalin efficient water management was the fragmentary natureof holdings and different shapes of plot. The layout of fieldchannels to the central part of several farmers' fields wasa problem and a source of dispute. Thus, a land consolida-tion programme had become essential. Though it calledfor legislative measures, the programme could be of greathelp to the small farmers of Nepal by consolidating hold-ings and setting them in compact blocks of viable size. Thusthe net cultivated area would also increase.

Simple supply of irrigation water to the farmers didnot mean much. It was necessary for the farmers to knowwhen to use it and how much to use in conjunction withother inputs. The farmers at present had a tendency toover-irrigate their crops in the absence of proper watermanagement. On the one hand that deprived the down-


stream farmers of their right to watex and, on the otherhand, crop yield was low because of over-irrigation and lackof drainage facilities. Therefore, water management at thefarm level was the main theme of all irrigation projects nowbeing implemented.

Petty quarrels were very common in the distribu-tion of water to fields in critical periods when every farmerwanted to irrigate his field first. The transfer of waterfrom field to field by digging channels through the fieldswas not allowed. People's participation was thereforenecessary in the operation. If fanners could involve them-selves in operating the projects by means of fanners'associations, such problems would be automaticallyeliminated. Also, their sense of responsibility would begradually wakened in all spheres of work associated withthe project. This ideology had been developed in theNarayani inigation development project as explainedearlier.

In the Narayani project, there had been an initiallack of full participation by farmers in constructing fieldchannels and their maintenance. The project staff had hadto watch the leaders continuously to get the work done.However, after observing the improvement where suchconstruction had already been done and was functioning,the farmers were now better acquainted with the systemand thus had started to participate.

Because of uneven topography and lack of landdevelopment, some structures such as culverts and fallswere needed in the field channels to lead water efficientlyto the individual fields. The farmers had been reluctant topay the cost of materials for the construction.

6. Recommendations

For efficient use of existing farm irrigation schemesimprovements should be carried out by the Government,such as provision of head regulators and arrangements tominimize seepage losses and land slides.

Agriculture inputs and extension services should bemade available where irrigation projects had been com-pleted. Special attention should be given to the need of thefarmers for credit. Completion of irrigation projects shouldbe intimated to the Agriculture Department for follow-upaction.

Fragmented land holdings should be consolidated,at least in irrigated areas, by legislative means to make on-farm development and efficient water management feasible.

On-farm development works and land levelling shouldbe carried out in all future irrigation projects with a view tointensive cultivation.

H. FARM-LEVEL WATER MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMEIN THE PHILIPPINES*

1. Introduction

The Philippines was principally an agricultural coun-try composed of 7,107 islands. Its total land area was about30 million hectares, some 8.9 million hectares of whichwere potential areas for cultivation. About 3 millionhectares were potential areas for irrigation development.Currently, the total irrigated area was about 1.2 millionhectares.

In September 1974, Presidential Decree No. 552 waspromulgated providing a more vigorous thrust to the imple-mentation and attainment of the objectives of the Philip-pines' irrigation programme. The National Irrigation Ad-ministration (NIA) five-year irrigation development pro-gramme which was an integral part of its long-term plan(Irrigation Development Plan up to the Year 2,000) called

* By Mariano P. Leuterio, Operations Director, and CarlosC. Lintag, Agricultural Co-operatives Technologist, OperationsDepartment, National Irrigation Administration, Manila.

for an average increase of irrigated area of 135,000 hectaresannually for the subsequent five years.

To realize such a programme, the Decree providedNIA with broader powers and objectives "to investigate andstudy all available and possible water resources in thePhilippines, primarily for irrigation, hydraulic powerdevelopment and/or other use as flood control, drainageand reforestation in co-ordination with other agencies/institutions either public or private".

One vital objective of the National Irrigation Ad-ministration under its current Irrigation DevelopmentProgramme was oriented towards the sustained implementa-tion of a water management programme at the farm level.This was triggered by the fact that substantial portionsof the irrigable area covered by existing systems were noteffectively served despite the availability of water supply.

Among the problems identified were:

(a) Excessive conveyance and distribution losses;


(b) Excessive farm water wastes and losses in thepaddy field;

(c) Inadequate terminal irrigation facilities foreffective water control, equitable water distribution andproper water use at the farm level;

(d) Improper utilization of irrigation water by thefarmer end-users;

(e) Inefficiency in the operation and maintenance ofthe irrigation system itself owing to non-co-operation ofsome irrigation water-users;

(f) Inadequate canal capacities to serve intendedservice areas owing to silted canals and poor maintenance.

This paper aims to present information on previous,current and future plans on water management develop-ment programmes in the Philippines with the end in view ofsharing with other participants in the ESCAP Workshopsome ideas and experiences.

2. Historical account of the water managementprogramme

The above-mentioned situational problems were givenserious consideration which led to the birth of the NIA-Asian Development Bank (ADB) joint water managementproject, with the principal purpose of improving operationand management in selected irrigation systems. ADBprovided the financial and technical assistance with thePhilippine Government providing local counterparts. Theproject was launched in July 1968 and was terminated inAugust 1970.

Water management in this project was defined as the"integrated processes of diversion, conveyance) regulation,measurement, distribution and application of the rightamount of water at the proper time and removal of excesswater from the farms to promote increased productionin conjunction with improved cultural practices".

The main staging areas of operation were the pilotprojects in the Angat River irrigation system area in Bula-can and the Penaranda River irrigation system at Gapan,Nueva Ecija.

Eight additional pilot irrigation projects, strategicallylocated throughout the Philippines, were selected for thepurpose of gradually introducing innovations in watermanagement practices. These included improvement of theexisting methods relative to effective irrigation water utili-zation, equitable distribution schemes, timely use of ad-equately tested production inputs, and improved farmmanagement and cultural practices.

To attain project objectives, the total involvementand co-operation of the farmers was solicited. litigators'groups/associations were organized initially and the neces-sary training for the members and officers given.

In-service training programmes on water managementfor NIA technical personnel from the project areas andother irrigation systems were also conducted. Field trainingand demonstration services to farmers in the project sys-tems were intensified and given more emphasis.

A water management manual was developed to serveas guide to field implementors. To promote awareness ofthe project's scope and objectives, so as to enlist farmer'sco-operation, preparation and distribution of printedmatter was also undertaken. One of these was the AngMagpapatubig (The Irrigator).

»Agricultural extension services to intensify crop

production were employed in an integrated approach.

Major contributing factors attributed to the ratherslow progress of the work during the initial stage of imple-mentation were as follows:

(a) Insufficient available information and data onhydrology, climatology, soils, agronomic and agro-econo-mic data in the different localities under consideration;

(b) Acquisition of necessary rights-of-way for theconstruction of farm ditches was difficult and a tediousprocess because of the resistance of some landowners andfarmers;

(c) Construction work could be undertaken onlyafter harvest;

(d) The negative reactions and attitudes of farmersto accepting modern irrigation and agricultural practices inlieu of their centuries-old methods, beliefs and traditions;

(e) Shortage of trained technical manpower in irri-gation water management, both in the supervisory andfarm-level groups;

(f) Lack of information, materials and water ma-nagement guides.

3. Current programme on farm-level watermanagement

(a) Water management pilot project in national irrigationsystems

NIA, fully aware of the importance of water manage-ment in improving the system's efficiency and performance,had made bold and determined efforts to implement awater management programme on a wider scale by selecting


43 national irrigation systems as water management pilotareas. Three of these were currently covered by the NIAOffice of Special Projects. These pilot areas served as thetesting grounds for all water management practices in everyregional irrigation office.

The necessary service roads and terminal irrigationfacilities, such as main turnouts (MTO) with measuringdevices; main farm ditches; supplementary turnouts (STO),also with measuring devices; drainage ditches and othersimilar structures, were constructed effectively to imple-ment improved water management practices. The averagearea covered per MTO was 32.95 hectares while the averageservice area per STO was 10.03 ha (see table 7).

Water distribution being practiced in various watermanagement pilot areas was either by rotation or by simul-taneous method. In the simultaneous method, irrigationwater was conveyed through a main farm ditch (MFD) anddistributed simultaneously in the service area throughsupplementary farm ditches (SFDs). In the rotationalmethod, irrigation water was conveyed through the MFDand distributed by rotation in the different SFDs.

(b) Special project method of water distribution and farm-level facilities

One of the first big projects to utilize some of theexperiences of the NIA-ADB water management projectwas the Upper Pampanga River project in Nueva Ecija.

Currently, almost all of the NIA special projectscompleted and under construction were designed takinginto consideration the rotational irrigation method. Thescheme involved the application of the daily water require-ment to a small area termed a rotation unit within a pre-settime dimension of about 24 hours. Other rotation unitsreceived irrigation water in succession similarly according tothe set schedule.

Basically, the method necessitated the division ofthe whole project area into rotation areas and further sub-division into rotation units. Normally, there was a maxi-mum of five rotation units per rotation area of about 8 to12 hectares per unit. Each rotation area serviced by about800 to 1,000 metres of main farm ditch was provided witheither one double- or single-gated turnout. Each rotationunit was served by a supplementary farm ditch of about500 to 700 metres long which branched out from the mainfarm ditch. The head of each supplementary farm ditch wasprovided with a division box and a check structure.

Farm ditches were located and constructed as far aspossible to follow existing lot boundaries. Every rotationarea was adequately intercepted by a drainage ditch whichwas connected to a collector drain to a major waterway

(see table 8 for statistical data on density of irrigation facili-ties in the Upper Pampanga River project).

Water delivery to the main turnout was controlledby the water tenders.

(c) Formation and development of irrigators' groups/associations

The success of any developmental undertaking suchas the management project in the Philippines would dependon the active support and total involvement of the irriga-tion water-users themselves. A group's adoption of efficientirrigation water use along with application of the latestfarming techniques, as well as awareness of joint responsibi-lities to overcome agricultural problems would greatlypromote increased production and raise living standards.Irrigators' groups served as an effective vehicle for re-educa-ting and training farmers in improved techniques of farmmanagement. They could also act as a catalyst in modify-ing the behaviour patterns of farmers concerning water use.

The organization and development of irrigators'organizations in all NIA water management pilot areas aswell as the NIA Office of Special Projects was one impor-tant concomitant activity currently being given attention.The organizational process involved the conduct of pre-organizational education/training programmes for prospec-tive member-water-users of different rotational areas at theMTO level. Some topics included in the programme were:project objectives, schemes of irrigation water deliveryand distribution, the importance of irrigators' groups/associations, function and objectives, organizational struc-tures and procedures, method of operation, and duties andresponsibilities of members of irrigators' groups. The nextphase was the actual formation of irrigators' groups atmain turnout level followed by the organization of continu-ing education and training programmes for the membersas a way of strengthening their organizations.

Organized and responsible irrigators' groups wereeffective partners of irrigation development. Their principalfunctions were the equitable distribution and properutilization of irrigation water below the turnout amongtheir members and the maintenance of the farm ditchesserving their farms.

Currently there were 533 irrigators' groups with atotal membership of 18357, covering a total land area of16,900 hectares in 40 NIA national irrigation systems withwater management pilot areas (see table 9). In the entireNIA Office of Special Projects, a June 1978 report showedthat 5,444 compact farm associations/irrigators' groups and19 project development compact farms had been or-ganized involving some 105,935 and 1,361 fanner water-users respectively (see table 10).


4. Concomitant activities supportive of currentfarm-level water management programme

(a) Research to acquire needed data and informationuseful for the implementation of improved watermanagemen t project

NIA-NSDB water management improvement project.This was an applied research undertaking currently beingcarried out in different NIA regional research stationsemphasizing the maximization of water use and rainfall inaccordance with improved cultural practices to promoteincreased production. Various studies have included: (i)determination of water requiremnts of improved varietiesof rice in four regional NIA sites; (ii) grain yield responsesof improved rice varieties to different rates of irrigationapplication; (iii) methods of rice irrigation; (iv) determina-.tion of effective rainfall and water-use efficiency; and (v)determination of conveyance and distribution losses. Thisresearch was supported by the National Science Develop-ment Board.

PCARR-NIA water management improvement pro-ject. This project had been recently terminated. Studiescompleted were: (i) soil moisture stress studies in the field:(ii) growth and yield response of high-yielding varieties ofrice to different rates of irrigation; (iii) determination ofconveyance and distribution losses; (iv) determination ofeffective rainfall and water-use efficiency. The fundingagency was the Philippine Council for Agricultural Re-sources Research.

Currently, research work was also being pursued bythe NIA Office of Special Projects through its various agri-culture divisions. The activities involved not only watermanagement research but also other aspects of agriculturaldevelopment, such as farmers' assistance and training,agro-economic studies, agricultural progress monitoring,training of operation and maintenance personnel, andcropping pattern development. The characterization ofwater management parameters involved the determinationof crop water requirements, soil percolation rates, conve-yance and distribution losses, residual soil moisture, farmirrigation efficiency through water balance studies, collec-tion of hydrometeorological data, river and canal rating,water quality analyses, soil moisture stress study, andsedimentation studies.

(b) System-wide water management in NIA systems

As a support move to the implementation of watermanagement practices, chiefs of all national irrigationsystems were enjoined to install measuring devices (directreading staff gauges) and one standard non-recording raingauge for every water master's division covered by theirrespective irrigation systems.

(c) Training and manpower developmen t

Various water management training programmeshad been conducted and were being carried out on a con-tinous basis in different NIA regional training centres.The main thrust of the programmes was to equip farm-levelirrigation authorities with the necessary knowledge of andskills in improved water management practices, in con-sonance with approved farming practices, human resourcesdevelopment, system operation and maintenance, irrigationextension principles and techniques, etc. Among the parti-cipants were irrigation superintendents, farm organizationspecialists, water masters, gatekeepers, ditch tenders andfarmer-leaders.

A comprehensive training programme was also beingcarried out in the NIA Office of Special Projects with theobjective of providing irrigation personnel, in addition toadequate knowledge and skills, with the necessary motiva-tion in planning, implementation and evaluation of watermanagement practices.

The water management technologists were providedwith more extensive training, having been the mid-levelmanagers in the organization in charge of the operationand maintenance of the irrigation system.

Training programmes were also planned for personnelunder the water management technologists, for instance,water tenders, gatekeepers and hydrometeorological ob-servers. In addition, personnel above the technologist levelalso underwent training; these included supervising watermanagement technologists, zone engineers and irrigationsuperintendents.

The training programme for all irrigation personnelembraced the following major aspects: irrigated cropproduction, irrigation water management, and humanresources management, including establishment and de-velopment of farmers' organizations.

5. Summary of Problems Encountered in ProgrammeImplementation

(a) The service ability of constructed terminalirrigation facilities and structures. As observed some of thecomplaints entertained by the irrigation field personnelwere of the defects and deficiencies in the construction ofsuch facilities;

(b) Some members of irrigators' groups complainedthat the pre-determined quantity of water being allowedinto the farms was not sufficient to satisfy their croprequirements;

(c) In extreme cases, destruction of some terminalfacilities by the water-users occurred;


(d) Illegal checking or diversion of irrigation waterpersisted. Water-users obtained irrigation water directlyfrom the main farm ditch, which should not be the case.They were supposed to receive water from the supplemen-tary farm ditches serving their farms;

(e) Non-maintenance of the farm ditches in someareas by the water-users. These facilities were maintainedonly when needed;

(f) Problems of water distribution when water-users were not well organized;

(g) During the pre-construction period, problemsin negotiating rights-of-way were encountered;

(h) Inequitable distribution of water, resulting inconflicts among farmers themselves and sometimes withNIA personnel;

(i) Non-conformity with the water delivery scheduleof the system in spite of advanced information dissemi-nated to the water-users;

(j) Non-involvement of fanner water-users in theplanning stage prior to the construction of the terminalirrigation facilities;

(k) Excessive use of irrigation water;

(1) Some farmers allowed their work animals towallow in conveyance facilities, resulting in destruction;

(m) Poor maintenance of paddy fields by somewater-users resulting in excessive water waste;

(n) Fanners still used water for weed, pest anddisease control, which was inpractical;

(o) Diversion of water directly from the main andlateral canals;

(p) In most cases, water-users upstream of the canalsor farm ditches were hesitant to join the irrigators' groupsbecause of their easier access to irrigation water. On theother hand, farmers in the downstream portion were morewilling and co-operative in forming groups and practicingproper water management;

(q) Though research work was currently being con-ducted on various water management aspects, actualapplication of the resulting data (though considered conclu-sive) by farmers was difficult;

(r) Severe effects of siltation in a few pilot areas;

(s) Lack of necessary incentives to motivate or en-courage water-users to establish and strengthen an associa-tion;

(t) Still inadequate, education and training for ir-rigators' groups and association members and officers, aswell as other irrigation water-users;

(u) Violation of irrigation laws by some water-users.

6. Recapitulation of observations and recommendations

(a) Operational and serviceable terminal irrigationfacilities were motivating factors helpful in promotingproper water management and in forming irrigators' groupsand associations;

(b) Maximum efforts should be exerted to formactive and responsible irrigators' groups that might effec-tively handle equitable water distribution and farm ditchmaintenance activities in their area;

(c) Continuing education and training programmesfor irrigation users with strong emphasis on proper watermanagement, proper maintenance of terminal irrigationfaculties and structures, effective management of irrigatorsgroups' associations activities, etc. must be a sustainedactivity;

(d) Sustained follow-up, guidance and supervisionof irrigation users with regard to water distribution acti-vities and farm ditch maintenance should be carried out atthe initial stages of implementation by the irrigationauthorities;

(e) Maximum co-ordination of the activities of NIAfield implementors and field technicians of other agenciesshould be maintained at all times, particularly in thecontext of the training programmes for irrigation groupmembers;

(f) Mobility of farm-level irrigation authorities(irrigators' association workers) should be given immediateattention considering the extent of their area of coverage.Currently, only two irrigators' association workers werecovering the entire pilot area in each region;

(g) A functional manpower development programmemust be developed and given to farm-level irrigation autho-rities on a sustained basis to further improve their workcompetency and efficiency;

(h) Cropping pattern development and setting ofirrigation water delivery schedules should be planned andprepared ahead by the chief of the system in consultationwith his farm level field men (water masters, ditch tenders)and irrigators' group leaders and, preferably, with the fieldpersonnel of other government agencies engaged in produc-tion;


(i) Provision of necessary incentives to irrigators'group members and officers as a way of motivating them tostrengthen their organizations to ensure successful imple-mentation of the water management project. One form ofincentive was the provision of legal assistance to the groupleaders/members in cases where criminal acts associatedwith programme implementation occurred;

(j) Delegation of part or all operation, maintenanceand management activities of a particular national irrigationsystem or a portion thereof to a duly organized and activeirrigators' association (in accordance with PresidentialDecree No. 552) might be considered a very encouragingincentive. The necessary training should be undertakenprior to delegation or transfer. In the current situation,however, this might not be immediately realized;

(k) Still another form of incentive was the transferof ownership of a portion of an existing national irrigationsystem to the responsible irrigation association with corres-ponding repayment of its construction cost as conceived inthe 1975 policy guidelines of NIA;

(1) The giving of discounts to farmer water-userswho pay their irrigation "charges on or before the due datesmight also be considered a form of incentive. Just recently,NIA had provided for a 10 per cent discount for suchfanners;

(m) Providing employment preference to irrigationgroup members and officers during the construction periodwas yet another form of incentive. This was one source oftheir additional income;

(n) What might sometimes be overlooked by thefarmers was the important incentive in the form of educa-tion and training on matters relative to water management,irrigation extension strategies, operation and maintenance,management, etc. There was a universal saying that "know-ledge is power";

(o) The new NIA regulations (Memorandum CircularNo. 9, series 1977) which replaced the former water code(Presidential Decree No. 1067) should be strictly enforced.Violators of certain irrigation laws were to be penalized(by a fine and/or imprisonment) according to the new regu-lartions. Violations included destruction of hydraulic worksor structures; illegal taking or diversion of water in an opencanal, aquaduct or reservoir; and unauthorized obstructionof an irrigation canal;

(p) Closer coordination between field-level authori-ties should be maintained at all times. Half-hearted concernor support of some field personnel to the programmeshould not persist. They should be made fully aware thatthe programme was not just the concern of one agency;it was a national programme;

(q) NIA field implementors should also attend tothe problems, needs and interests of irrigation water-usersoutside the pilot areas. It was intended ultimately toexpand the pilot area system if found successful, and itwould be better and proper to have a head-start;

(r) A somewhat "jealous" attitude on the part ofsome farmers outside the pilot area had been observed.However, they responded favourably by appealing to thosealready covered by the pilot area to exert all possibleefforts to make a success of the first pilot projects. Thefarmers were eager for the expansion of such projects;

(s) Strong emphasis must be placed on the impor-tance of maintaining the essence of co-operation amongirrigation users, particularly with regard to self-help pro-jects. Farmer water-users should not be "spoon-fed";

(t) Particular emphasis should also be given to main-taining strict discipline among water-users, particularlyin the proper distribution of irrigation water and mainte-nance of farm ditches. It was believed that this universalfactor encompassed all other success factors in any develop-ment undertaking;

(u) In any undertaking the human factor was ad-mittedly the hardest to handle. NIA farm-level workershad therefore been advised to exercise patience and flexibi-lity, as well as an active zeal in pushing through the pro-gramme;

(v) There must be a way to show appreciation toirrigation groups whose members were carrying out main-tenance and water distribution activities as desired. Oneway might be to provide some sort of rebate in the pay-ment of their total irrigation charges. Accrued rebatesmight serve as a good source of association funds;

(w) Planning from below might be consideredeffective strategy to ensure proper project/programmeimplementation and development. A particular examplewas in the planning phase involving the construction ofterminal irrigation facilities. Affected water-users should beconsulted and involved. Though that might take longer,the result was expected to be productive;

(x) Further strengthening of the research com-ponent of water management, in terms of providing thenecessary financial and manpower support, must be a sus-tained activity.

7. Conclusion

The National Irrigation Administration intended toexpand further the water management project area to


include other existing national irrigation systems. Thecurrent water management pilot areas had served as thetesting grounds for all NIA water management activities.

To date, it could be said that the practice of appro-priate water management techniques was still new in someof the Philippine irrigation systems. The problems expectedto be encountered were numerous. Some of them hadalready been identified and new ones were continuallybeing encountered as the project activities progressed.Generally, at the farm level, it had been observed that themost critical problem area concerned irrigation water-users.Effecting a change in the habits of water-users to achieve

judicious management and utilization of water could notbe accomplished overnight. It required much hard work,patience and flexibility on the part of the irrigation autho-rities. Full acceptance by the water-users and their activeinvolvement was deemed indispensable to the project'ssuccess.

Technical and other administrative problems ofproject implementation might be considered secondary.What was required was a comprehensive approach to watermanagement by considering all important and relevantfactors and constraints in the formulation of solutions tothe-problems ensountered.

Table 7. Some statistical data on water management pilot projects in the Philippines

System

Region I: Urdaneta Pangasinan

1. Laoag-Vintar2. Tagudin3. Amburayan4. Masalip5. Agno6. San Fabian7. Dipalo8. Totonoguen

Subtotal

Region II: Cauayan Isabela

1. Apayao-Abulog2. Tumawini3. Baggao

Subtotal

Region III: Quezon City (temporary)

1. Porac-Gumain2. Colo3. Sto. Tomas4. Nayom

Subtotal

Region IV: Pila, Laguna

1. Cavhe Friar Lands2. Palico3. Dumacaa

Subtotal

Region V: Naga City1. Daet-Talisay2. Cagaycay3. Hibiga4. Bulan

Subtotal

Region VI: Itoilo City

1. Aldan2. Mambusao3. Sibalom-San Jose4. Bago

Servicearea(ha)

457373449380467426432368

3,352

376300430

1,106

396475537404

1,812

320394419

1,133

437501372457

1,767

458480417517

Number ofmain

turnouts

249

13181099

18110

10151641

87

141443

18181652

1112101245

128

1411

Ha permain

turnout

19.0441.4434.5321.1146.7047.3348.0020.44

37.6020.0026.87

49.5067.8538.35

. 28.85

17.7721.8826.18

39.7241.7537.2038.08

38.1660.0029.7847.00

Number ofsupplementary

turnouts

3633404247403838

314

382544

107

37334741

158

323746

115

53392336

151

59474937

Ha persupplementary

turnout

12.6911.3011.229.059.94

10.6511.369.68

9.8912.009.77

10.7014.3911.439.85

10.0010.659.11

8.2512.85

12.69

7.7610.218.51

13.97Subtotal 1,872 45 192


Table 7. Some

System

Region VII: Tacloban City

Regional VIII: Tacloban City

1. Binahaan2. Mainit3. Bao4. Bito5. Hindang-Hilongos

Subtotal

Region IX: Zamboanga City

1. Labangan2. Salug (incL ext.)

Subtotal

Region X: Cagayan de Oro City

Region XI: Davao City

1. Lupon2. Padada3. Banga4. Cantilan

Subtotal

Region XII: Cotabato City1. Libungan2. Kabacan3. Malasila

SubtotalTotal

statistical data on water management pilot projects in the Philippines (Continued)

Servicearea(ha)

550500561500

.4832,594

462463925

424428360584

1.796

480454304

1,23817,595

Number ofmain

turnouts

141814141474

161319

2212111560

15119

35534

Ha permain

turnout

no pilot area

39.2821.1140.0735.7134.50

28.8735.6164.48

no pilot area

19.2735.6632.7238.93

32.0041.2733.77

32.95*

Number ofsupplementary

turnouts

53655840 -61

277

5644

100

48435164

206

504637

1331,753

Ha persupplementary

turnout

10.387.699.67

12.507.92

8.2510.5218.77

8..839.957.069.12

9.609.868.21

10.03*

a Average area (ha) per MTO.b Average area (ha) per STO.


1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Table 8. Statistical data

Irrigation systems

New irrigation systems

PBRIS extension

Platero area

Aliaga area

Rizal-Munic area

Sto. Domingo area

Newirrigable

area(ha)

14,933

608

5,388

2,638

11,585

Rehabilitated existing irrigationsystems

PRIS area

TRIS area

LTRIS area

Vaca area

Murcon area

PBRIS area

San Agustin ext. area

Pamaldan Cinco-Cinco area

Average

13,266

11,718

2,720

2,511

4,629

10,371

844

1,258

on density of irrigation facilities in the Upper Pampang river project

Canaldensity(ha per

km)

93.23

98.24

88.95

91.24

76.56

70.97

68.56

63.37

71.91

55.15

56,83

64.10

75.89

75.00

Canal structureExisting(units)

100

-

16

-

-

247

20

88

61

34

91

-

-

82.13

Existingbut

modified(units)

29

-

2

-

-

-

37

-

-

69

102

36

-

45.83

New oradditional

(units)

270

15

171

84

409

286

75

40

29

116

250

10

41

138.15

Density(ha perunit)

37.43

40.53

28.51

31.41

28.33

24.89

21.11

2.25

27.90

21.14

23.41

18.35

30.68

27.30

Turnouts(ha perunit)

52.95

38.00

43.10

45.48

34.58

38.34

37.80

37.26

52.31

37.63

33.56

40.19

37.00

40.63

Farmmain ditch(m per ha)

12.62

14.97

12.00

10.83

21.64

10.60

19.89

14.99

17.24

18.15

16.08

17.81

9.73

15.12

Supplementaryfarm ditches

(m per ha)

46.59

33.91

33.29

25.94

37.10

42.31

39.78 *

37.49

40.71

42.13

44.04

37.25

31.61

37.86


Table 9. Status report on irrigators' groups in water management pilot areas as at June 1978

Region SystemNumber of irrigators'

groups organized and/orrevitalized

Totalmembership

Areacovered

(ha)

I. Urdaneta, Pangasinan 1. Agno2. Amburayan3. Dipalo4. Laoag-Vintar5. Masalip6. San Fabian7. Tagudin8. Totonoguen

10139

27188

1218

6482,162

2011,3051,003

6411,040

307

526.39448.86388.15452.07385.94427.22405.18345.87

II. Cauayan, Isabela

Subtotal

1. Abulog2. Baggao3. Tumaini

115

101528

7,307

256681238

3,379.68

360.00392.46371.84

III. Quezon City

Subtotal

1. Colo2. Nayom3. Poiac-Gumain4. Sto. Tomas

53

101489

1,175

262286330431

1,124.90

4,436.86385.06384.80640.21

IV. Pila, Laguna

Subtotal

1. CavHe2. Dumacaa3. Palico

41

141510

1,309

134470400

1,846.93

281.32895.00769.89

V. NagaCity

Subtotal

1. Bulan2. Cagaycay3. Daet-Talisay4. Hibiga

39

123

1113

1,004

38131

299328

1,946.21

384.5934.28

331.67287.05

VL lloiloCity

Subtotal

1. Aldan2. Bago3. Mambusao4. Sibalom-San Jose

39

128

1211

1,039

437276173497

1,037.59

480.57442.20351.12

' 411.66

VII. Tacloban City

VIII. Tacloban City

Subtotal

1. Bao2. Binahaan3. Bito4. Hindang-Hilongos5. Mainit

43

no pilot area

219182018

1,383

472189412549281

1,685.55

557.35266.12529.32323.83576.40

DC. Zamboanga City

Subtotal

1. Labangan2. Salug

86

1611

1303

235241

2,253.02

462.00334.05

X. Cagayan de Oro City

XI. Davao City

Subtotal

1. Banga2. Cantilan3. Lupon4. Padada

27

no pilot area

11112112

476

360498433333

796.05

434.92377.00431.00390.39

XII. Cotabato City

Subtotal

1. Kabacan2. Libungan3. Malasila

55

11159

1,624

348409380

1,633.31

430.59427.04339.90

SubtotalTotal

35533

1,13718,357

1,197.5316,900.77


Table 10. Accomplishments in the organization of farmer irrigators' groups, compact farm associations andproject development compact farms in special projects as at June 1978

Project

ADSIP

AMIADP

AFIP

CLGIP

CRIP

DNIP- I

DNIP- II

JRMP

LCIADP

LDBDP-IC

MRMP

PRDP

PRIP

TISDP

TRIP

UPRIIS

Total

Area,ha

8,754

35,330

25,300

12,000

19,700

11,540

15,080

24,700

4,425

14,815

76,197

14,759

13,000

25,920

14,500

79,058

393,078

Target

178

1,016

860

240

530

295

301

497

129

299

1,855

305

300

718

300

2,380

10,203

CFA/FIGOrganized

2

1,016

228

30

54

51

1

33

38

89

1,203

70

9

348

-

2,272

5,444

Percentage

1.12

100.00

26.50

11.66

10.18

17.28

.33

6.63

29.45

29.76

64.85

22.96

3.00

48.47

95.46

Farmers involvedTarget

2,500

22,617

16,874

12,000

9,396

2,570

5,026

12,350

2,300

8,208

37,133

9,404

4,000

15,473

7,000

44,610

211,461

Actual

52

22,617

2,833

1,455

885

602

32

612

425

3,421

25,091

1,474

212

11,524

-

35,700

105,935

Percentage

2.08

100.00

16.78

12.12

9.40

23.40

0.63

4.95

18.47

29.49

67.57

15.67

5.30

74.40

80.02

Target

2

3

-

2

3

3

3

-

-

3

-

-

-

19

PDCFOrganized

2

3

-

2

3

3

1

4

18

Percentage

100

100

-

100

100

100

33

+33

Farmers involvedTarget

60

90

566

200

90

30

45

1,081

A c tual Percen tage

57

90

-

765

200

72

32

145

1,361

95

100

-

+35

100

80

+6

+222

Note: Some projects had organized compact farms but had not reported the fact and others had overshot their target in thenumbers of farmers involved, as indicated by the phis sign in their percentage accomplishment.


I. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN EFFORTS TO IMPROVE THE PERFORMANCEOF IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN SRI LANKA*

1. Introduction

The Republic of Sri Lanka was a tropical island in theIndian Ocean with an estimated current population of 13.5million, 80 per cent of which was rural. Of the total landarea of 16.2 million acres (25,300 sq miles), about 5million acres were used for agriculture, 9.3 million acreswere under forests and the remaining 1.9 million acreswere under water bodies, urban areas or under other uses.About half of the forest land was potentially suitable foragricultural development.

The country's climate was characterized by nearlyconstant temperatures but with large variations in rainfall.Based on precipitation, the country could be divided intotwo district zones. The wet zone (average annual rainfallover 75 inches) situated in the south-west quadrant andcovering about 30 per cent of the land area, and the dryzone (average annual rainfall, 35-75 inches) covering theremainder of the island. The wet zone supported more thanthree quarters of the total population and accounted forabout 70 per cent of the cultivated land. The dominantclimatic features were the north-east monsoon fromNovember to February and the south-west monsoonfrom May to September. Depressional and conventionalrains occurred during the inter-monsoonal periods andwere likely to occur in any part of fhe country.

Cultivation in the wet zone was mostly under rainfedconditions, while in the dry zone the rainfall was oftenpoorly distributed and highly erratic and therefore supple-mentary irrigation was necessary for successful cultivation.Almost all recent expansion in irrigation and the greatmajority of the total irrigated area of the country was inthe dry zone.

Irrigation in Sri Lanka dated back to 600 B.C. whenan extensive network of irrigation tanks had been devel-oped by the ancient kings, who had recognized the poten-tial for irrigated agriculture in the dry zone. There washistoric evidence that appropriate institutional and legalsystems had also been established for ensuring their properoperation and maintenance as well as careful use of irriga-tion water. This was clearly indicated in the Kondavat-tuwan stone pillar inscription found in the Gal Oya Valleyattributed to King Dappula IV (924-935 A.D.) whichread:

"For an offence connected with the flooding of thefields a fine of 2 Akas shall be levied. For an offence

* By B.M.S.S. Mapa, Irrigation Engineer, Water ManagementBranch, Department of Irrigation, Colombo.

connected with ploughing a fine of a Kalanda shallbe levied. For an offence of having ploughed late afine of 5 Kalandas shall be levied."

These magnificient works gradually fell into dis-repair and neglect when Sri Lanka became a colony ofsuccessive foreign powers. In 1900, a separate governmentdepartment, the Irrigation Department was established inorder to expedite the execution of irrigation works andhad since been engaged in restoring ancient irrigation sys-tems and construction of new schemes.

It now also undertook the following functions:

(a) Preparation of master plans of developmentfor the different river basins for the optimum utilization ofland and water resources;

(b) Project formulation and detailed designs ofmajor irrigation, hydropower, flood control and reclama-tion projects;

(c) Provision of consultancy services in the field ofwater resources development to other government depart-ments, corporations and other institutions;

(d) Construction of major irrigation projects forthe conservation, diversion and distribution of water forthe cultivation of irrigable lands;

(e) Construction of lift irrigation projects, for thecultivation of subsidiary food crops;

(f) Construction of flood protection, drainage andsalt water expulsion projects;

(g) Applied research in hydraulics, hydrology, soilmechanics and land use as applied to water resourcesdevelopment projects.

2. Economic situation

The economy in Sri Lanka was predominantlyagricultural and therefore water resources development hadbeen primarily for agriculture. Agriculture contributedabout 35 per cent of the gross domestic product. The bulkof agricultural production was represented by the fourprincipal agricultural crops: paddy, tea, rubber andcoconuts.

Paddy was grown for domestic consumption andwas supplemented by imports. About 40 per cent ofthe coconut output was exported. Tea, rubber andcoconuts together accounted for about 75 per cent

I. Problems encountered in efforts to improve the performance of inigation projects in Sri Lanka 99

of the country's export earnings. The proceeds of their saleabroad paid for the import of foodstuffs, other consumergoods, and equipment for agricultural and industrialdevelopment. The economy of the island thus dependedupon the production of four commodities and exportof three of them.

3. Paddy production

The reconditioned and the new irrigation systemstogether irrigated about 925,000 acres (374,000 ha) andefforts were continuing at a pace to expand that acreage.Major irrigated crops in the island were paddy, sugar,onions and chillies. Paddy was the most widely irrigatedcrop, cultivated in two seasons of the year (the Maha andYah varieties).

Maha was started with the north-east monsoon inOctober or November, and the second paddy crop, yah,sown in April or March, was subject to the availability ofwater in the tanks. The yields were generally as low as 0.9ton per acre and 0.8 ton per acre for maha and yah res-pectively. The lower yah yield was primarily due to thewater shortages experienced during the latter part of thecropping season.

Farmers generally perferred broadcasting to trans-planting despite the latter's potential for higher yields.Fertilizers were subsidized for paddy and other subsidiarycrops did not enjoy that benefit. Nevertheless, presentfertilizer use on paddy was about 30 per cent of the re-commended dosage of 1.5 cwt of urea and 2 cwt of basicpaddy mixture per acre.

It had been estimated that the Sri Lanka's ricerequirements would be about 2.2 million metric tons bythe year 2000. The productivity of most existing paddylands could be increased by at least another 30 per cent,for the potential was there. If current average productionper acre of 45 bushels could be increased to 60 or 70,then total paddy production would rise to 1.25 to 1.5million bushels, which would be equal to the total produc-tion of rice and the imports of rice and flour for the year1976.

4. Ground water

In the recent past the Irrigation Department hadstarted investigations of the feasibility of exploitation ofthe island's ground-water resources for irrigation purposes.Ground-water exploration had been mainly confined to thesedimentary Miocene limestone deposits which formeda deep narrow belt along the north-western and northerncoasts of the island.

In Mannar District over the past two years about

100 wells had been sunk in private paddy lands. Unfortu-nately, however, frequent complaints were received fromfarmers regarding depressed yields or crop damage causedby increased salinity and or alkalinity in paddy fieldsirrigated regularly with ground water.

In the Jaffna peninsula, which was at the northernextremity of the island, an area of about 1,100 sq kmlay under Miocene limestone. Extensive use of groundwater for irrigation had been practised over a long time inthis part of the island. Further in Puttalam and Mannardistricts about 1,500 acres had been provided with irriga-tion facilities using ground water. Thus the total areausing ground water for irrigation was about 84,000 acres.

Rainfall recharge of aquifers, depletion of part of therecharged water as flow into the sea, quantity of waterextracted, intrusion of sea water and variations in salinitywere some aspects of the problems under study in thoseareas. Water levels in wells, salinity and electrical conduc-tivity of water samples were observed fortnightly.

5. Lift irrigation schemes

There were four major lift irrigation schemes on theisland covering about 8,000 acres, and they were associatedwith major surface irrigation schemes. These were mainlyfor subsidiary food crops such as chillies, pulses and onions.

The irrigable areas were strung along the main gravitycanals; the pump units were diesel operated. All canalswere lined with concrete and PVC pipes had been usedfor the construction of rising mains. The problems en-countered in these schemes could be summarized as fol-lows:

(a) Frequent breakdown of pumps and shortageof spares. It had been recommended that all pumps beelectrified as soon as possible;

(b) Over-use of water;

(c) Lack of know-how in cultivation of cash crops;

(d) Use of water for domestic purposes;

(e) Failure to realize the value of water, suppliedfree of charge, but at tremendous initial capital cost ofthe State;

(f) Lack of interest and co-operation on the partof the farmers.

6. Mahaweli development project

Sri Lanka was endowed with a system of rivers,sufficient rainfall, land resources and a climate suitable foryear-round crop production. A large number of reservoir


sites suitable to store the runoff were available for use inthe respective basins or for transbasin diversion purposes.All possible reservoir sites had been selected and manyof them investigated. The limitations of embarking onthese projects had so far been mainly the capital that couldbe allocated to this sector.

The most promising of all these was the Mahawelidevelopment project. The Mahaweli Basin covered some4,030 sq miles of the country's 25,000 sq miles and wasestimated to discharge 6.6 million acre-feet (ac-ft) ofwater annually. Rising in the hill country at elevations ofover 6,000 ft above sea level, it also had a significanthydropower potential.

A UNDP/FAO team, in collaboration with specialistsfrom Sri Lanka, had prepared a master plan for the develop-ment of the water resources of the Mahaweli Basin andadjacent areas during the period 1965-1968. The planproposed to utilize 4.7 million ac-ft of the flow for agri-cultural development in an area of 900,000 acres lying inthe dry zone of the island. Of those 900,000, roughly250,000 were currently irrigated, but deficient in watersupplies, and 650,000 acres would be new lands, some ofthem being under rainfed cropping. The plan also envisagedthe installation of hydro-power plants with a total capacityof over 500 mW for the production of some 2,600 millionkWh of energy annually.

The plan included the construction of several largedams on the main river and its major tributaries as wellas on streams flowing through the areas selected for agri-cultural development.

The creation of reservoir storages on the Mahaweliand its tributaries would also provide for a substantialmeasure of flood control. The activities connected withthe plan covered some 40 per cent of the land area of theisland.

The estimated total cost of the scheme was SRs6,700 million in 1968-/ and the implementation period wasoriginally to be 30 years. The present Government hadlaunched an ambitious programme (Mahaweli AcceleratedProgramme) to complete the balance of the project insix years, with the help of massive foreign aid.

Implementation of the programme on an acceleratedbasis had been entrusted to the following organisations:the Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau, the IrrigationDepartment, the Mahaweli Development Board, and theRiver Valleys Development Board.

Under this project, the development of an area of900,000 acres in the dry zone, for multiple cropping hadbeen planned with the available 900,000 ac-ft in the pro-jected area, and the diverted 4.7 million ac-ft from

Mahaweli Ganga, making a total of 5.7 million ac-ft ofwater. The duty of water assumed for the development,averaged 8.5 ac-ft/ac per year. This duty of water couldonly be achieved by adopting strict water managementpolicies.

7. Tank modernization project

The dry zone had some 180 major tank irrigationschemes, serving a total cultivated area of about 400,000acres. Deterioration of the irrigation systems, poor watermanagement and inadequate agricultural supporting serviceswere the prime constraints limiting agricultural productionin these schemes.

The tank modernization project, covering the fivetank schemes of Padaviya, Mahakanadarawa, Mahawillach-chiya, Pavatkulam and Vavunikulam in the north centraldry zone, with an aggregate irrigable command of 31,500acres, had been launched by the Government as a packageprogramme for modernizing the irrigation, agriculturalextension and supporting services, with a view to makingthe agricultural effort under the five schemes viable.

It had been ascertained that the techniques to beadopted under the project would more than double thecurrent income of the farmers settled under the schemes.The importance of this project lay in the fact that it was aprototype project to draw out ultimately the full potentialof all land under major irrigation schemes.

The corner-stone of the project was efficient watermanagement, based on the rotational issue of irrigationwater, and the optimum use of rain water to enable doublecropping on the entirety of the irrigable area under thetanks. The total cost of the project, including farm ma-chinery, was SRs 225 million ($US 27 million in 1976prices)7

The project would directly benefit some 10,000 smallfarm families, cultivating about 3 acres each. Constructionwork was being carried out by the Irrigation Department atMahakanadarawa and Mahawillachchiya.

The main works involved in modernization of theirrigation distribution systems were:

(a) Desilting and enlarging the entire conveyancesystem;

(b) Repairing, enlarging and surfacing with gravel,the embankments used as farm roads;

(c) Excavating drains to improve drainage;

(d) Lining of canals where necessary. Experimentswere being carried out at Mahawillachchiya to select thebest kind of lining to be adopted;

/ SRs per JUS 1.00 (period average):

1968 1976 1978

5.952 8.459 15.608


(e) Repairing and modifying the existing structuresin the irrigation system to enable controlled releases foreach farm on a seven-day rotation schedule;

(f) Installation of regulators to increase watercontrol;

(g) Installation of Parshall flumes to measurerelease from tanks and water flows at various points ofthe system;

(h) Provision of offices, workshops, stores, housingto be used in connexion with expanded operation andmaintenance of the project.

The project proposals provided for the supply of 150four-wheel and 450 two-wheel tractors with necessaryattachments and equipment for land preparation. Oneof the reasons for the planting season currently beinglong-drawn-out and causing excessive wastage of waterwas the non-availability of tractors as and when required.

Various institutional and supporting legislativesystems had come into operation during the past 35 to 40years, designed to handle various problems associated withthe control and use of water, land tenure, land use andeffective local participation of users, etc.

The Irrigation Department had been assigned fullcontrol over the operation and maintenance of irrigationsystems by Irrigation Ordinance No. 45 of 1917 whichwas repealed by Ordinance No. 32 of 1946. The IrrigationOrdinance of 1946, amended in 1951, prescribed the useand operation of irrigation water and distribution systems,including responsibility for operation and maintenance,how water was to be distributed and how operation andmaintenance costs were to be covered from payment ofrates by farmers. The Irrigation Department was responsiblefor drafting and providing them with regulations for theprotection of the irrigation works and conservation ofwater.

The date of commencement of cultivation operations,extent of land to be taken up for cultivation during a givencultivation seas^|, etc. were to be decided beforehand ata meeting of the cultivators on the basis of the recommen-dations made and limitations set by the representativesof the Irrigation Department.

After the Paddy Land Act was enacted in 1958the Irrigation Ordinance was suitably amended in 1968to include provision for Cultivation Committees set upunder the former legislation, which were given widerpowers to regulate all irrigated cultivations, stipulatemaintenance responsibilities, impose irrigation rates, etc.

The recently dissolved Agricultural ProductivityCommittees were entrusted with the important task of

integrating and co-ordinating the various services pertainingto agricultural development. Nevertheless, the generalexperience had been that the administration of waterdistribution and maintenance of the systems continuedto be far from satisfactory.

The Agricultural Department had its share in provid-ing extension services, agricultural research work and pro-viding improved seed paddy, etc.

8. Fanners' organizations

The success of farm water management and increasedproduction depended mainly on the efficiency of farmers'associations and their co-ordination, because the responsi-bility of water management at the terminal level wasshared by those associations. Legislation under the Irriga-tion Orginance, the Paddy Lands Act and the recent Agri-cultural Productivity Law provided for water management.Almost all farmers' associations in irrigation schemes didnot emerge spontaneously but were creations of the State.

The now defunct Agricultural Productivity Com-mittees were the most powerful of those associations.Members of those committees were from within the far-mers' committees. Their field was wider and the activitiesextended beyond farm-level management.

Earlier the responsibility of agricultural developmenthad been diffused over a series of administrative units andministries responsible for specific aspects but not for thewhole process. The various institutions involved were theDepartment of Agrarian Services, the Paddy MarketingBoard, the Department of Agriculture and the Co-operativeDepartment. Owing to fragmentation of responsibility,co-ordinantion was difficult. In order to overcome thisproblem the Agriculture Productivity Committees wereformed to function as the co-ordinating agency of theintegrated programme of agricultural development. Themain function of the Committees had been to maximizeutilization and productivity of lands.

The members of the Committees (APCC) wereappointed by the Minister of Agriculture and Lands. Atthe village level, APCCs were assisted by Cultivation Com-mittees (CC) whose members were also appointed by thesame Minister. Both APCC and CC were assisted by theAdministrative, Engineering and Agricultural Officers intechnical matters. These committees were responsible forensuring that the agricultural lands were used to themaximum benefit of the country. Towards this end theyhad far-reaching powers in prescribing the cropping pat-terns to be followed in their areas, as well as in the alloca-tion of inputs such as credit, fertilizers, tractors and irriga-tion water.


9. Water management for augmenting food production

Water was no longer unlimited. It had become anexpensive commodity and, like other commodities, it wasscarce for irrigation needs.

This change had been brought about not so much bythe increasing demand for irrigation on account of exten-sive new lands brought under irrigation, but by the lack ofjudicious use. Time was when there had been an abundanceof water for the areas of land under irrigation, and the needfor its conservation and judicious use not yet felt.

Today, the mouths to feed numbered in the millions.This compelling need had opened up additional acres inthousands to irrigation, but had not however prompteda study of water use with the same amount of interest.The age-old water-use practices had been taken for granted,for all practical purposes: in respect of transmission,distribution and methods of irrigation practiced. Thesesystems and practices needed to be vastly improved upon.Equally important was the matter of tapping groundwater on the resources side and the use of machinery onthe practices side.

It was quite obvious that large investments alone onirrigation projects would not solve the problem of scarcityof food, and it was only recently that world-wide concernhad been expressed about the large amounts of waterwasted in irrigation schemes. Such waste led to decreasesin the acreage under cultivation, waterlogging, spreadingof malaria, and soil erosion, etc. It had been identifiedthat with the use of existing resources, production of ricecould be increased remarkably with efficient water manage-ment alone. With that in view, the Water ManagementBranch had been established in the Irrigation Departmentheadquarters.

Starting from scratch, with no previous experience inthis field, the Water Management Branch had acquireda substantial amount of experience within a short periodof operation from the pilot studies it carried out in severalselected schemes.

The conclusions from the above studies had revealedthe following:

(a) The necessity of establishing water manage-ment units in each of the major schemes, an engineer tobe the manager, assisted by selected staff trained in thisfield;

(b) Adequate regulating and controlling structuresmust be provided;

(c) Main and distributary canals must be ratedand gauge posts installed to facilitate controlling issues;

(d) Rotational issues should be^ introduced as amatter of principle;

(e) Cultivation programmes should be drawn upto incorporate efficient and effective use of rainfall;

(f) The need for maintenance of records (acreages,issues, tank levels, yields, duties, etc. for each season);

(g) Sufficient funds must be provided by theDepartment for the operation and maintenance of chan-nel systems;

(h) Demonstrations of water management andimproved agricultural practices at farm level by extensionservices would be effective in the way of propaganda andmotivation;

(i) Communication between farmers and manage-ment staff to promote confidence among them was essen-tial.

As it was a new field of study, efficient watermanagement could be achieved only when the officersengaged in this work had a good knowledge of applicationof irrigation methods, timing, farm layout, design ofirrigation systems and so forth, in such ways and meansto make the best use of water available for agriculturalproductivity. Thus a training course in water managementwas organized at the Rajangana scheme to enable all engi-neers and technical officers in the Irrigation Department,Mahaweli Development Board and the River Valley Devel-opment Board, to gain good knowledge of it, with thelong-term objective of establishing good water managementpractices to achieve self-sufficiency in rice.

As efficient water management was gradually pro-gressing in the country, the Water Management Branchnow played a consultancy role to other institutions dealingwith irrigation, such as the Mahaweli Development Board,the River Valley Development Board and the CentralEngineering Consultancy Bureau.

An irrigation and water managenMt pilot projectwas currently being carried out with xJnited Kingdomaid. This was being conducted at the Kaudulla scheme,situated in the dry zone in the north central province.

The tank had supported no irrigation in recent times,until rehabilitation work had began in 1958. This workhad been done in two stages; stage I, of 4,752 acres wascompleted in 1963 and stage II, of 5,935 acres, received itsfirst issues of water in 1976. The present total commandwas thus 10,687 acres lying to the east of the tank. Tothe north-east, between stage II and the command ofKantalai tank, there were approximately 10,000 acres ofcommanded land, that would form stage III of the devel-


opment at an indefinite date. A potential stage IV of21,000 acres also existed.

The principal supply to the tank came from the souththrough a natural channel of the Aggalawan Oya which wasfed by the Minneriya tank. Water from the MahaweliGanga had become available to the Minneriya tank in 1976for the first time. This created quite a new situation for thecultivators at Kaudulla as they should now have a reliablesupply of water for the maha season and would expect atleast a partial supply for the yah season. The extent towhich that could be achieved, and in addition the viabilityof developing stages III and IV, must depend to a largeextent on success in management of the water now becom-ing available.

The initial objective of the study at Kaudulla wouldbe to describe quantitatively what happened at this scheme.This meant assessing the main elements of the water bud-get, namely:

Duty of water for paddy

Inputs

Outputs

System storages

Direct rainfall

Inflow from catchment

Releases from storage atMinneriya

Crop consumption

Seepage from tank

Seepage from channels

Seepage from fields

Evaporation

Surface runoff

Above surface

Unsaturated zone

Below water table

The study would attempt to quantify the variationsin each of those components both in space and in time sothat areas and periods of particularly high consumptionmight be identified and reasons therefore sought. It washoped that that would provide solutions to the basicproblems of irrigation development in these areas and thefindings benefit not only the existing scheme but also thenewly developed areas under the Mahaweli project.

The Water Management Branch kept records of waterissues of eight major tanks and the table below gives therespective tank duties.

Maha Yala Maha Yak MahaScheme 1975/76 1976 1976/77 1977 1977/78

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

Rajangana

Hakwatuna Oya

Kaudulla

Wahalkada

Vavunikulam

M.I.K.

Pimbutettewa

Nagadeepa

3.25

4.01

5.54

4.39

5.60 8.16

3.682.92

4.59

5.12

5.60

7.25

4.72

2.99

3.35

4.15

3.99

Competitive cultivation among groups of farmerswas carried out at the Rajangana scheme, where all thecanals were earthen. Canals were rated and gauge postsinstalled at important points in the channel system in orderto quantify the water used by each group. The averageconveyance efficiency as calculated from the returns ofthe above study was about 55 per cent. A similar studyat the Wahalkada scheme, where only the field and distri-butary channels were lined with concrete, revealed aconveyance efficiency of 70 per cent.

The water issue schedules for schemes were preparedbased on tables 11 and 12, which relate field water require-ments (FWR) with the different stages of growth of paddyplants.

Table 11. Water duty for land preparation(single 36-hour water issue)

Water isaie FWR(inches)

Duty(acres percu ft/sec)

cu ft/secper acre

First issue

Soaking and preliminarytillage ' 5

Second issue

Puddling and levelling 2

7.2

18

.149

.056

Source: Jalarrudhi (Journal) of the Irrigation Department,December 1976.

Duration of land preparation should be limited totwo weeks and water issue of a total of 7 inches should bemade during this period as follows:

(a) Initial issue of 5 inches in 36 hours for soakingand preliminary tillage;

(b) Second issue of 2 inches in 36 hours after fouror five days for puddling operations.


Table 12. Different growth stages for threecommon variations of paddy

Growth stage VarietyPeriod after Plantsowing (days) characteristics

Initial stage

Crop development 454stage

Mild stage

Last stage

454 months

354 "

3

454 "

3'/2 "

3

454 "

354 "

3

454 "

3»/2 "

3

0-30

0-200-20

30-70

20-50

20-45

70-115

50-80

' 45-75

115-135

80-100

75-90

Planting andeaily tillering

Active tillering

Flowering andheading

Maturing

Source: Jalarrudhi (journal) of the Irrigation Department,December 1976.

Table 13 gives the field water requirements for dif-ferent stages of growth and the respective duties for aseven-day rotational issue of water and 36-hour irrigation.

Table 13. Water duty for paddy irrigation

Growth StageField waterrequirement

(in)Yala Maha

Duty Duty(acres per (cu ft/seccu ft/sec) per acre)

Yala Maha Yak Maha

Initial stage 2.80 2.34

Crop develop-ment stage 3.10 2.49

Mid stage 3.18 2.57

Last stage 2.65 2.18

12.86 . 15.38 .077 .065

11.59 14.46

11.32 14.00

13.58 16.5N1

.086

.088

.074

.069

.071

.061

Source: Jalarrudhi (journal) of the Irrigation Department,December 1976.

If all the farms under each field channel were to beirrigated in 36 hours, it was essential that the field channelshould have sufficient capacity to carry the discharge ac-cording to the duty given in table 13. If the field channelcapacity was small or, conversely, if the irrigable area waslarger, the duration of irrigation had to be adjusted ac-cordingly.

A variety of causes leading to wastage of irrigationwater and a number of problems encountered in the efforts

to improve the performance of irrigation projects are listedbelow:

(a) Initial delay in cultivation owing to non-availability of draught power, implements, seed and creditfacilities, etc. Only a few farmers started work accordingto schedule and in the mean time water went to wastethrough drainage;

(b) Not making use of effective rainfall. Irrigationwater was basically meant to supplement rainfall for themaha cultivation. If the fanner delayed and missed therainfall, large doses of irrigation water were required tomature the crop in the dry months, thus reducing consider-ably the amount that could be used for yala cultivation. Atpresent on an average, only 30 per cent of the acreage wascultivated in yala in major schemes and that in minorschemes was considerably less than 30 per cent.

(c) Delay in sowing by farmers in certain areaswas due to their preoccupation with chena cultivation.It was only after they completed their chena cultivationthat they shifted to the irrigation schemes. This was special-ly common in settlement schemes, where the settler wasselected from villages adjacent to the scheme. Settlers'interests were divided between chena cultivation, puranavillage and the paddy lots in the settlement schemes;

(d) In some irrigation schemes the farmers waitedtill the reservoirs were full and sufficient water for themaha crops was guaranteed. In most areas reservoirs filledonly towards December. As a result, farmers lost thebenefit of early rains;

(e) The variety of seeds to be sown as determinedby the cultivation meeting was not adhered to and fannersused long-term varieties;

(f) Farmers demanded too much water in the mis-taken belief that standing water was essential to get a goodyield;

(g) Considerable amounts of water were wasted bythe fanner using flowing or standing water as a substitutefor weed killer or labour-intensive manual weeding;

(h) Illicit tapping of water by illegal cultivatorsand encroachers;

(i) Paddy .was being cultivated in well-drainedsoils in some schemes, leading to excessive consumption ofwater. For example, at Uda Walawe scheme, duties ashigh as 16 ac-ft/ac had been observed;

(j) Conveyance losses amounted to about 50 percent. Lining of canals, in places of excessive seepage,must be considered. This also favoured rotational issuesas water could be conveyed to fields quicker than byunlined canals;


(k) Bad maintenance of the irrigation distributionsystems mainly because of shortage of funds.

The following important factors were found to affectthe distribution and use of water:

(a) The irrigation systems designed in the pasthad not been geared to successful rotational irrigationpractice. Control structures were found necessary in orderto isolate sections and to ensure equitable distribution.In most schemes the gate control devices did not permitsatisfactory adjustments for water issues. It was recom-mended that they be replaced by screw-type spindleswhich enabled fine control;

(b) Under local conditions where the farm sizeswere comparatively small, it was not possible to assessthe quantity of water used by each farmer. Further, tomaintain and operate such a system would be too comber-some and costly;

(c) Farmer education and active participation offarmers was the most important factor in successful watermanagement. Most Sri Lankan farmers were ignorant ofimproved agricultural practices, water requirements, im-proved varieties of seeds and use of fertilizers, etc. Alsothey did not value the irrigation water, supplied free bythe State, and there was no incentive for curtailing wasteor limiting its use;

(d) Cultivation meetings should be held well beforethe cultivation dates, so that sufficient time was availablefor the cultivators and the extension service officials toattend to detailed programming of cultivation activities;

(e) Permanent fencing of the fields should be doneby the farmers collectively, with assistance from the Statewherever necessary. Delay in fencing of certain individualsections tended to put back the cultivation calender.

(f) The crop insurance scheme had to be revisedso as to take into account the payment of adequate com-pensation for loss of crops. This would encourage thefarmer to commence cultivation with the initial rains,thereby making the best use of the direct rainfall forcrop growth.

10. Remedial measures to improve water management

The following remedial measures would help con-siderably to reduce wastage of water and step up produc-tion of rice:

(a) The foremost essential requirement should bea farmer education programme on improved agriculturalpractices at the national level. This could be implementedby extension services through demonstration plots, lec-tures, literature and films, etc.;

(b) There was an urgent need to ensure activefarmer participation and involvement in water management.For this purpose the Cultivation Committees and Agri-cultural Productivity Committees had been establishedearlier but did not perform a satisfactory role. It wasproposed that for each field channel serving about 50acres, the farmers, by general consensus, elect a groupleader among themselves. The group leader so electedwould also be the contact farmer under the "Training andvisit system" of the agricultural extension services. For anirrigation scheme, there should be farmer representatives(one each for about 500-1,000 acres) who, along with theIrrigation Engineer, the Agricultural Extension Officer,the Agrarian Service Officer and the Co-operative Officer,would form the Management Committee.

The group leaders of each field channel area wouldelect among themselves a representative for an area of500-1,000 acres depending on the size of the scheme andthe persons so elected would be the farmers' representativeson the Management Committee. The Management Com-mittee would meet frequently and take all decisions inregard to water management and cropping patterns in anyscheme.

It was intended that, with active farmer participationby the above procedure, the usual problems of damageto control structures, cutting of channel bunds, illicittapping of water, etc. could be avoided;

(c) A "water distributor" had to be appointed forevery 500 acres by the Government to issue water to thefield channels and to supervise the activities of the groupleaders. He had to have had some education to enable himto maintain records of water issues.

A Maintenance Overseer was recommended for every2,500 acres. He would be responsible for maintenance aswell as operations of the system in the designated area.A technical assistant should be assigned to take respon-sibility for all operations and maintenance work over about5,000 acres;

(d) In most irrigation schemes there were largeareas of encrochments which were cultivated by illicitlytapping water. These encroachments should be surveyedand, where the water availability situation in the schemepermitted, should be taken on to the specification registerfor regular issue of water arid an/adequate irrigation distri-bution system provided. All other encroachers should bebarred from tapping water from channels;

(e) It was widely recognized that slow legal pro-cedures and the small penalties imposed, if any, sometimesyears after the event, for illicit tapping of water, damageto structures, etc., had a bad effect on staff morale anddid little to deter cultivators from stealing water. Thereforelegislation should be suitably amended to impose promptand severe penalties for such acts;


(f) The State should try to import sufficientnumbers of tractors to ease the current acute shortagewhich was the main reason for extended land preparationperiods;

(g) The authorities should strictly adhere to thecultivation calendar fixed at the proprietors' meeting.Extension of water issues beyond the originally fixed dateshould not normally be allowed and such extension, whenallowed, should be subject to heavy penalties as a deterrent;

(h) In all schemes, whether there was a watershortage or not, rotational issue of water should be adoptedas a matter of routine. This rotational issue would haveto go down to the smallest of field channels and to enablethis to be done control gates should be provided withscrew-type spindles. Various control structures and pipeoutlets had to be maintained at satisfactory levels. Forthis purpose, adequate funds should be made availablefor maintenance to the Irrigation Department;

(i) Rapid soil surveys should be carried out,especially in schemes where there was heavy consumptionof water, and the cropping pattern changed to other cropsin soil types where the percolation rate was high;

(j) To make cultivation of other crops attractiveon permeable soils which were at present cultivating paddy,it would be necessary to review the costs of inputs for suchcrops and fix a realistic price for production from suchcrops;

(k) Cultivators should be informed of the per-mitted quantities of water and use of water in excess ofthat quantity should be subject to penal rates. To facilitatethis, the State should seek means of charging for water ona quantative basis for a group. This introduced an incentiveto use less water and would cultivate among farmers thehabit of co-ordination as a group, which was essentialin implementing successful water management.

J. MULTIPLE CROPPING ON RICE FARMS IN PETCHABURI, THAILAND*

1. Background

Thailand, a constitutional monarchy, was located insouth-east Asia, its total area was 514,000 sq km and ithad a population of approximately 45 million.

Thailand might be divided into four regions: thecentral plain, the continental highlands of the north andnorth-west, the plateau in the north-east, and the peninsulain the south. The principal agricultural area was the centralvalley, which extended 480 km from north to south andwas 160 to 240 km wide. In this region the populationwas at its densest. The north-east region was dry withpoor soils. In the small south-east area and the peninsularregion, the rainfall was relatively high and the vegetationtropical. The average annual rainfall of the country wasabout 1,400 mm.

The population in Thailand included some 30 ethnicgroups. The Thai group was the largest and comprised80 per cent of the total population. The Thais generallywere Buddhists. Education was compulsory for childrenbetween ages 8 and 15.

Over 50 per cent of the country was covered byforest, but there were about 12 million hectares of arableland of which about 11 million hectares were cultivated.Agriculture was the main source of livelihood. Rice wasthe most important crop, using two thirds of the totalcultivated area. The land was operated in family-size

* By Narong Poolsilapa, Chief, Phetchaburi DemonstrationFarm Project, Phetchaburi.

units. About 90 per cent of the land was cultivated by theowners. Although farming was done with primitive im-plements, Thailand was one of the world's leading ex-porters of rice. In recent years, cassava and corn hadbecome important export crops. Rubber was also animportant export crop. Sugar cane, tobacco and kapokwere produced mainly for domestic use. Cocoa, peanuts,soybeans and others were produced both for export anddomestic use. Jute was grown for local use to make bagsfor rice, etc. Coconuts, sesame and mungbeans were amongother important crops. There were over 12 million headof cattle and considerable amounts of beef and porkwere exported.

Efforts were being made to diversify the economyof Thailand by supporting the development of industries.The average income was SUS670 per farm household.

2. Phetchaburi demonstration farm project

The project was situated south of Canal No. 2 of thePhetchaburi Canal, east of the Phetchaburi-Hua Hin High-way, and a few kilometres north of the Phetchaburi Farmof the Royal Irrigation Department.

It was composed of an area of about 44 rai (or 7hectares) of which about 10 rai were being used officebuildings and living quarters.

The purpose of the project was to experiment anddemonstrate the culture of rice and other crops in the areaof the Phetchaburi irrigation project.

J. Multiple cropping on rice farms in Petchaburi, Thailand 107

3 . Cropping pattern

Intensive cropping systems on good soils can helpfanners in the project area and other rice-producing areasto grow many other crops in addition to rice.

Studies on intensive cropping systems with rice, soy-beans, mungbeans and a fairly wide range of vegetableshad been conducted in the area for about 10 years andextended to fanners. There were 17 cropping patternsas follows: soybeans - rice; cucumbers - rice; string beans -rice; cabbages • rice;.Chinese cabbage - rice; balsam pears -rice; mungbeans - sesame - rite; mungbeans - cucumbers -rice; mungbeans - sweet corn - rice; mungbeans - mungbeans- rice; mungbeans - string beans - rice; soybeans - sesame -rice; cucumbers - sweet corn - rice; cucumbers - cucumbers -rice; cucumbers - Chinese cabbage - rice; wax gourds -cucumbers - rice; string beans • cucumbers - rice.

4. Cost and return per rai

(in bant) a

Pattern Return CostNet cash income

per rai

Pattern Return Cost Net cash incomeper rai

1. Soybeans - rice 2,207.04

Soybeans 1,417.70 277.72 1,131.98

Rice 1,179.29 112.23 1,067.06

2. Cucumbers - rice 2,458.59

Cucumbers 1,603.74 133.65 1,470.09

Rice 1,068.69 80.19 988.50

3. String beans - rice 8,270.77

String beans 10,338.65 3,634.13 6,704.52

Rice ' 1,630.90 64.65 1,566.25

4. Cabbages-rice 11,610.65

Cabbages 11,932.67 1,593.77 10,338.90

Rice 1,355.61 83.86 1,271.75

5. Chinese cabbage-rice 2,749.81

Chinese cabbage 2,377.32 873.30 1,504.02

Rice 1,326.98 81.19 1,245.75

6. Balsam pears - rice 9,070.10.

Balsam pears 9,152.00 1,131.95 8,020.05

Rice 1,152.15 102.10 1,050.05

7. Mungbeans-sesame -

rice 2,230.76

Mungbeans 957.87 137.79 820.08

Sesame 455.02 66.93 388.09

Rice 1,219.87 155.73 1,064.14

8. Mungbeans -cucumbers - rice

Mungbeans

Cucumbers

Rice

9. Mungbeans - sweetcorn - rice

Mungbeans

Sweet corn

Rice

10. Mungbeans-mungbeans - rice

Mungbeans

Mungbeans

Rice

11. Mungbeans -string beans - rice

Mungbeans

String Ijeans

Rice

12. Soybeans - sesame -rice

Soybeans

Sesame

Rice

13. Cucumbers - sweetcorn - rice

Cucumbers

Sweet corn

Rice

14. Cucumbers -cucumbers - rice

Cucumbers

Cucumbers

Rice

15. Cucumbers - Chinesecabbage - rice

Cucumbers

Chinese cabbage

Rice

16. Wax gourds-cucumbers - rice

Wax gourds

Cucumbers

Rice

1,225.92

2,690.36

1,219.87

1,137.94

768.00

1,060.67

1,802.08

499.51

1,896.59

1,677.92

2,307.23

1,120.20

1,577.08

527.78

1,297.07

1,178.59

691.36

1,311.43

3,356.48

1,737.91

1,078.00

5,440.00

5,360.00

638.00

3,155.09

1,737.91

1,208.65

201.36

368.39

155.73

190.34

175.71

108.78

410.42

43.90

112.20

137.63

504.60

76.37

323.05

58.90

166.00

157.14

56.79

76.37

231.60

22.42

75.00

955.00

1,085.87

50.00

281.94

22.42

84.00

4,410.67

1,024.50

2,321.97

1,064.14

2,491.78

947.60

592.29

951.89

3,631.66

1,391.66

455.61

1,784.39

4,386.75

1,540.29

1,802.63

1,043.83

2,891.08

1,021.45

634.57

1,235.06

5,843.37

3,124.88

1,715.49

1,003.00

9,347.13

4,485.00

4,274.13

588.00

5,713.20

2,873.15

1,715.49

1,124.56

a Baht 20.336 = $US 1.00 (1978 period average).


Pattern

17. String beans -cucumbers- rice

String beans

Cucumbers

Rice

Return

3,470.00

1,737.91

1,078.00

Cost

391.17

22.42

75.00

Net cash incomeper rai

5,797.32

3,078.83

1,715.49

1,003.00

Unit prices were as follows:

Paddy rice 25-30 baht per 10 kg.

Mungbeans (first)Mungbeans (second)SoybeansCucumbers (first)Cucumbers (second)SesameSweet cornBalsam pearsWax gourdsCabbagesString beansChinese cabbage

140-16070-801-2.502-31

100.50-1.00

3 41-25-73-53-5

bahtper 16 kg.baht per 16 kg.baht per kg.baht per kg.baht per kg.baht per kg.baht per earbaht per fruitbaht per kg.baht per kg.baht per kg.baht per kg.

Typesetting A Layout / Erawan Printing Lp.

Printed in Thailand by Erawan Printing Lp. 238/37 - 44 Jaransnitvong 84 Bang-Aw, BangkokMr. Prapas Putunahtama Printer 1979

WATER RESOURCES SERIES

1.* FLOOD DAMAGE AND FLOOD CONTROL ACTIVITIES IN ASIA AND THE FAR EASTFlood control Series No. 1, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 1951.II.F.2. Price JUS1.50 or equivalent in other currencies.Available in separate English and French editions.

2.* METHODS AND PROBLEMS OF FLOOD CONTROL IN ASIA AND THE FAR EASTFlood Control Series No. 2, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 1951.II.F.5. Price JUS1.15 or equivalent in other currencies.

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7.* MULTIPLE-PURPOSE RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT, PART I, MANUAL OF RIVER BASIN PLANNINGFlood Control Series No. 7, United Nations publication, Sales No:: 1955.II.F.1. Price SUS0.80 or equivalent in other currencies.Available in separate English and French editions.

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25. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FLOOD CONTROL, UTILIZATION, RECLAMATION AND DEVEL-OPMENT IN DELTAIC AREASWater Resources Series No. 25, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 64.II.F.6. Price $US3.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

26. MANUAL OF STANDARDS AND CRITERIA FOR PLANNING WATER RESOURCES PROJECTSWater Resources Series No.26, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 64.II.F.1 2. Price SUSO.75 or equivalent in other currencies.

27. METHODS OF HYDROLOGICAL FORECASTING FOR THE UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCESWater Resources Series No.27, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 65.II.F.5. Price SUS2.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

28. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTH REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCESOEVELOPMENT IN ASIA AND THEFAR EASTWater Resources Series No.28, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 66.II.F.2. Price SUS4.50 or equivalent in other currencies.

29. A COMPENDIUM OF MAJOR INTERNATIONAL RIVERS IN THE ECAFE REGIONWater Resources Series No. 29, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 66.II.F.8. Price SUS1.50 or equivalent in other currencies.

30 ASSESSMENT OF THE MAGNITUDE AND FREQUENCY OF FLOOD FLOWSWater Resources Series No. 30, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 67.ILF.7. Price SUSS.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

31. WATER LEGISLATION IN ASIA AND THE FAR EAST, Part I - Afghanistan, Brunei, Burma, Republic of China, Hong Kong,Iran, Japan, New Zealand, Philippines and Thailand.Water Resources Scries No.31, United Nations publication, Sales No.: 67.II.F.I 1. Price SUS3.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

32. PROCEEDING OF THE SEVENTH REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA ANDTHE FAR EASTWater Resources Series No.32,United Nations publication,Sales No.:F..68.II.F.5.Price JUS3.50 or equivalent in other currencies.

33. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF GROUND-WATER INVESTIGATION AND DEVELOPMENTWater Resources Scries No.33, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.68.II.F.6. Price JUS3.50 or equivalent in other c

34. THE USE AND INTERPRETATION OF HYDROLOGIC DATAWater Resources Series No.34, United Nations publciation, Sales No.:E.68.II.F.9. Price $US3.00 or equivalent in other cu

35. WATER LEGISLATION IN ASIA AND THE FAR EAST, Part 2Water Resources Series No.35, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.69.II.F.6. Price JUS3.50 or equivalent in other cu

36. MULTIPLE-PURPOSE RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT, PART 3E, WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN AUS'NEW ZEALAND AND WESTERN SAMOAWater Resources Series No.36, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.69.II.F.7. Price $US2.50 or equivalent in other cuj

37. PLANNING WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT: REPORT AND BACKGROUND PAPERS OF THE WORKINGOF EXPERTS ON WATER RESOURCES PLANNING, 29 AUGUST-9 SEPTEMBER 1968, BANGKOK, THAILANDWater Resources Series No.37,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.69.II.F.l 3.Price $US2.50 or equivalent in other cu

38. PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTH SESSION OF THE REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES DEVE:IN ASIA AND THE FAR EASTWafer Resources Series No.38,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.70.II.F. 12.Price JUS4.00 or equivalent in other cu

39. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND SYMPOSIUM ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DELTAIC AREASWater Resources Series No.39,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.71.II.F.10.Price (US5.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

40. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH SESSION OF THE REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENTWater Resources Series No.40,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.72.II.F.20.Price JUS5.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

41. WATER RESOURCES PROJECT PLANNINGWater Resources Series No.41, United Nations Publication, Sales No.E.73JLF.7. Price $US5.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

42. COST ESTIMATION OF WATER RESOURCES PROJECTSWater -Resources Series No.42,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.73.ILF.15.Price $US5.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

43. GUIDELINES FOR THE DRAFTING OF WATER CODESWater Resources Series No.43, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.74JLF.2. Price $US5.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

44. PROCEEDINGS OF THE TENTH SESSION OF THE REGIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENTIN ASIA AND THE FAR EASTWater Resources Series No.44,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.74JLF.10.Price $US7.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

45. DESIGN OF IOWUHEADHYDRAUWCS*RUCTORESWater Resources Series No.45, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.74.ILF.l 2. Price $US11.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

46. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ITftST SESSION OF THE O » « J r r r E E ON NATURAL RESOURCESWater Resources Series No.46.United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.76.ILF.2, Price IUS9.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

47. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON SOCIAL AND NON-ECONOMIC FACTORS IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOP-MENTWater Resources Series No.47, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.77JLF.3. Price SUS9.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

48. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH SESSION OF THE COMMITTEE ON NATURAL RESOURCESWater Resources'Series No.48,United Nations publication,Sales No.:E.78.H.F.12.Price $US9.00 or equivalent in other currencies.

49. PROCEEDING OF THE REGIONAL SEMINAR ON COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS AND DISASTER PREVENTIONWater Resources Series No.49,United Nations publication.Sales No.:E.78JLF.lS.Price $US8:00 or equivalent in other currencies.

50. PROCEEDINGS OF THE THUU) REGIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DELTAIC AREASWater Resources Series No. 50, United Nations publication, Sales No.:E.78JLF.10, Price SUS14.00 or equivalent in other curren-cies.

Note: Publications marked with an asterisk are out of print.

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Printed in Thailand Price: $US 9.00 or equivalent in other currencies United Nations PublicationOctober 1979 -3,000 Sales No.: E.79.I1.F.16

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