PsychologyPsychology

CHAPTER

Psychology and the Development Across the Life Span

5

Topics in Development

Developmental Research Designs

• Human development - the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death.

Nature versus Nurture

• Nature - the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

• Nurture - the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Genetics Influences

• Chromosome - tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA.

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism.

Genetics Influences

• Gene - section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements.– Recessive - referring to a gene that actively

controls the expression of a trait.– Dominant - referring to a gene that only

influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene.

Human Development

• Continuity or discontinuity?– Does development happen in a smooth,

continuous progression, or in a series of clear-cut stages?

• Stability or change?– What remains stable over the course of

human development, and what changes?

Developmental Psychology

• Physical Development - tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA.

• Cognitive development - development of thinking and reasoning skills such as problem solving and memory.

Developmental Psychology

• Psychosocial development - affecting our emotional and social lives.– Temperament - a child's innate personality

and emotional characteristics, observable in infancy; the enduring characteristics with which each person is born.

– Attachment - the first emotional bond a child forms with its primary caretaker.

Developmental Research Designs

• Longitudinal design - research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.

• Cross-sectional design - research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.

Developmental Research Designs

• Cross-sequential design - research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years.

Childhood Development

• Critical Period - a time when a child is developmentally most susceptible to the presence or absence of particular stimuli in the environment and must progress to the next stage of development if development is to continue normally.

Childhood Development

• Sensitive Period - a time when a child is susceptible to stimuli and receptive to learning from particular types of experiences.

Prenatal, Infant and Childhood Development

Conception and Twins

• Monozygotic twins - identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo.

• Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

Periods of Pregnancy

• Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining.

Periods of Pregnancy

• Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

• Fetal period - the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child.– Teratogen - any factor that can cause a

birth defect.

Common Teratogens

Prenatal Development

• Embryo - name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization.

• Fetus - name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby.

Stages of Prenatal Development

Reflexes and Abilities

• Four critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are:– Respiration– Digestion– Circulation– Temperature regulation

Reflexes and Abilities

• Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive: sucking, rooting, Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski.

• The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth.

Five Newborn ReflexesShown here are five reflexes used to make sure the newborn's nervous system is healthy. These include (a) the grasping reflex, (b) the startle or Moro reflex, (c) the rooting reflex, in which a baby whose cheek is touched will turn toward the hand, open its mouth, and begin searching for the nipple (continued on next slide)

(continued) Five Newborn Reflexes(d) the stepping reflex, and (e) the sucking reflex.

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood.

• Nutrition, care, and health affect development.– Importance of immunizations.

• Muscle strength and coordination improve around age 10-12.

Six Motor MilestonesTypical milestones in motor development are shown here: (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months (continued on next slide)

(continued) Six Motor Milestones(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months.

Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development - the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas) a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget's belief - children form mental schemes as they experience new situations and events.– Assimilation - in this case, the process of

trying to understand new things in terms of schemes one already possesses.

– Accommodation - in this case, the process of altering or adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences.

Piaget's Stage Theory

• Sensorimotor stage - Piaget's first stage of cognitive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment.– Object permanence - the knowledge that

an object exists even when it is not in sight.

Piaget's Stage Theory

• Preoperational stage - Piaget's second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world.

Piaget's Stage Theory

• Preoperational stage (continued)– Egocentrism - the inability to see the world

through anyone else's eyes.– Centration - in Piaget's theory, the

tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Piaget's Stage Theory

• Preoperational stage (continued)– Conservation - in Piaget's theory, the ability

to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature.

Measuring Conservation SkillsExperimenters often measure children's conservation skills by pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one glass is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children incorrectly assume that the second glass has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are then spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

Piaget's Stage Theory

• Concrete operations stage - third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking.

• Formal operations - Piaget's last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Current Speech Theories

• Child-directed speech – children attend to higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech.

• Expressive language delay - the apparent ability of infants to understand far more language than they can produce.

Stages of Language Development

• Cooing• Babbling• One-word speech (holophrases)• Telegraphic speech• Whole sentences

Attachment

• Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver.– Secure - willing to explore, upset when

mother departs but easily soothed upon her return.

– Avoidant – unattached; explore without “touching base.”

Attachment

• Attachment (continued)– Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset

when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.

– Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.

Erikson's Developmental Stages

• Eight stages of social development.

• First four stages take place in infancy or childhood.– Each represents an emotional crisis or

turning point.

Erikson's First Four Stages

• Trust versus mistrust - first stage of personality development in which the infant's basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care.

• Autonomy versus shame and doubt - second stage of personality development in which the toddler strives for physical independence.

Erikson's First Four Stages

• Initiative versus guilt - third stage of personality development in which the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world.

Erikson's First Four Stages

• Industry versus inferiority - fourth stage of personality development in which the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem.

Adolescence and Adulthood

Adolescence

• Adolescence - the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.

Adolescent Development

• Parent/teen conflict – Conflict with parents may encourage

independence.

• Peer pressure– Adolescents without a strong sense of self

are vulnerable to peer pressure.

Egocentric Thinking

• Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

Egocentric Thinking

• Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

Development of Morality

• Preconventional morality - first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior.

• Conventional morality - second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior.

Development of Morality

• Postconventional morality - third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual.

Kohlberg's Three Levels of Morality

Erikson's Fifth Stage

• Identity versus role confusion - stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self.

Erikson's Theories of Adulthood

• Intimacy - an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self.

• Generativity - providing guidance to one's children or the next generation through career or volunteer work.

Erikson's Theories of Adulthood

• Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego.

Adulthood Cognitive Changes

• Intellectual abilities do not decline overall.

• Perception and reaction time slows.

Physical Changes and Aging

• Effects of aging on health:– Hereditary and lifestyle factors……..– Increase in health problems …………

Stages of Death and Dying

• Denial• Anger• Bargaining• Depression• Acceptance