professionals - wildfires - response part 2

E-Learning for WildfiresProfessionals

e-Learning for the Prevention, Preparedness and Response to Natural Disasters

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Wildfire Response and Recovery Part 2:

How to select appropriate suppression tactics at

wildfires


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This is the second part of the module on wildfire response and recovery and will explain how to select appropriate suppression tactics. The module will explain:

• Direct attack • Indirect attack• Aerial attack• Using flame length as a guide

Suppression tactics

Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)


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The main types of suppression tactics that can be used at a wildfire incident are:

Suppression plans for an individual incident may need to include a combination of some, or all, of the above.

DIRECT ATTACK INDIRECT ATTACK AERIAL ATTACK

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The main types of suppression tactics that can be used at a wildfire incident are:

Suppression plans for an individual incident may need to include a combination of some, or all, of the above.

DIRECT ATTACK INDIRECT ATTACK AERIAL ATTACK

Each of these types of attack will now be explained in turn.

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DIRECT ATTACK

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Direct attack is where personnel and resources work at, or very close to, the burning edge of the fire.

During direct attack, firefighters attack the fire aggressively by using hand tools and beaters and/or by applying water and/or retardants.

DIRECT ATTACK

Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)

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Direct attack using hand tools, beaters and knapsack sprayers can be a very successful suppression tactic when deployed against fires of low or moderate intensities (flame lengths up to 1.5 metres). An effective tactic can sometimes be the deployment of firefighters working in small teams using knapsack sprayers to reduce the intensity of the flames and beaters to smother and extinguish the flames (as pictured on the right)

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IMPORTANT: If flame lengths are longer than 1.5 metres then direct

attack using hand tools is not safe. Personnel should relocate to safety zone if

this situation should arise during direct attack.

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Direct attack can be applied on different parts of the wildfire. The part of the fire that is being attacked is used to define the specific type of attack:

• Flank attack• Head attack• Tail attack

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Direct attack can be applied on different parts of the wildfire. The part of the fire that is being attacked is used to define the specific type of attack:

• Flank attack• Head attack• Tail attack

Flank attack, head attack and tail attack will now be

explained in turn…

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Flank attack:Attacking the fire along the flank or both flanks simultaneously, usually moving from the tail towards the head.

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Head attack: Attacking the head of the fire. This attack method is usually only successful on lower intensity fires and when the flanks of the fire have already been extinguished. This type of attack will be dangerous on moderate to high intensity fires. Crews should never be deployed in front of the fire and/or in unburned fuel.

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Tail attack:Attacking the tail of the fire. A tail attack may sometimes be accompanied by a flank attack, with direct attack crews starting at the tail and moving along the flanks.

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Remember to keep to the black area!

When using any direct attack tactic, personnel should always approach and attack the fire from the rear and, where possible, from the black area. The black area is the area that has already been burned by the wildfire

This approach prevents personnel from being deployed in unburnt fuel in front of an advancing fire, which can be extremely hazardous.


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INDIRECT ATTACK

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Indirect attack is where personnel and resources complete suppression activities some distance away from the fire front. This type of attack can be used on flames of any length, but it is often used for high and extreme intensity fires where it is not safe to use direct attack.

INDIRECT ATTACK

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Indirect attack methods include:

• Using existing firebreaks or fuel breaks as control lines• Creating new control lines• Controlled burning

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Indirect attack methods include:

• Using existing firebreaks or fuel breaks as control lines• Creating new control lines• Controlled burning

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Control lines, firebreaks, fuel breaks and controlled burning will now be explained in more detail…


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Control linesControl lines are constructed or natural barriers, including treated fire edges, which are used to control a fire. They can be constructed manually, mechanically or by applying water or retardants (which are called wet lines).

Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)

Here is an example of a control line being used to control a fire…

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Here are some examples of manual construction of controls lines……using hand tools to remove heather

…and using an excavator


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Here are some examples of the construction of wet lines……using a tractor and slurry tank along a forest track

…and using aircraft to drop retardent

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Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)Source: Frederiksborg Fire and Rescue Service (Denmark)


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When constructing control lines, it is vital that the rate of firespread is taken into account so that there is sufficient time for personnel to construct the control line and leave the area before the fire arrives.

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Firebreak

Firebreaks are areas where there is a change or discontinuity in fuel that will reduce the likelihood of combustion, fire intensity and/or the rate of firespread.


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Fuel break

Fuel breaks are areas where vegetation and all other combustible materials have been removed to expose the mineral soil. Source: Junta de Castilla y Leon (Spain)

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Important points about safety distances for using hand tools

Hand tools can be used for both direct and indirect attack. Most hand tools have the potential to cause harm to personnel, so it is vitally important that personnel receive appropriate training in how to use and maintain their hand tools.

If personnel are tasked with using hand tools, particularly edged tools such as pulaskis or rake hoes, care should be taken to ensure that adequate space between personnel is maintained. This helps to prevent injuries.

The spacing required to maintain safety will depend on the type of tool in use and the task being undertaken and individual risk assessments should be completed for each tool.

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However, a general rule of thumb is that the minimum working distance for swinging tools is twice the length of the tool plus the length of the arm, or approximately 3 metres.

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Minimum working distance is approximately 3 metres


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Further information on control line construction can be found within: • Scottish Government’s (2013) Fire and Rescue Service Wildfire Operational Guidance• NWCG Training Module on Suppression, Communication, and Mop-up

The video on the following page may also be useful.

Further information on Control Line Construction

Suppression tactics

http://www.gov.scot/Resource/0043/00436138.pdf




http://training.nwcg.gov/classes/s130/508%20Files/071231_s130_m9_508.pdf




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Controlled burning

Controlled burning involves lighting controlled fires in front of an advancing fire in order to assist in the suppression of the fire.

Controlled burns may be used for a number of purposes, including to:

• Widen any existing control lines • Create new control lines • Burn out fuel ahead of the advancing fire • Alter fire behaviour

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Here are some examples of controlled burns……and in Northumberland (UK)…in Castilla y Leon (Spain)

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To carry out controlled burns, the following specialist personnel will be required:

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Name of role ResponsibilitiesBurn Supervisor* A specialist with overall responsibility for managing the controlled burn. The burn supervisor should also

have some more specific responsibilities such as: - Completing a risk assessment- Implementing an appropriate safety protocol (i.e. LACES)- Developing a burn plan- Monitoring the burn plan and all personnel during the operation

Burners Specialists that are trained to use burners and to carry out controlled burns. They should be able to complete test burns, assess and monitor fire behaviour and fire spread, continually monitor their safety and the safety of others and adjust ignition patterns to achieve the desired flame length and rate of spread.

*Also sometimes referred to as a burn boss.


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An appropriate holding team is also an essential requirement for all controlled burns.

The holding team should include a number of personnel that are tasked with securing the burn site and from preventing the fire spreading outside the burn site. The number of personnel required will depend on the size and complexity of the burn and the equipment available for their use.

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This image shows a controlled burn taking place personnel performing the required roles for controlled burning


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Burn supervisor

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Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)Burner

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Members of a holding team

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There are two distinct types of controlled burns, each of which has its own benefits and limitations:

• Offensive burning• Defensive burning

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Drip torches are an

important tool for controlled

burns…



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Defensive burning

Lighting a controlled fire to remove fuel in front of an advancing fire, and extinguishing the controlled fire before the wildfire arrives. This method is normally applied some distance from the fire front and should be planned in good time.

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Offensive burning

Lighting a controlled fire and allowing it to burn into the approaching fire front. Offensive burns may be used for a number of reasons, including:• To reduce fire intensity and the likelihood of spot fires• To defend a control line, burning out fuel between the control line and the advancing fire and ensuring the two fires meet some distance away from the control line. This reduces the likelihood of spot fires breaching the control line.

Offensive burning is a higher risk strategy that requires careful planning.

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Suitable control mechanisms are required to ensure that controlled burns (both offensive and defensive) are used safely and appropriately at wildfire incidents. These control mechanisms should include the following: • Controlled burns are carefully planned• Controlled burns are only carried out by personnel that have received appropriate training and have the relevant experience• Excellent communications are established between the Incident Commander and the burning team• An appropriate holding team is in position prior to commencing the burn

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If controlled burns are to be considered as a potential suppression tactic for wildfires, Fire and Rescue Services and those involved in suppressing wildfires should develop appropriate Standard Operating Procedures that outline the process and procedure for carrying out controlled burns. This will require further research and investigation.

One source of further information is:• Section 8B of the Scottish Government’s (2013) Fire and Rescue Service Wildfire Operational Guidance

Suppression tacticsFurther information on Controlled Burning




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It is also useful to look at Standard Operating Procedures and processes that have been developed for controlled burning by other organisations.

Click here to view an example procedure for Controlled Burning from Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service in the UK

Further information on Controlled Burning

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Parallel attack

Parallel attack is a specific type of indirect attack where control lines are created along the flanks of the fire towards and around the head of the fire. This suppression method is usually most effective when performed using appropriate vehicles, such as tractors pulling swipes or flails, or bulldozers.

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AERIAL ATTACK

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Aerial attack is the use of aircraft for direct or indirect attack: • Direct aerial attack involves aircraft dropping water or fire retardants onto the burning area • Indirect aerial attack involves aircraft dropping water or fire retardants in front of the burning area to form control lines or to strengthen existing control lines

AERIAL ATTACK

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Aircraft and unmanned aircraft may also be used to support other tasks or activities at wildfires:

• Aerial reconnaissance of the incident

• Moving personnel and equipment to, or around, the incident ground Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain)

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Aircraft can be used effectively to provide access to remote and otherwise inaccessible areas.

Source: Junta de Andalucia (Spain) Source: Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service (UK)

Source: Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency

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At some wildfire incidents, the early deployment of aircraft may prevent a small wildfire from developing into a much larger, more costly, and more destructive fire.


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While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to personnel on the ground, such as:

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While deploying aircraft may bring many benefits, fire and rescue services should also be aware that a number of factors will limit the effectiveness of aircraft at wildfire incidents and/or can present significant hazards to the aircraft, and to personnel on the ground, such as: • The terrain – steep slopes and mountainous areas make low-

flying operations more complex and hazardous

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flying operations more complex and hazardous • Man-made structures – such as power lines and

communication masts, can make flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous

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communication masts, can make flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous • Weather conditions – high winds may make flying conditions

dangerous and/or may influence the accuracy of water and retardant drops

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communication masts, can make flying conditions and water/retardant dropping hazardous • Weather conditions – high winds may make flying conditions

dangerous and/or may influence the accuracy of water and retardant drops • Smoke and darkness – some aircraft cannot fly at night or

during very reduced visibility

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Other factors limiting the effectiveness of aircraft can include: • Vegetation – vegetation may prevent water or retardant drops

from reaching the intended location on the ground or fire

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from reaching the intended location on the ground or fire • Turnaround times for refilling aircraft with water/retardant and

fuel may be lengthy

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fuel may be lengthy • Delayed attendance times of requested aircraft may lead to

an escalation of the incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident

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an escalation of the incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident • Flying debris and downwash – all helicopters produce rotor

downwash, which can cause flying debris and affect the rate of firespread

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an escalation of the incident, or other changes in the situation prior to their arrival at the incident • Flying debris and downwash – all helicopters produce rotor

downwash, which can cause flying debris and affect the rate of firespread • Animal behaviour – the presence of aircraft may affect the

behaviour of wild or domestic animals in the area

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When deploying aerial resources to attack a fire or to provide reconnaissance, coordination between ground and aerial resources is vitally important for:

• Maintaining safety of all personnel and members of the public

• Ensuring effective and efficient actions to suppress the fire

Aerial resources are only effective if there is close coordination and joint working wit ground resources.

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In order to establish close and effective coordination between aerial and ground resources, Incident Commanders should:

• Create an aerial sector• Appoint an officer as aerial sector commander • Provide ground support to the aerial sector• Establish effective communications between the aerial and ground sectors

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It is recommended that aerial sector commanders are given responsibility for:• Liaising with aircraft• Relaying information from aircraft to the Incident Commander and vice versa• Briefing pilots and aircraft operators on their mission, objectives and any hazards found at the incident location• Provide regular briefings to the Incident Commander, pilots and ground resources providing support to the aerial sector

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Aerial sector commanders should also provide regular briefings to: • Incident Commander• Pilots and operators • Ground resources providing support to the aerial sector• Personnel from all responding agencies


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Take off and landing areasTake off and landing areas (TOLAs) for helicopters and other aircraft also need to be carefully planned and managed.. There are a number of important considerations for TOLAS including:

• The landing area must be large enough to accommodate all aircraft that may need to use it

• The landing area should be on level ground that is dry and firm • The surface of the landing area should be compact – sandy and gritty soil types

should be avoided • Whenever possible, the approach to the take-off and landing site should be

free of flight hazards such as high vegetation, overhead pylons and/or other man-made structures. Also, helicopters prefer to land into the wind

• All debris should be cleared from the surrounding area, to reduce the likelihood of flying debris that may cause injury to ground personnel or damage

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Other important considerations for TOLAs include:

• Vehicles should be parked a sufficient distance away from the take-off and landing area

• Where possible, the site should be located near to a road or track as this will assist in the provision of fuel and other essentials

• Firefighting equipment should be made ready but should be kept outside of the take-off and landing area

• Where possible, the take-off and landing area should be close to a water supply that can be used to replenish the aircraft’s firefighting systems

• The location of the take-off and landing area should be provided in the form of a grid reference to pilots and other personnel

• Cones and tape should not be used to mark or cordon off the take-off and landing area, as these can represent a significant hazard to aircraft


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If aircraft are to be used at wildfire incidents, firefighters should be given specific training.

For example, firefighters need to be trained in the correct way to approach a helicopter at a landing area


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USING FLAME LENGTH AS A GUIDE FOR SELECTING SUPPRESSION TACTICS

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We have now summarised the different types of suppression tactics that can be used.

In summary, direct attack, indirect attack and aerial attack all have their own advantages and disadvantages in different circumstances. They also bring with them their own specific hazards which need to be identified, controlled and mitigated to ensure personnel are kept safe.

To assist Incident Commanders in selecting the most appropriate suppression tactics at wildfire incidents, some fire and rescue services use flame length as a guide.

An example of a guide for selecting wildfire suppression tactics

using flame length is now provided.

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Fire intensity Flame length Tactic Primary suppression methods

Low 0 to 0.5 metres Direct attack Using hand tools Applying water using knapsack sprayers Applying water using pressurised water systems

Moderate 0.5 to 1.5 metres Direct attack Using hand tools supported by knapsack sprayers to reduce fire intensity Applying water using pressurised water systems

High 1.5 to 3.5 metres Direct attack Applying water using pressurised water systems Using aerial operations

Indirect attack Using control lines Making a parallel attack Applying retardants along control lines Defensive and offensive use of fire Using aerial operations

Extreme More than 3.5 metres

Direct attack Using aerial operationsIndirect attack Using control lines

Defensive and offensive use of fire Using aerial operations

Using Flame Length and Fire Intensity as a Guide for Selecting Suppression Tactics at Wildfires

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Remember – even a small fire can be dangerous and can cause injuries and fatalities. Never let your guard down. Always be prepared for changes.

The videos on the following pages provide an important reminder of why it is important to remember that all wildfires have the potential to be dangerous and destructive. Remember - all wildfires start as very small fires!

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We hope you enjoyed this part of the module!

Please visit the next part which covers the recovery phase of a wildfire incident.

End of Wildfire Response and Recovery : Part 2



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professionals - wildfires - response part 2

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