psych thinkers and psych methods unit 1 part 3

7/30/2019 PSych Thinkers and Psych Methods Unit 1 Part 3

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Major Psychological Thinkers

Behavioural Theorists

Albert Bandura

Best Known For:

Bobo Doll Studies

Social Learning Theory

Self-efficacy

Albert Bandura'ssocial learning theory stressed the importance of observational learning,

imitation and modeling. "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mentionhazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them

what to do," Bandura explained (Bandura, 1977). His theory integrates a continuousinteraction between behaviors, cognitions and the environment.

Bobo doll study. - In the experiment, he made a film in which a woman was shownbeating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. The film was then shown to a

group of children. Afterwards, the children were allowed to play in a room that held a

Bobo doll. The children immediately began to beat the doll, imitating the actions andwords of the woman in the film.

The study was significant because it departed from behaviorisms insistence that all

behavior is directed by reinforcement or rewards. The children received noencouragement or incentives to beat up the doll; they were simply imitating the behavior

they had observed. Bandura termed this phenomena observational learningand

characterized the elements of effective observational learning as attention, retention,reciprocation and motivation.

Self-Efficacy

The concept of self-efficacy lies at the center of psychologist Albert Banduras social

cognitive theory. Banduras theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, socialexperience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality.

According to Bandura, a persons attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what

is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations

and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy plays is an essentialpart of this self-system.
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Self-efficacy is "the belief in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of

action required to manage prospective situations." In other words, self-efficacy is a

persons belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura describedthese beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel.

Cognitive Theorists

Suggests thatan individual cognitive process controls their behaviour. The use of

memories, perceptions, images and thinking allows greater cognitive control over ones

behaviour.

Jean Piaget

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitivedevelopment involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early

cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into

changes in mental operations.

Key Concepts

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in

understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to

interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process ofobtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used tomodify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If thechild's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are

small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog.

The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to

include this new information.

Assimilation- The process of taking in new information into our previously existingschemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tendto modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In

the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the

animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing

schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
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Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new

information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this

process.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between

assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget calledequilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is

important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and

changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helpsexplain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory

Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology andeducation, but it has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a

series of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that development does not always

follow such a smooth and predictable path. In spite of the criticism, the theory has had aconsiderable impact on our understanding of child development. Piaget's observation that

kids actually think differently than adults helped usher in a new era of research on the

mental development of children.

Humanistic Theorists

Stresses a persons capabilities for personal growth, freedom to choose his or her destiny

and positive qualities.

Best Known For:

Hierarchy of Needs

Founder ofHumanistic Psychology

Contributions to Psychology:

At a time when most psychologists focused aspects of human nature that were considered

abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted to focus to look at the positive sides of mentalhealth. His interest in human potential, seeking peak experiences and improving mental

health by seeking personal growth had a lasting influence on psychology. WhileMaslows work fell out of favor with many academic psychologists, his theories areenjoying a resurgence do to the rising interesting in positive psychology.
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Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Psychology.com, 2012

The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving onto other, more advanced needs. Most often displayed as a pyramid with the lowest levels

of the pyramid made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs arelocated at the top of the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical

requirements including the need for food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-

level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for

safety and security.

As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social.

Soon, the need forlove, friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up thepyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Like

Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process

of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

1. Physiological NeedsThese include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need forwater, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic
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and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until

these physiological needs are met.

2. Security Needs

These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important forsurvival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of

security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safeneighborhoods, and shelter from the environment.

3. Social NeedsThese include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow considered these

needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as

friendships, romantic attachments, and families help fulfill this need for

companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community, or

religious groups.

4. Esteem Needs

After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasinglyimportant. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal

worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.

5. Self-actualizing NeedsThis is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing9 people

are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinionsof others, and interested fulfilling their potential.

Criticisms of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

While some research showed some support for Maslow's theories, most research has not

been able to substantiate the idea of a needs hierarchy. Wahba and Bridwell (1994)

reported that there was little evidence for Maslow's ranking of these needs and even lessevidence that these needs are in a hierarchical order.

Other criticisms of Maslow's theory note that his definition of self-actualization isdifficult to test scientifically. His research on self-actualization was also based on a very

limited sample of individuals, including people he knew as well as biographies of famous

individuals that Maslow believed to be self-actualized, such as Albert Einstein andEleanor Roosevelt. Regardless of these criticisms, Maslows hierarchy of needs

represents part of an important shift in psychology. Rather than focusing on abnormal

behavior and development, Maslow's humanistic psychology was focused on the

development of healthy individuals.
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Carl Rogers

Conditioned, Controlled World

Most individuals have difficulty accepting their own true feelings which are innately

positive because as we grow up people central to our lives conditions us to move awayfrom the positive feelings. This is called conditioned, controlled worldwhich is term for

love and praise being withheld unless the individual conforms to parental or societal

standards. The result is low self-esteem

These constraints and negative feedback continue during our adult lives thus we carry a

dark cloud of conflict or conform to what others want. As we struggle to live up tosocietys standards, we distort and devalue our true self. In some instances going as far as

to completely lose our sense of self.

The Self

The I or me of our existence which may not necessarily be conscious but is easilyaccessible and consists of ones self perceptions (how attractive I am, how well do I get

along with others etc.) and the values we attach to these perceptions (good, bad, average).

Client-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers' Non-Directive Approach to Therapy

Unconditional positive regardis a term used by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers todescribe a technique used in his non-directive, client-centered therapy. According to

Rogers, unconditional positive regard involves showing complete support and acceptance

of a person no matter what that person says or does.

Rogers believed that it was essential for therapists to show unconditional positive regard

to their clients. He also suggested that individuals who don't have this type of acceptancefrom people in their life can eventually come to hold negative beliefs about themselves.

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Researchers have to decide which methods to utilise when conducting research inpsychology.
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Observations

Systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of peoples

behaviour.

Casually observing someone is not consideredscientific observation

Systematic observation means:

a) know what you are looking for;

b) whom you are observing;

c) when and where you are observing;

d) how the observations will be done and;

e) in what form will they be recorded.

Types of Observation

1. Natural- observing behaviour in the real world setting while making no effort tomanipulate or control the situation.

It is often difficult for researchers to remain inconspicuous so as not affect

with the participants behaviour.

Researchers Roles

Complete Participant- researcher becomes a member of the group without

revealing their true purpose performing the same activities.

Complete Observer researcher only observing the activities without

revealing their true purpose.

Observer as Participant researchers revealed purpose is to attend and

observe without taking part.

Participant as Observer revealed researcher participates and observes.


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2. Laboratory a control setting in which many of the complex factors of the real

world are removed.

Drawback is that it is almost impossible to conduct research without the

participants knowledge.

The setting is unnatural hence the participants may behave unnaturally.

Participants are often volunteers and are unlikely to represent the diverse

cultural population.

Some aspects of the mind and behaviour are difficult to study in a lab. E.g.

work stress.

Interviews

Purposeful discussion between two or more people. Can be highly formalised, structured,semi- structured, unstructured, in-depth or a combination. Can also be conducted using

different contact methods. Provides the ability to collect rich and detailed data when

done by a competent interviewer

Often the best and quickest way to get information from people.

Drawback is that respondents may tell interviewer what they believe is

socially acceptable which might not be the truth.

Surveys

Structured questions which the respondents read off paper or other format and mark their

answers.

Can be administered to large numbers of participants.

Drawback is that respondents may answer what they believe is socially

acceptable which might not be the truth.

Case Study

An in-depth look at a single individual used mainly by a clinical psychologists when

either for practical or ethical reasons unique aspects of the individual life that cannot beduplicated.


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Provides information about issues such as fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic

experiences, upbringing, family relationships, health or anything that will assist in

the study of the human mind and its behaviour.

Results cannot be generalised as the information is often unique.

Standardised Test

A test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner. Standardized

tests are designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoringprocedures, and interpretations are consistentand are administered and scored in a

predetermined, standard manner.

Provide individual differences among people.

Does not predict behaviour in nontest situations and can vary depending on the

particular situation.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN PSYCHOLOGY

Causal Research

When most people think of scientific experimentation, research on cause and effect is

most often brought to mind. Experiments on causal relationships investigate the effect of

one or more variables on one or more outcome variables. This type of research alsodetermines if one variable causes another variable to occur or change. An example of thistype of research would be altering the amount of a treatment and measuring the effect on

study participants.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to depict what already exists in a group or population. Anexample of this type of research would be an opinion poll to determine which Presidential

candidate people plan to vote for in the next election. Descriptive studies do not seek to

measure the effect of a variable; they seek only to describe.

Relational Research

A study that investigates the connection between two or more variables is considered

relational research. The variables that are compared are generally already present in the

group or population. For example, a study that looked at the proportion of males and
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psych thinkers and psych methods unit 1 part 3

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