Public History: Its Uses and Abuses

Group D Portfolio

Henry I and Reading Abbey

Eleanor Hicks, Fraser Hodgkins, Bethany Holt, Sochima Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Georgia Kett, Jodie Larkin and Daniel Lloyd.

Contents

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 3 Arms and Armour …………………....…………………………………………………….. 7 Interior Design and Furniture ….………....…………………………………………...……. 20 Clothing and Attire ……………………..…………………………………………………... 49 Project Log …………………………………………………………………………………. 54

Minutes ……………………………………………………………………………... 55 Email Correspondence ……………………………………………………………... 68 Facebook Group Screenshots ………………………………………………………..76

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………….... 86 Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………………. 88

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Introduction

Our group project research has been on behalf of a local theatre company, Reading Between the Lines,

for their upcoming play based on the life of Henry I. Each of the three groups working on the project

have been given different aspects of this period to research, with our group being tasked with looking

at material culture, particularly aspects such as clothing, weaponry, interior decoration and objects

from that period; essentially the basis of what will form their set design and use of props.

When approaching our research, we decided to look at material culture in terms of three categories:

weaponry, clothing and attire, and interior design and architecture. We then agreed on forming smaller

groups of two or three who would research one of the three categories. Doing so has helped us to

avoid overlapping in the material we have looked at, and has made researching more efficient. The

negative side of this is that we haven't collaborated on every area of our research; nonetheless, we

have continued to feed back to one another as to what we have found from the individual themes that

we have each studied.

We have worked effectively as a group, with everyone making contributions to discussion and their

areas of research. Moreover, we have maintained communication throughout the project and set up a

group page which has been used to share research notes, as well as a group chat to ask questions and

arrange face to face meetings. We have arranged several face to face meetings, as it is not always

guaranteed when using the online page that everyone has seen what is posted, and meeting in person

has made this project easier to complete.

We have faced a number of challenges throughout our research; one which was apparent from the

outset is the period that we are researching. Studying the material culture of a period that was centuries

ago poses an obvious dilemma, as even the strongest of materials will deteriorate over time at the very

least; thus more delicate objects for example furniture made of wood or objects made from textiles

have generally long been destroyed, often simply due to natural processes of decay and corrosion.

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Additionally, the fact that Henry I led an itinerant lifestyle has made it difficult for objects to be

recovered from this period, as being constantly mobile would have meant that household items were

more likely to go missing. What's more, even with objects that have been recovered, certain factors

have to be considered; for example, it was not uncommon that objects might be recycled, especially

materials of value such as gold might be reused to create something else. Furthermore, objects that

survived may have been altered over the decades and centuries to reflect the changing tastes in fashion

and decor. Thus, when looking at these materials in books or museum catalogues, it should be

considered whether this is what the original object would have looked like or whether it has been

changed to fit another purpose. Additionally, there is also a scarcity in secondary research on the

material culture for this period, with many historians choosing to focus on either the earlier

Anglo-Saxon or the later Medieval period.

A lack of academic study in these fields is a problem we particularly encountered when looking at

weaponry. Bachrach identifies that “from the perspective of medieval military history, arms and

armour is arguably a virgin field” and likewise claiming there was “very little effort to integrate the

information thus generated into the study of warfare” highlights the challenge faced. It was due to this 1

that a broader level of research was needed and similar to the other sub-groups, looking at artwork,

tapestries, archaeology and also internet and literary findings helped to inform the final conclusions

regarding weaponry during the reign of Henry I.

In regards to Clothing, finding evidence and sources for particular social groups proved to be difficult.

There was little evidence concerning women and almost none in terms of lower status women. The

terminology used created some confusion and so images proved to be a useful accompaniment to this.

As a result of the historical material that is available to us, we have had to make certain

accommodations by using sources which may not relate as specifically as we had hoped to the given

context. We have found, particularly when looking at architecture and decor, that it has been helpful to

look at sources and artefacts originating from outside of the Anglo-Norman culture. More specifically,

1 Bernard Bachrach, Medieval Siege Warfare: A reconnaissance. The Journal of Military History Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1994) pp.119-133 (p.130)

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French material culture from around the same period has been very useful as there is a much greater

abundance in the written material. Additionally, much in the way of popular style and decoration

under Henry I is likely to have been very similar to that of the French, as the Normans had transmitted

much of these French cultural influences since the conquest in 1066. Furthermore, we have sometimes

had to compromise by using primary evidence, or secondary research which may relate to a slightly

earlier or later period of medieval history.

The project has prompted us to adopt a new and more proactive way of looking at history. Whereas

many of us would generally solely use library materials to research an essay or project, most of which

are secondary sources, our group project has provoked us to look more at primary materials such as

artefacts from museum collections. Working as a group has also helped us to develop communication

skills, as it was important to ensure all members of the project were up to date with one other’s

progress, which we achieved by arranging regular meetings. Furthermore, although we have each

worked individually to some extent on each of our research topics, our portfolio and presentation have

been compiled collectively; thus, we have all had an input in editing one another's work.

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Research:

I: Arms and Armour II: Interior Design and Furniture III: Clothing and Attire

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Arms and Armour

Becoming a knight entailed a long apprenticeship, so was only available to affluent families. The cost of arms and armour would have exceeded that of the lower class.

Most households would not follow the king on a day-to-day basis. Absence of many military personnel in presence of the king, and even a century after

Henry I, the ways of the household may not be so different. 2

General supplies Hauberk, Norman Sword, Conical Helmet, Anglo-Saxon Battle Axe and Norman

Cavalry Shield. Hauberks were not made in bulk, nor bought from farms or by the king. Each soldier was provided with his own armour.

Due to price of chainmail hauberks, boiled or padded leather was more accessible to the poorer class.

Most armour was probably repaired several times (handed down). It was common for it to be rusty or have areas of newer chain links, meaning

that there would be little uniformity between different sets of chainmail except when they were produced together. 3

Crossbows were a reality by this stage Trebuchets – weighted artillery 4

The use of “Padded garments” – Leather was used as an armour, which offered some protection against arrows.

A sword would be sheathed on the man’s left side. This is most likely because, for the majority, their right hand was their dominant hand,

thus allowing them to draw the sword across their body due to the length. Secondary weapon (axe or mace) held on the saddle-bow.

The likelihood of losing your weapon in combat was relatively high, therefore some of them may have carried a spare; however, this was only for knights or rich cavalry.

Mail did not protect from bruises and/or broken bones. 5

Bearded axes: Triangular blade face, edge slightly curved Slightly longer than swords - staff of axe possibly closer to 3 1/2ft long

The chainmail fashioned into a cowl with a face opening to be worn beneath the conical helmet Kite-shaped shields

Effective from horseback

2 Stephen Church, The Household Knights of King John (Cambridge, 1999) pp. 39-40 3 Stephen Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066-1135 (Woodbridge, 1994) pp. 79-80 4 R. Smail, ‘Art of War’, in A. Poole (eds) Medieval England (Oxford, 1958) pp. 142, 144 5 James Mann, ‘Arms and Armour’, in A. Poole (eds) Medieval England (Oxford, 1958) pp. 317-319

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Used in shield-walls Lighter armoured (leather jerkins) archers. As seen on the image on

the right, only one archer has mail. Anglo-Saxon militia or “Fyrd” – some were only armoured with

basic leather or everyday clothes. o As seen in the image below, it is not likely that the peasants

militia would have advanced their own armours into the.

The image above right, showing a horseman, shows no sign of a specified cavalry sword, rather a standard arming sword is seen. The saddle and stirrups are clearly indicated and also a typical scabbard.

Spears were likely to be between six and seven feet long.

Bows were approximately 4ft in length with quivers being either on the archers back or hanging at their waist. 6

One-handed swords (approximately 3ft in length). Image of Abraham

One-handed hilt Circular pommel Extended guard (longer than previous

Viking swords) with curved ends Due to the elegance of the sword,

perhaps a ceremonial sword as the Bible story depicted is that of

6 The Bayeux Tapestry, Reading Museum

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ceremony/sacrifice and has a deep Christian prophetic link to the sacrifice of Jesus. 7

‘Viking Sword from the river Witham’

This may represent Anglo-Norman blades Old swords were probably still used after

the conquest due to the scarcity of blades for the lower classes. 8

The crossbow was less common in England as opposed to on the continent.

The emphasis of combat was on sword slicing as opposed to thrusting as might commonly be perceived.

Evidence suggests a knight would carry a heavy cutting sword and a second lighter thrusting sword.

The padding beneath a hauberk accounted for the bulk look around the chest area. 9

Henry’s military tactics 1st line: Norman Vassals 2nd line: Household Troops 3rd line: Bulk of infantry (most likely local militia)

If a knight's lance was broken, from horseback, they would draw swords and carry on trying to fight from horseback.

Infantry also carried spears into battle in some instances. 10

Piled swords were made from small pieces of iron, they were not one piece, which were more brittle than steel blades and more likely to break.

Pre-conquest Viking Beard-faced axes – there is evidence that prominent individuals may have had engravings on their axes. Admittedly these were still pagan images, but it is possible for Christianised motifs to be used in the 12th century.

Image: II-5 11

Chainmail was quite effective against arrows – contemporary accounts liken knights in mail to porcupines after archery volleys.

1066 era, Hauberk: Wide sleeves

7 Winchester Cathedral, ‘The Winchester Bible’. <http://www.winchester-cathedral.org.uk/gallery/the-winchester-bible/> n.d. 8 The British Museum, ‘ Collection Online: Sword’. <http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=65088&partId=1> n.d. 9 David Nicolle, Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume 1: Warfare in Western Christendom (London, 1995) pp. 130- 132, 137 10 Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum: the history of the English people (eds) D Greenway (Oxford, 1996) 11 Alan Williams, ‘The Metallurgy of Medieval Arms and Armour’ in: D. Nicolle (eds) A Companion to Medieval Armour (Woodbridge, 2002) pgs. 48, 50, Image II-5

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Reached the knees Split at front and back for riding

Gauntlets were not invented until the late 12th/13th century and so early 1100’s soldiers would usually wear leather gloves.

A coif (made from chainmail) covered the head leaving only the face open, it extended over the shoulders slightly and provided the best protection if the soldier did not own a helmet.

Surcoats may have be worn over the hauberk which sometimes pictured heraldic devices. Sword scabbard was made from wood and covered in leather. It is possible they were lined by

wool on the inside. Swords of 12th century crusaders were approximately 75cm long and weighed 1.5kg. Lances were usually 2-3 metres long and lighter than commonly expected in the modern day. 12

A cheap peasant’s sword in 1340’s cost 6 pence, whilst shoes in 1313 cost 6 pence also. This meant that peasants were unlikely to own a sword for the sheer lack of usefulness in everyday life as opposed to shoes which are needed in order to work as hard as possible. 13

Bowmen

Early medieval bows were of three kinds: the shortbow, longbow and the crossbow. The first, the shortbow, was about three feet long and was drawn back to the chest. it was widely diffused in medieval Europe and helped the Normans to gain victory at Hastings. However, in terms of penetration and range it could not compare to the longbow. This was approximately six feet long and was drawn to the ear.

Its origin was in South Wales and its effects were described in the late twelfth century: “In the war against the Welsh, one of the men at arms was struck by an arrow shot at him by a Welshman. It went right through his thigh, high up, where it was protected inside and outside the leg by his iron cuises, and then through the skirt of his leather tunic; next it penetrated that part of the saddle which is called the alva or seat; and finally it lodged in his horse, driving so deep it killed the animal” 14

However, the longbow was extremely localised before

the thirteenth and fourteenth century. The missile weapon that was of central importance in Europe at this time was neither the shortbow, nor the longbow, but the crossbow. Although there is no

12 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East (London, 1999) pgs. 166, 168, 169, 170 13 Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle-Ages (Cambridge, 1989) pgs. 174, 175 14 Robert Bartlett, The making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (London: Allen Lane, 1993). P.63

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depiction of the crossbow in the Tapestry. William of Poitiers talks of foot soldiers at the head of the army armed with arrows and crossbows [balistis].

Crossbows were effective because, despite their slow rate of fire, they had a frightening

penetrating power. At the decisive battle of Lincoln in 1217 it was the ‘death bringing shafts’ of the royal crossbowmen, 250 in number, that decided the battle by killing the barons’ horses, ‘slaughtering them like pigs’. 15

Heavy Cavalry

Defensive armaments consisted of a conical helmet, a coat of mail (the byrnie or lorica) and usually a large shield: offensive arms include a spear, sword and perhaps a mace or club. One part of the cavalry that was indispensable for offensive action was the heavy war horse, or destrier. They were heavy cavalry not only because of their armour, but also because of their mounts. Horses required to bear the weight of a fully armed man and to face the trials of combat had to be specifically bred and trained. These tended to be noble horses and were much stronger and bigger than the ordinary aristocratic riding horse in order to still be as effective whilst having the extra weight of protective trappings and armour.

It was acknowledged that both extra destriers and riding horses might be needed in the event of conflict. The agreement between Henry I of England and the count of Flanders in 1101, in which the count undertook to supply horsemen,provided that each warrior should have three horses. 16

Primary Source-led Weaponry Research

15 Robert Bartlett, The making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950‐1350 (London: Allen Lane, 1993). P.64 16 Robert Bartlett, The making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950‐1350 (London: Allen Lane, 1993). P.61

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Arguably, the most useful and accessible 11th century source that can help identify the weaponry of the period is the Bayeux Tapestry which showcases and also offers connotations to the study of warfare. Whilst the reign of Henry I is based in the early 12th century, the tapestry can accurately offer depictions of the state of arms and armour just before this time, with the likelihood of major changes in the half a century after 1066 improbable.

Chain mail is worn as armour while headed into battle. Padded leather under chain mail for further protection however very heavy and uncomfortable. A traditional sword sheath is also evident. Potential for mail to be a hauberk - as will be explored later. 17

As demonstrated by the images below, patterned shields and

helmets were used to express Norman identity. A distinct range of patterns on show, and the decoration of horses at battle highlights the notion of the glory, beauty and triumph of war.

18 19

The stance and positioning can be regarded as very important during battle; in particular, the use of swords, lances and spears on horseback, combined with being able to hold the shield expresses a level of experience and potentially involvement in past conflicts.

17 Image: Bayeux Tapestry, Reading Museum 18 Image: Bayeux Tapestry, Reading Museum 19 Image: Musée du Louvre editions, La France romane au temps des premiers Capétiens (987-1152) - 10 mars - 6 juin 2005, (France, 2005). p.229

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Significant use of axes and outstretching lances in defensive formations from battlements/castles. Style of the axe head is designed for maximum effect and damage – long handle for further reach, sharp outward ‘spikes’ in order for maximum damage and to reach the cavalry.

Transportation of weaponry proved important, especially for contests abroad. Large grand longboats highlighted the grandeur of warfare (similar to that of design of shields/horses) however size also meant that transporting weaponry would be more efficient, as exemplified by the shields all rested down alongside one another.

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When not in battle, lances would rest limply alongside body or horse, and this highlights the weight of the weaponry as would be highly tiresome to remain in their attacking formation. Furthermore, emphasises the idea of comradeship between battle as the men are evidently enjoying conversation between the attack – element of togetherness portrayed.

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However, while the Bayeux Tapestry proves to be a valuable source, further artwork can help to corroborate and aid the understanding of arms and armour at this period.

20All images: Bayeux Tapestry, Reading Museum

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The exploration of the Web Gallery of Art found at website <http://www.wga.hu/index1.html> presents a range of historical manuscripts and various pieces of art, and applied to the 12th century gives significnt insight into weaponry.

Miniaturist, English, Cistercian Monks, 12th century Manuscript (Ms 5. 31.) University Library Cambridge Such an illustration demonstrates Cistercian monks both at prayer and also at work in the fields. The use of axes is notable as it demonstrates that weaponry could be used as an instrument for work as well as battle. Furthermore, the axe head style offers a contrast to that of the Bayeux Tapestry outlining difference between warfare and work.

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The depiction of a dream of King Henry I, from the 12th Century Chronicle, offers an insight into the dress and weaponry of the knights in the second image. Comparative to the Bayeux Tapestry, the men

21 Miniaturist, English, Chronicle of John of Worcester, 1130’s Manuscript (MS 157) Corpus Christi College, Cambridge

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appear to be thoroughly covered in chain-mail dress with helmets padded ready for battle. They carry typical longswords and a range of shields with different designs. Additionally a further source in which I gathered a degree of information was Howard Williams’ Journal of Social Archaeology which showed through archaeology and the graves of people buried that further research on arms and armour could be found. 22

“Funerals are contexts in which objects can influence commemoration when produced, used, exchanged, circulated, fragmented, consumed, destroyed and recycled, as well as when they are placed in the grave with the remains of the dead” (p.254) Hence this shows how often objects or weapons would be left alongside the body hence the importance to my study. “Weaponry represents a further important category of grave goods, most often found in the graves of adult males. Spears, shields and swords are the most frequently uncovered weapons, while less frequent discoveries include seaxes (short swords), franciscas (axes), arrowheads, helmets and mail corselets.”(p.254) With weaponry placed at the graveside of “adult males” it shows the importance of weapons to medieval lives. However many discoveries would be of the deaths of Vikings/Anglo-Saxons hence potentially a limited use in the study. “Härke refuted the association of weapon burials with ‘warrior’ status by emphasizing the role of weapons as multi-vocal symbols, selectively placed with the dead by mourners to display the age, gender, status, household, lineage and perhaps even the ethnicity of the deceased”. (p.256) Weaponry was not necessarily just placed by the burial to indicate that battles the deceased had fought, it could have many different reasons and implications. However, does highlight that weapons played a role in all walks of medieval life. *Limitations exist due to much of the focus of the Journal on late Anglo-Saxon weaponry however it does give an indication of the pre-existing weaponry while also it has to be considered that the Normans adopted many Anglo-Saxon traditions and technology.

22 Howard Williams, Journal of Social Archaeology: Keeping the dead at arm’s length, Memory, weaponry and early medieval mortuary technologies (Exeter, 2005) pp.254-256

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Further research came from a wealth of secondary reading. Hauberk - signficant clothing “the hauberk, a knee-length coat of mail worn over a padded tunic” 23

Flexible however heaviness of the armour, restricted movement on foot.

“the hauberk was a very flexible garment and as such did not restrict movement in combat, but its weight seriously hindered flight.”

“knights might shed their hauberks for greater mobility in reconnaissance, while in battle they might discard them to facilitate escape if defeated, or if victorious, to speed up pursuit.”

above referenced from 24

In contrast, the armour also proved to be very effective and helpful in protection “the quality of the warriors’ armour was a major factor in limiting fatalities” “possession of the hauberk, whose enormous cost at once set its wearer apart from the

more poorly equipped serjeants and infantry.” “the wearing of a gambeson or aketon, usually beneath the hauberk, increased

protection as well as comfort, for such ‘soft armour’ was remarkably effective at absorbing blows and lessening bruising.” 25

In direct reference to Henry I - this quote highlights how the King would wear a hauberk and it would prove invaluable:

“a hauberk might stop a longbow arrow, depending on the range and the type of arrowhead used; Henry I and Henry II both owed their lives to this fact.” 26

However, the hauberks were not useful in defence against crossbows as referenced: “hauberks were clearly of little protection and even if bolt wounds were not instantly

fatal, death often followed from shock, loss of blood or the wound becoming infected.” 27

The greater effect of armour in defence against attacks from arrows triggered arms and armoury developments with great advancements seen in the future.

“heavier and more extensive mail armour and narrower, more penetrating spearheads characterized twelfth and early thirteenth century cavalry equipment, while rigid or

23 Matthew Strickland, War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy 1066-1217 (Cambridge, 1996) p.169 24 Strickland, War and Chivalry p.168 25 ibid. p.169 26 ibid. p.174 27 ibid. p.175

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semi-rigid armour of both iron and hardened leather began to appear in the latter part of the thirteenth century.” 28

Crossbow Further reference to the crossbow demonstrating its power, not solely concerned with its impact against the hauberk.

“crossbows were still more deadly, having a slower rate of fire but a greater power and velocity. The number of important victims claimed by the crossbow is striking.” 29

Crossbows were growing in prominence during this period however still use of axe likewise: Crossbows were also becoming common while a widespread use of the axe pointed to

the continuing importance of infantry which operates in much the same manner as had late Anglo-Saxon troops.” 30

Lance - and skill of use

“armour was not proof against the charge with the couched lance, the principal form of attack for a knight in the first stages of conflict”

“through constant training, a knight had the skill to aim his lance to unhorse or kill as he chose.” 31

Helmets The wearing of helmets was common as supported by all sources consulted however the useful is debated by historians.

“helmets, particularly when worn over the coif of the hauberk, seem to have afforded reasonable protection against sword cuts.”

However, as corroborated by the Bayeux Tapestry image on the right, there was a ‘design fault’ to the helmet:

“The design of the helmet, which in the eleventh and through much of the twelfth century was open-faced saved for a nasal protecting the nose, made the face vulnerable to missile wounds.” 32

28 Stephen Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066-1135 (Woodbridge, 1994) p.337 29 David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350 (New York, 1988) p.336 30 Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings. p.337 31 ibid. p.174 32 Strickland, War and Chivalry. p.171

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Basic arms and armoury - infantry, archery and equipment

“Anglo-Norman armies undoubtedly made use of archery, the renewed popularity of which was probably a result of Norman influence.” 33

Basic levels of equipment and resource for the Norman armies - predominantly spear-led infantry “some of the fyrd soldiers had horses for transport, but they were not trained to fight on

horseback, and the vast majority were simply spear-armed infantrymen; the level of defensive armoring probably varied, with shield, helmet and mail shirt protecting the best equipped.” 34

Training Minimal levels of training as many men had previous experience of weaponry and horse-riding. Furthermore, the simplicity of arms used as previously identified meant training was not necessary.

“Men who were skilled in arms had been brought up using weapons and, in the continental tradition at least , riding horses from their youth.”

“in the case of most infantry, including the fyrd, even this training needed to be no more than minimal, for infantry weapons like the spear were simple to use and gained their effort from use en masse.”

above references from 35

Lack of group training meant difficulties in Norman-army unification/formation development “the Anglo-Norman system does not seem to have provided much unit training.” 36

“As a result of the lack of large scale group training, Anglo-Norman armies, especially the infantry, were not capable of the sort of close order formation changes and unit movements that Alexander the Great’s army or the Roman legions had been.” 37

However, discipline of the army proved influential and arguably the military system nevertheless proves an effective tool.

“imposition of uniform discipline on an army … in effect formed a type of training.” “The Anglo-Norman military system thus performed its tasks – raising men, turning

them into an army, and then supporting them – efficiently and effectively full stop.” above references from 38

33 David Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350 (New York, 1988) p.338 34 Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings. p.48 35 ibid. p.89 36 Nicolle, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era. p.336 37 Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings. p.90 38 ibid. p.91

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Interior Design and Furniture

Interior Architecture and Layout in Castles, Manor Houses and Ecclesiastical Buildings

At this time castles often had dual purposes, both as places to live and as a means of military

defense. The Scandinavian influence on architecture came from the Normans’ Viking roots in

Scandinavia. There was a heavy monastic and religious influence on how interiors were designed. The urbanisation of England led to increasingly large ecclesiastical building projects which

were far grander than had been seen previously. Style spread through from the Continent through the Norman Conquest, for instance the

introduction of the gothic style to England. 39

Fig. 1 : 40

Figure 1 shows the development of manor houses during this period. As shown, the layout of a typical Norman manor house comprised of a kitchen leading to the great hall and from there to the solar/cellar and buttery. E.g. Great Hall Stokesay Castle, Shropshire, 1240: dual levels, beams, staircase The dual levels, split rooms and wooden detailing originally came from Scandinavia.

39 B. Risebero,‘The History of Western Architecture’ (United States, 2001), pp 60-65 40 Risebero, The History of Western Architecture, p61

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Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 41

Caen was the basis of French religious architectural influences, as was seen in England in this period, as is shown by Peterborough Cathedral, 1117. This style included rectangular columns which allowed to sexpantile (or six-columned) vault of the cathedral or church. In Durham, the rib-vault involved cross vaults in compartments, allowing several to be put next to each other and extending the building’s length.

41 Risebero, The History of Western Architecture, p68-9

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Fig. 4 42

The interiors, as influenced by France, included a simple form in conjunction with intricate detail. Individual sections joined together to form the overall shape of the building, but the sections were unified inside through the design schemes so that sections could flow from one to the other seamlessly.

Great Hall Composition Great halls were often used for formal occasions with ceremonial purposes. Walls and floors were whitewashed and then covered with bright decorations, although this does seem to apply more to the thirteenth century. It featured either a central hearth or a fireplace fixed to wall, which was more fashionable and popular in this period. There was a high table at one end of the great hall, and at the other a lower end for servants with doors to the service apartments. Other chambers were accessed from one or both ends of the hall through on of several staircases. 43

Architectural Style The Norman Conquest linked England to the continent and thus styles merged Consequently, there was heavy French influence on the style of the interiors Bold styles were often used in the design of these buildings ‘semicircular arches, ponderous cylindrical piers’, ‘semicircular ribs’ all commonly used in

ceiling design 44

42 Risebero, The History of Western Architecture, p72 43 J. Steane, The Archaeology of Medieval England and Wales (London, 1985) pp 194-203 44 B. Fletcher, A History of Architecture, 12th edn (London, 1945) pp 341-8

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Fig. 5 : 45

The interiors (as shown in images F, G, H and J) are intricately detailed and decorated. Having visited the cathedral, personal observations show that all of this detailing is done in stonework.

Fig. 6 : 46

Figure shows the interior of Ely Cathedral, with separate sections and a consistent style throughout. It also shows the ceiling, wall and floor bold yet intricate detailing common during this period.

45 Fletcher, History of Architecture ,(London, 1945) p 377 46 W. Pryce, World Architecture: The Masterworks (London, 2008) pp 92-3

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Fig. 7 : 47

Romanesque detail on the arches of Durham Cathedral show the balance between simple or basic design structures and the use of detailing and patterns in interior architecture in this period. Due to the similarities in influence between secular and ecclesiastical interiors, interior patterns as shown in Cathedral settings, such as Ely and Durham, are also applicable to manor house or palace interiors.

47 Pryce, World Architecture (London, 2008) p94

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Rooms in the Medieval castle and their Furniture and fittings At a time when kingship was itinerant, much of the castle's furniture had to relatively light and portable to accommodate this mobile lifestyle. The Great Hall

‘The great hall met a social need as the central point of the estate, a place of assembly for the tenants, for legal and administrative purposes, as well as being the main living room for the lord’s family and personal staff.’ 48

Seating: Individual chairs would have been a considerable luxury; thus, it was common to use wooden benches for seating.

Individual chairs with high backs and arms were rare and only used for the most important members of the household.

The seating arrangements would be by ordered class, positioning those of the highest rank at the head of the hall, often on a raised 'dais', and those of lower rank towards the doors.

Dining: Trestle tables were practical for dining, as they could be quickly removed from the hall once the dinner had concluded to make room for entertainment.

Buffet: This piece of furniture was assembled for banquets and feasts, and consisted of a series of planks, arranged into stepped shelves. The number of shelves indicated the rank of that individual (a Duke or King would have around 5 shelves). It would be covered in rich drapes, and was used to display their finest gold and silverware. 49

In order to minimise draught and keep the great hall warm, the high table was often given a backing of fabric. This can be seen in the Luttrell Psalter, pictured below. 5051

48 Margaret Wood, The English Mediaeval House, (London, 1983), p. 49. 49 Linda Alchin, ‘Medieval Castle Furniture’, <http://www.ancientfortresses.org/medieval-castle-furniture.htm>, June 2015. 50 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.402. 51 James L. Matterer, A Feast for the Eyes,[website], <http://www.godecookery.com/afeast/dining/din039.html>

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Flooring: Carpets were not used as flooring in

England until several centuries later, and for the most part would be covered with straw or rushes. 52

‘…rammed earth seems to have been used on the ground floor of early houses.’ 53

Feast scene: The image on the left depicts a banquet scene, and at the end of the room is an example of a stepped buffet with 5 stages. As was also common, 54

near the partitioned entrance there is a music gallery overlooking the hall.

Fireplace: In earlier medieval castles, when the great hall was still on the lower level, there was often a central hearth bordered by bricks or tiles, and probably placed nearer the dais end of the "away from the traffic of servants at the lower end of the hall". Only when the great hall began to move to the upper level, did wall

fireplaces become more prevalent. 55

Private chambers 56

The private living chambers of a King and Queen or Lord and Lady were initially situated at

the dais end of the great hall, in quarters that were partitioned from the hall with either a screen or curtain. It was not until later that chambers were positioned on the upper floor, directly above the main hall, when it became know as the Solar. It was a place where particularly the highest ranking ladies of the household could get away from the noise and bustle of the great hall, and would be decorated in such a way that represented comfort and status. 57

It was used as sleeping quarters, but could also be a sitting room for the family. Beds/bedding: This would have been the principal piece of furniture in the lord and lady's

chamber, with a large wooden frame, and springs made from interlaced rope or strips of leather, topped with a feather mattress, quilts, and fur covers. Despite its grand size and appearance, it could be dismantled and transported with the King on his regular trips. It would be curtained with linen, which could be drawn back during the day, and closed at night for

52 Joesph Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, (London, 1975), pp.59-60. 53 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.389. 54 Saint Thomas Guild, http://thomasguild.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/multilingual-medieval-furniture.html 55 Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, p.62. 56 Rooms in a Medieval castle, http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_01_rooms.htm 57 http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_01_rooms.htm

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privacy and warmth. Personal maids or servants may sleep in the lords and lady's chamber; perhaps in a pallet or trundle bed. 58

Chests: These were often used as a means of storage for garments, as they were transportable, unlike a wardrobe which is more likely to be found at a more permanent residence. They could come in many different forms; one such type was the trunk, which quite literally came from a tree trunk that was hollowed out to form a chest. The image shows an example of a trunk from the sixteenth century, with leather and iron strapping; however, these had also been used in the early

medieval period as well. Windows: 11th and 12th century windows were rarely glazed, but generally just equipped with

wooden shutters. 59

Wooden pegs for clothing, and a couple of stools would have probably made up the remainder of the bedroom furnishings.

There was sometimes a small adjoining room to the chamber called the wardrobe, used as a storeroom for cloth and jewels which were kept in chests, and where dressmaking was done. 60

Domestic quarters did not have internal corridors, to maximise the use of space; rooms opened into one another, or could be joined to upper levels with spiral staircases.

Kitchen, larders, pantries and butteries

Even by the 13th century, "the castle kitchen was still generally of timber, with a central hearth or several fireplaces where meat could be spitted or stewed in a cauldron." 61

Utensils were washed in a scullery outside. For large feast occasions, it would have been normal to set up several temporary kitchens Utensils: Many common utensils used today would have also been used at this time, including

stirring spoons, ladles, pots and pans, and a variety of knives. Some favoured utensils were the mortar and sieve cloth, as many held the belief that the finer the consistency of the food, the more effectively the body could absorb the nourishment.

58 Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, p68 59 Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, pp58-59 60 Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, p68-69 61 Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle, pp.65-66

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Lavatories and Bathing

People bathed in transportable wooden tubs or barrels, which was covered with a tent or canopy for privacy. In warm weather, the tub might be placed in the garden; in cold weather it would be inside, near the fire.

The latrines were placed as close to the bed chamber as possible, and were another alternative to the widely used chamber pot. It was built into the edge of the castle, generally where there was a buttress.

Walls

Stonework was often whitewashed, and interior walls might also be plastered, panelled, or decorated with paintings or wall hangings, making the rooms appear much brighter than they appear today. 62

Another favoured decorative feature was to paint on plastered walls, usually in red, the outline of the masonry blocks

The pre-fourteenth century 'tapestry' would have been wall hangings of painted wool or linen, that served the purpose not only of decoration, but maintaining warmth by eliminating drafts. 63

Wall clothes were mentioned in popular culture as early as the Saxon times, with mentions of wall hanging embroidered with gold appearing in Beowulf. 64

‘Then the order was promptly given the interior of Heorot to furnish by hands; many there were of men and women, who the wine-hall, the guest-hall prepared; gold-glittering shone woven tapestries along the walls, many wondrous sights…’ – Beowulf lines 994-995 65

Candles and lighting 66

The best candles for churches and great houses were made of wax, but the more common

material used was tallow. Various types of candle were used during this time, ranging from simple candles impaled on

vertical spikes (the pricket type) to floating wicks in oil (cresset lamps). Candles could also be a bowl placed on a stand, or shaped like a funnel. These funnel types

could also be set into a ring and suspended from the ceiling to provide light to a wider area of

62 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.394. 63 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.402. 64 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.402. 65 Benjamin Slade, Beowulf translation,[website], 2012, http://www.heorot.dk/beowulf-rede-text.html, (accessed 2 December 2015). 66 Wood, The English Mediaevel Castle, p.367.

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the room. These funnel types can be seen in illuminated manuscripts of the 12th and 13th centuries.

The fireplace was often the focal point of a room The main source of light in the main hall would be hanging chandeliers and several candelabra.

Other rooms may have a fireplace with hanging oil lamps made of fired clay Castles with high ceilings where the smoke could escape might have rush torches held in iron

rings, sometimes held as sidelights. 67

(left) Domestic lamp (funnel type), 12th century London, Museum of London, 1374 English Romanesque art 1066-1200 : Hayward Gallery, London 5 April - 8 July 1984. (below) Psalter of Queen Ingeburge of Denmark – Archaeological Journal 1935. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Psalterofingeborg.jpg>

67 Daniel Diehl and Mark Donnelly, Medieval Furniture: Plans and Instructions for Historical Reproductions, (2012, stackpole books), p2

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Medieval painting and pigments

Medieval painters used egg tempera whereby the pigment is mixed with egg and water before its application.

They made frequent use of earth colours, such as red ochre, yellow ochre, lime white, and umber.

Thick layering of the paint was likely to crack, so painting was done as a series of layers/glazes giving it a highly finished look. 68

Thompson highlights that “it is hard for us to realise how brilliant the colours in medieval painting must have been. (...) We shall understand Medieval painting better if we can contrive to throw off the dark glasses of prejudice, and the other dark glasses of surface effects- dirt and accident- and see the thing as it was meant to be, and not as time and our own delicate digestions have made it appear.” 69

Pigments Whites 70

To achieve white colour, white paint was not always applied; sometimes it was just the result of doing nothing to something that was already white. The white gesso used to prepare wood panels for painting, and plaster on walls played an important part in this.

White lead which was dense but opaque only required a thin coat. It was incompatible with vendigris green and orpiment yellow.

Bone white used as a substitute for white lead when white pigment needed to be used alongside verdigris and orpiment, but created a more pasty pigment.

Lime whites were often used for wall painting, where white lead was not suitable. For wall paintings of a large scale, chalk was sometimes used.

Yellows 71

One of the important features of using yellow pigments was to imitate the colour of gold; however, they were wary of the use of excessive yellow, since it is a conspicuous colour and thus could detract from the other pigments of a painting or stained glass image.

Yellow ochres were therefore a valued and accessible, and could be found in paler, brighter shades, or in more brownish tones.

Orpiment was employed by book painters, since ochres were not practical to use on a small scale and orpiment had a very close resemblance to gold.

68 Pigments through the ages, http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/medieval.html 69 Daniel Thompson, Materials & Techniques of Medieval Painting, (New York, 1956) pp 99-100 70 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp 89-97 71 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp 174-179

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Greens 72

The palette of green colours for wall painters was far more limited compared to illuminators, and in between these extremes was the palette of the panel painter.

Malachite, deriving from the blue mineral azurite, was a popular green used in medieval painting, not only in Europe but in Asia also.

Green earth was a more dull, transparent pigment, and soapy in its texture like clay. There was no consistency in the shades green earth could produce, and ranged from a lighter greyish hue, to a darker brownish olive. The term terre verte was applied to several different minerals, but Thompson identifies the most important in medieval painting to be celadonite.

Verdigris was used "to an enormous extent", not only in panel and landscape paintings, but by scribes and illuminators in manuscripts, and had a very vivid pigment. However it was incompatible with white lead and Orpiment.

Reds 73

The best red ochres were those from rich iron ore deposits. There ores could produce various shades ranging from a warm colours such as Venetian red, to the cold purply shade of Indian Red.

Another source of red pigment was from insects, referred to in Latin culture as ‘grain’, since the dead insects found on branches were mistaken for small berries, or in Arab culture as ‘Kermes’.

Blues 74

Fine blues were incredibly costly in the medieval period, and also had immense significance as a symbol of wealth and majesty.

Azurite, which is a copper ore, is a dark blue which bears a lot of resemblance to the mineral lapis lazuli. The colour was generally specified in contracts for important paintings, though it was not so “choice or so expensive as ultramarine; but it was the best blue of the panel and wall painter for all ordinary purpose”.

Copper blues, however, were accessible to poorer markets and thus could have a wider range of uses; perhaps to paint woodwork, or to create a sky blue ceiling.

72 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp 160-174 73 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp97-125 74 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp127- 154

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Blacks 75

Ink used for writing, and on panels for creating the preliminary drawings before the proper painting began - lampblack is one example of such inks, which was a soot substance mixed with gum to form the ink.

Vine - charcoal made from shoots of grape vines, was used for ordinary painting purposes and is referred to in medieval recipes as nigrum optimum, the best of the blacks. Produces a blue-black colour and can produce a range of cool greys.

75 Thompson, Medieval Painting, pp 80-88

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The Abbey The cloister

Functions

It was traditional for monastic cloisters to have four covered walkways which would line the four sides of a courtyard.

The walkways, often placed South of the church, would receive enough light that they could be a suitable place to act as a scriptorium for monks to produce their manuscripts (see image below).

The cloister could also be used for religious processions.

The columns along the walkways were often supported by capitals, which were often decorated with depictions of bible narratives. 76

The images below are of stonework that is currently on show at Reading museum; some of which is original (recovered from Reading abbey), and some have been replicated.

The creative inspiration for Romanesque style was drawn primarily from the Roman Empire, but also contained Scandinavian and Islamic influences.

The central image above is a reproduction of what the capitals may have looked like with their original colour - for which they have used pigments that are likely to have been used at the time; red and yellow ochre's mainly, and some use of blue colours. 77

76 Medieval Monasteries, V&A, <http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/m/medieval-monasteries/>, n.d 77 Capital's from Reading Abbey, Reading museum

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The image to the right is a birds eye view of the reconstruction of Reading abbey which is in Reading museum. 78

The diagram below is a birds eye plan of a traditional medieval abbey, which although may not be completely accurate to the original plans of Reading abbey, gives a good sense of the typical layout. 79

Key North Range (church) 1 - Narthex 2 - Nave 3 - Choir 4 - Transepts 5 - Presbytery 6 - High altar 7 - More altars 8 - Cloister 9 - Garden East Range 10 - East Range 11 - Choir, 2nd floor - choir monk's dorm 12 - Night stairs 13 - Sac`risty 14 - Library 15 - Chapter house 16 - Reredorter (toilets) 17 - Water supply West Range 18 - West range, 2nd floor - lay monk's dorm 19 - Night stairs South Range 20 - Kitchen 21 - Dining room 22 - Warming room

78 Reconstruction from Reading museum, image from: <http://www.readingabbey.org.uk/fora/lesabbey/discovering.htm>, n.d 79 Layout of a medieval abbey, <http://www.timeref.com/life/abbey5.htm>, n.d

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The Abbey church Ceilings

The semi-circular arch was a popular feature of Romanesque architecture as it was a durable design; it can be seen used not only for ceilings, but for windows, doorways and arcades.

The 3 types of ceiling that emerged out of the Romanesque period was firstly the barrel vault, which featured the semi-circular arch, groin vaulting, and finally in the late Romanesque/early gothic period, ribbed vault ceilings. 80

Decorative features The dawn of Romanesque

architecture saw the move away from using wood to stone in buildings.

Church interiors would often be richly decorated with bright sculptures and paintings depicting biblical scenes.

The large scale of the churches meant that the walls had to be thick, and the windows fairly small.

Above is an example of 12th century Norman architecture, a tower from Bury st Edmunds, displaying many features of Romanesque architecture; namely, a solid construction, arched windows, and carved geometric patterns. 81

80 Romanesque architecture, <http://study.com/academy/lesson/romanesque-architecture-characteristics-examples-history.html>, n.d 81 Romanesque architecture, Durham world heritage site, <https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/architecture/romanesque>, n.d

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Depictions of thrones and furniture in the Bayeux Tapestry and Reading Museum

Royal 14 C VII f. 8v - English kings 82

Miniature in four compartments, with portraits of English kings: William I and William Rufus, in the upper register, and Henry I and Stephen, in the lower register. Origin: England, S. (St Albans) Attribution: Matthew Paris http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ ILLUMIN.ASP?Size=mid&IllID=30919

(right) Henry I is depicted in this thirteenth century manuscript holding a model of Reading Abbey, sitting atop his throne. This style of throne has been seen in various art works of the era, and is actually quite simple in appearance to what is often seen in popular culture.

82 The British Library, Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts, <http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ ILLUMIN.ASP?Size=mid&IllID=30919>

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Reading Museum houses a full-size copy of the Bayeux Tapestry, recreated during the Victorian Era using similar embroidery and dyeing techniques as the original. Due to the care taken by the 35 women who worked on the piece, this replica is a fantastic source to study when thinking about material culture during this period. Though depicting events from 1066, the clothing, weaponry and furniture would all have been similar to that of the early 12th century. 83

The King is Dead…‘Here King Edward in bed speaks to his faithful followers… here he is dead.’

(left) Depiction of a four poster bed with fabric hangings. Possible cross hatch pattern on bed covers, though this is unclear due to the embroidered nature of the Tapestry.

83 Reading Borough Council, Bayeux Tapestry Website/Resource, http://www.readingmuseum.org.uk/collections/social-history/britain-bayeux-tapestry, (accessed 11 December 2015).

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‘Here sits enthroned Harold, king of the English.’ Depiction of a throne, this time with posters and a place to rest one’s feet. This image depicts Harold’s coronation, so perhaps his throne was one specifically for the occasion as opposed to one that would have been present in his own palace.

(right) ‘These men marvel at the star’ Depiction of Harold sitting atop his throne. His feet could be resting on a cushion or another form of foot rest - an object regularly depicted throughout the Tapestry. This image shows arm rests as well as an elaborate back panel to the throne, making this piece of furniture more lavish that other depictions.

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‘Duke William ordered ships to be built.’ Duke William as well as another man sit on a couch. Similarly to some of the other depictions of thrones, this couch also has cushioned foot rests. An arm rest also appears to be separating the two men, an interesting addition when compared to coaches from today.

‘They made a Banquet and here the Bishop blesses the food and drink’ A feast is eaten off of a rounded table. Either a long table has been rounded in order to create perspective by the artist, or it was in fact rounded in some way.

A castle, with a large wooden door. This section of the tapestry shows what woodwork may have been added onto doors either for decorative or practical purposes.

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Harold talks to King Edward. He is sitting on a couch like throne, with four legs and cushions. The ceiling of the room the two men are inhabiting also looks to be covered in cloths, or other threads and fabrics.

King Edward, 1064, shown on his throne in his palace at Westminster. This section of the tapestry also depicts the interior of the abbey, with details such as the church vaults and decorated doors. Count Guy of Ponthieu sits on his throne and talks with Harold – who was not yet King of England. This throne, painted in reds and greens looks more like a table than the traditional thrones from later periods which contained a back rest. The colours however, bright reds and blues were common for the time.

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William receives knowledge of Harold being captured. Another simplistic throne is depicted, This time however the colours are more muted, showing that diversity existed during this period.

William sits while Harold talk to him. On this simplistic green chair, a pillow with a diamond pattern is used – possible indication of fabrics used?

‘Harold makes an oath that he will support William’s claim to be the next King of England’

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This chair is more akin to a chair we would expect to see today, with a backrest and fabrics draped over the wood.

Depiction of two altars that could be seen in the Abbey, or that could travel around with the King.

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Edward’s resting place, Westminster Abbey. Though not Reading Abbey, the exterior depicted here in the Bayeux Tapestry could be used to imagine what the Abbey might have looked like.

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English Romanesque Art 1066-1200

Though not directly in the time period of Henry I, these images and objects can still share some important information in regards to furniture, architecture and interior design. The following images have all been found in the Exhibition catalogue titled ‘English Romanesque art 1066-1200 : Hayward Gallery, London 5 April - 8 July 1984.’ 84

This early 12th century decorated initial, taken from the Chronicle of Battle Abbey, shows William I atop a depiction of a throne. Similar to those found in the Bayeux Tapestry, this throne is of simple design, with a backrest and foot cushion to presumably make the piece of furniture more comfortable as well as to show the user’s high status.

(left) This leaf related to the Winchester Bible, c.1160-80, depicts the story of David from the Book of Samuel. Though a throne is depicted (in a very similar fashion to those mentioned previously), this source is useful in regards to the colours used in the piece. The bright reds and rich blues are arguably similar to those used in fabrics and wall decorations from the time. The intricate patterns outlining the leaf can also give indication to the patterns used on fabrics and cushions - which would have decorated the castles Henry I inhabited.

84 Weidenfeld and Nicolson (in association with the Arts Council, English Romanesque art 1066-1200 : Hayward Gallery, London 5 April - 8 July 1984, (London, 1984).

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These drawings, from Durham and Canterbury respectively, depict monks sitting at chairs and desks. The drawing on the left, dated c.1150-60, shows a detailed side view of what a chair might have looked like; intricately decorated, almost akin to that of a church, especially in the way the details echo that of church windows. The drawing on the right, dated from the same period is also interesting in the way the desk is joined to the chair itself. This is unusual for the time, but still can help give an indication of possible furniture used by monks in abbeys similar to Reading.

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French Exhibition Catalogue The following images, all taken from the French exhibition catalogue ‘La France romane au temps des premiers Capétiens (987-1152)’, are a perfect example of how our research expanded geographically. Though these pieces of art are from France, they are still valuable sources to study, especially due to the close links Britain and France had with one another during this time period. Influence was bound to transfer between the two countries, particularly in regards to what was considered ‘fashionable’ at the time.

Arguably art in its own right, this detail of a capital cloister from Moissac Abbey is a gorgeous example of the amount of detail that could go into such a piece of architecture. Dated around 1100, this capital gives some indication of the possible patterns and flourishes that may have been deployed in other forms of art. Similar 85

designs can also be found in illuminated manuscripts from the period, such as those mentioned previously in this portfolio.

85 Musée du Louvre editions, La France romane au temps des premiers Capétiens (987-1152) - 10 mars - 6 juin 2005, (France, 2005).

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These images from the Life of St. Radegonde were found in the Holy Cross Monastery in Poitiers, and date to the end of the 11th century. Perhaps the most obvious information we can gain from these 86

sources is that of the colours used. Bright blues, reds and greens are once again used not only for decorative details but also for clothing and furniture. The image on the right specifically also indicates that brickwork was in fact coloured as well, with the external bricks being painted red and blue.

86 Musée du Louvre editions, La France romane au temps des premiers Capétiens (987-1152) - 10 mars - 6 juin 2005, (France, 2005).

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These two binding plates from Saint-Denis, dated 1000 depict David dictating the Psalms (above left) and the Judgement of Solomon (above right). The left hand image especially details various types of furniture, both basic and expensive. While these two pieces of artwork are religious, and have been extremely stylised, items like furniture tend to be drawn in contemporary styles, making them valuable sources of information.

The throne in the middle of the plate, where David is sitting as he dictates, is a familiar image. Unlike the thrones previously shown throughout this portfolio, this one has a large back and arm rests, acting as almost a raised platform. The throne on the right hand image however does not have a back rest, and from first glance is more akin to a table. The binding plate on the left also includes four small stools, an indication of what less expensive furniture may have looked like.

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Clothing and Attire

1: Male Clothing The Tunic The Tunic was a common staple of clothing for both high and low ranking men. It is the basis for male clothing, in both a long (Image 1: figure A) and short style (Image 1: figure B). The short tunic is depicted to reach the knee in length; the length of the long tunic is less clear, as the figure is sitting it might be assumed that when stood, the long tunic would reach the ankles or floor. The length of the tunic may sometimes suggest rank; the Bayeux Tapestry represents the highest elite wearing long tunics (i.e Kings and clergy), but this is seen on occasions of importance, such as the oath to William by Harold, and so may not necessarily reflect day to day wear. Short tunics occur the most throughout the Tapestry and they may also be important in suggesting rank. A short tunic and a cloak often represents a figure of importance (Image 1: figure B being an example). This figure is in discussion with William, who wears a long tunic, whereas the other male appears to be a servant attending to them, wearing a short tunic and no cloak. Similarly, the sleeve lengths can also indicate class. Rolled sleeves were a sign of lower status, long sleeves being a symbol of a high status . 87

87 C. Willett Cunnington & Phillis Cunnington, Handbook of English mediaeval costume, (London, 1973), pg. 28

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Low status clothing The Bayeux Tapestry shows labourers and those working with tools as wearing culottes or a form of long shorts (See Image 2). As like the tunic, these are worn over tights/leggings, depicted as differing in colour. Tights/leggings Leggings or leg coverings were worn across classes and with long/short tunics and culottes. They are close fitting and often different in colour to that of the tunic. When worn with a cloak, they match in colour; however this may just be a visual element of the Tapestry, as the other sources do not mention this. They extend towards the shoes, so may even cover the feet, but this is unclear. Cloaks As previously discussed, cloaks depict higher status individuals. Cloaks are fastened with a brooch. When wearing a short tunic, the cloak is fastened at the shoulder (usually the right shoulder) and draped over the body (see Image 1: figure B); the arm in which the brooch sits is free to move, whereas the cloak draped over the other arm. The long tunic is fastened again by a brooch but usually in the centre, at the neck, and worn over both shoulders (See Image 1) . Cloaks lined with fur became 88

popular with the elite during this period (See image 4). Footwear Footwear included both shoes and boot; shoes ankle height and boots also either

88 Gale R. Owen-Crocker, with drawings by Christine Wetherell and Rosalyn Smith, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, (Woodbridge, 2004), pg. 150

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ankle height or extending to the ankle. Footwear is flat and shoes tend to end in a subtle point by the toes. It was popular for wealthy individuals to have decorated shoes . 89

Other items The Tunic is synched at the waist by a form of belt. Swords could be worn at the waist, above the belt, fastened by a buckle and strap. Swords could also be worn across the chest and over the shoulder . 90

Hair/headwear Hair is largely shown to be long in length, either to the shoulders or chin and waved. Facial hair is widespread and occurs commonly through religious imagery. Facial hair consists of beards and moustaches. Beards were styled into fork ends (See Image 4). Headwear includes crowns, hoods and hats. Crowns were formed of metal, decorated and jewel encrusted. They are band shaped and open on the wearer’s head, so that hair is visible. Image 4 illustrates this; the decoration of the crown clearly displays French influence through the fleur de lis. Hoods were a form of detachable headwear that would be worn with a cloak. It sat on the shoulders and extended over the head. This type of clothing would be worn by shepherds and other low status farm workers. It might be possible that these hoods were worn by the clergy, as images illustrates monks as wearing a form of hooded cloak. Hats/caps were worn by lower classes, servants and members of the military. Caps appear to be made from cloth, plain and a flat shape (See Image 3). 2: Female Clothing Dresses Dresses were long sleeved, long in length, reaching to the floor, so that only the tip of the shoe may be seen. There is a new style

89 C. Willett Cunnington & Phillis Cunnington, Handbook of English mediaeval costume, (London, 1973),pg.33 90 Gale R. Owen-Crocker, with drawings by Christine Wetherell and Rosalyn Smith, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, (Woodbridge, 2004), pg. 150

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of dress in this period worn only by the elite. The bodice of the dress is form fitting, becoming loose at the waist and descending into folds and pleats to the ground (See image 5: figure b). The sleeves at the forearm are form fitting and then billow out towards the ground . The sleeves, when arms are held up, 91

fall in a loose shall shape (See image 5: figure B). When arms are left down, the sleeves cover the length. On religious occasion, women were expected to wear darker clothing . 92

The waist is cinched by a girdle, made of silk, wool or linen and worn low on the hips . They were 93

often decorated. Shoes Shoes were similar to that of men; dark, flat and ankle height. They are slightly pointed and often this is all that can be seen of them under the long gowns. Hair/Headwear A common feature of female clothing was a headdress (or veil) worn to cover hair and which often also covered the neck and shoulders (See image 5: figure b). In the case of royalty, crowns are worn over the veil. Fillets were a type of band worn on the forehead, either over the veil or under the veil, visible on the forehead. They were made either of cloth or leather, rarely made of metal (perhaps an exception for royals), and often decorated as a braid with colourful threading . 94

Aristocratic women began to wear their hair visible during this period. This was a popular new style in which women wore their hair parted in the middle, with plaits beginning at the neck on either side of the face. The plaits reached mid-body and often had ribbons or material interwoven in these plaits. Image 5: figure A shows a woman with this style, however she also wears a veil, showing that it was not uncommon to wear both styles together. Cloaks Cloaks were also worn by women. However, unlike men, they were solely worn over the shoulders, fastened at the neck with a brooch. They often functioned as a hood or veil also; the cloak would form an opening when fastened which would be worn to form a

91 C. Willett Cunnington & Phillis Cunnington, Handbook of English mediaeval costume, (London, 1973), pg. 36 92 Gale R. Owen-Crocker, with drawings by Christine Wetherell and Rosalyn Smith, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, (Woodbridge, 2004), pg. 132 93 C. Willett Cunnington & Phillis Cunnington, Handbook of English mediaeval costume, (London, 1973), pg. 37-38 94 Gale R. Owen-Crocker, with drawings by Christine Wetherell and Rosalyn Smith, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, (Woodbridge, 2004), pg. 144

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hood. The seal and the statue of Matilda of Flanders below, clearly shows how noble women wore cloaks within the period.

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Log Book and Methodology:

I: Minutes II: Email Correspondence III: Facebook Screenshots

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Public History First Meeting with Tutor Date: 16/10/15 Location: HumSS G27 Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins, Jodie Larkin and Dafydd Townley. Absentees (accounted for): N/A Points to discuss: General admin and any questions about the marking procedure.

Dafydd Townley – Tutor

Should try to hold a run through of our presentation before Christmas Tutor not available on the 7th, 8th, or 9th of January On Mondays, Tuesdays and Fridays we can just pop into his office during opening hours (can

be found on door) Meet with tutor every 2 weeks in HumSS G27, Friday 12pm, unless decision to do otherwise.

General

Should meetings be organised like a transcript? Or as minutes? Decided minutes would be more suitable.

Need to annotate any emails we receive as well as Facebook group screenshots Presentation given in new term Marking: Group work overall x Peer Assessment Mark/coefficient.

Our topic:

Medieval history, especially so early could prove a challenge Tutor might not be too much help

Suggested Reading museum and British Museum Visit to Reading Abbey?

What to do next:

Choose a contact for Lindy and for Toby Beth as contact with Lindy

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Sochima as contact with Toby (theatre company) Get in contact with theatre company to gather a deeper understanding of what is required from

us Meeting organised by Lindy on 22nd October with Theatre Company

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Public History First Official Meeting Date: 23/10/15 Location: Students’ Union Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins. Absentees (accounted for): Jodie Larkin Points to discuss: Meeting with Theatre company (22/10/15) as well as our chosen topic.

Theatre Company:

Serious production, being held all around the country Requires as much detail as possible

Chosen topic: Material Culture

Fabric Furniture – materials used Bedroom layouts – wardrobes etc. Wall hangings, tapestries Throne Clothing styles of different members of society, not just the elite Hair styles Facial hair? If we can, not vital Architecture? Not mentioned by theatre company but could be useful Weapons – how they were used as well as any training needed Monarchs’ role in war in general

Medieval Period:

Aim to get as much relevant information as possible. Henry I: 12th century, 1100-1135 Possibly use Bayeux Tapestry as a base? Or is it too early for us to use? Reading Abbey established in 1121

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Starting points for our research: Chronicler of the Time: William of Malmesbury Anglo Saxon Chronicle (up to 1174) Research Henry I’s life as a starting point as well as a general background of the period, so we

all have an understanding before we start Decided to separate each aspect into a different topic

Weaponry, Interior Design and Hair and Clothing. Fraser, Richard and Dan to focus on Weaponry Sochima and Jodie to research Hair and Clothing Beth, Georgia and Eleanor to gather information on Interior Design

Even though we have split into separate groups, keep everyone updated, especially if any useful sources have been found (due to overlap of topics)

Facebook group to be created for this purpose as Facebook chat is not efficient Next two weeks:

Meeting with Dafydd on Friday 30th November Look up Henry I

Familiarise ourselves with the period – important facts etc. Discuss this at group meeting on Friday 6th November/another date to be discussed

(due to Enhancement week) Sochima to email Toby asking about the specifics such as a script for us to tailor our research

to – not important if this is not possible

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Public History Tutor Meeting Date: 30/10/15 Location: HumSS G27 Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins, Jodie Larkin and Dafydd Townley. Absentees (accounted for): N/A Points to discuss: Presentation run through From previous meeting (23/10): Outcomes of email to Sochima, discuss with Dafydd meeting with Toby

Outcomes of email to Toby (see attached email):

No overview of the plot because there is no play yet. The writer will write the play based on our work, her own and other’s research Suggested to discuss specifics with Lindy

Meeting with Toby and Theatre Company (22/10)

Our group to focus on Material Culture Interior design, furniture, clothing, hair, weaponry

Split into individual groups in order to make research easier Presentation

Wednesday 13th January for run through of Presentation Presentation run through before Christmas – last week of term (Week 11)

Some slides made? Doesn’t have to be complete Friday 12pm, G27

Next meeting:

No meeting with Dafydd during enhancement week No group meeting during enhancement week Meet with Dafydd on Week 8, Friday 12pm, G27

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Public History Tutor Meeting Date: 20/11/15 Location: HumSS G27 Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins, Jodie Larkin and Dafydd Townley. Absentees (accounted for): N/A Points to discuss: Issues we have had with research, meeting with Lindy, Reading Abbey trip No meeting for previous 2 weeks due to essay deadlines – all agreed to hold research and meetings until essays were completed (16/11)

Beth, Dan and Sochima to turn up late. Issues with research:

Time period a challenge Most research we can find dates to the 1400s, not the 12th century Other groups have had similar issues

Places we could visit?

Museums Reading Museum – Sochima been looking into that British Museum – Beth and Georgia attending the museum on the 21/11/15

- Take photos, reference with catalogue numbers Beth and Dan arrived

Richard questioned how to receive a membership to the British Library. Need to go there in person, bring photo ID and answer a small test regarding the

reading and handling of archives – receive a Readers Card if successful. Can book certain books in advance

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Sochima arrived Meeting with Lindy

Lindy organising a date for us all to go to Reading Abbey (see email attached) Log due same day as presentation

Any questions regarding this have ready to ask Lindy Meeting with Lindy next Friday at 10.45? Or Next Thursday at 2.30?

Decided Lindy to attend next meeting with Dafydd on Friday 27th in G27 For next meeting:

All to have research written up? So we have evidence of work.

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Public History Tutor Meeting with Lindy Grant present Date: 27/11/2015 Location: HumSS G27 Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins, Jodie Larkin, Dafydd Townley and Prof. Lindy Grant Absentees (accounted for): N/A Points to discuss: Any questions we might have about the course (presentation, log), where we could all look for our resources From previous meeting (20/11): Outcomes of British Museum visit and Reading Museum Visit

British Museum

Not much on our time period on display Tumultuous period – not time to make domestic areas comfortable We (Beth and Georgia) mostly found 13th century objects – too late Anglo Saxon, then a gap, then it picks up again in the 13th century – misses our time period

Romanesque Exhibition

Book in Resources Room Pictures on sculpture, manuscripts and objects could be useful

La France Romane

Can come and have a look through it from Lindy, but need to look at in resources room and bring back on the same day

In French, but pictures will be useful Ordinary objects 987-1152AD – so quite useful Also has manuscripts

Images of sculptures and manuscripts

What were people wearing?

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Enveloping clothing – importance of hand gestures Colour schemes

Tonalities Creamy ochre and pale blue common colours

Wall paintings – religious settings are often the only ones to survive Fabrics – spectacular, but Henry I is quite rich Pavement and floors we could possibly look at? Lindy left the room to look for Romanesque book Sochima

Has looked at imagery, statues, seals and books Working individually until next week when we will collaborate all of our ideas together Questions regarding google

When you google Henry I, Henry VIII comes up Can filter search results – Dafydd offered possible fix

Lindy returned English Romanesque Book

Images from period Tonalities, types of pictures possibly in Reading Abbey King sitting in judgement, specific positions (not really our area to study, but another group) Advice from Lindy to look between the lines Most surviving artefacts are religious

Can look at so much more than just books Manuscripts: British Library and Bodleian Library online catalogues

Most will be religious, but images of the last supper helps with furniture etc Question: How far can we go either way in terms of our research (from 1120)?

If we can’t find anything else, there is 13th century evidence for this etc.. Castle Restoration at Dover Try to stick to 12th century, 50 years either side of 1120

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But if it’s extra fascination we could include Great Hall, Chapel and Chamber

Every royal would have Feasts – information can be found in epics and romances Geoffrey of Monmouth – contemporary historical novel

Evidence that the King would sit on the throne and people would bring in trestle tables. Cloths then cover the tables. Manuscripts show cloths being folded into pleats Question: To what extent did Normandy influence Britain?

Possibly similar? Main furniture in England and Northern France would be similar as same materials on offer But can also be quite different so shouldn’t assume Henry would have lived surrounded by fancy patterns and designs Fabrics from Byzantium, Sicily etc – England has good connections so would have such items Richly patterned silks Article by Carl Leiser (?), Marjorie Chibnall’s book Legend of Matilda (will be referenced in

this) Handed out Goldsmiths work Links with German Empire

Questions regarding the Presentation

10 minutes Cannot possibly include everything we’ve found Outline what we’ve been asked to do as our assignment How we decided to tackle it, how we worked as a group How we delivered the info, read between the lines Most exciting things! – some of our results Any challenges we had Not all 8 have to present 4 or 5 people presenting, others can create the presentation

Someone say what our brief was Someone talk about methodology Someone talks about our findings Someone talks about any challenges we faced

Portfolio and brief account of issues we found

Someone drafts it, everyone edits it

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Everyone needs to have an input in the writing Medieval Weaponry

Royal Armouries Website, based in Leeds Email them? Mention we come from University of Reading Look carefully first so as to not annoy the curators with silly questions National Collection for Arms?

Need to make sure you discriminate between enthusiasts and scholars Anglo-Norman Studies in the library (flick through it)

Ian Pearce and Matt Bennet (?) Bayeux Tapestry would be useful to look at

Armour

Chainmail worn over thick leather Ian Pearce – made chainmail, really heavy, but distributes weight evenly National Army Museum mentioned?

Dafydd – mostly 17th century items so not useful in this context Any evidence of Kings having their own personal blades? By late 12th century – good evidence for this, but not in our period

Lindy emphasises Bayeux Tapestry as a source we could use Next meeting: 2 weeks today to meet Dafydd for a presentation run through (Friday 12th December)

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Public History Meeting with Tutor before Christmas Break Date: 11/12/15 Location: HumSS G27 Attendance: Georgia Kett, Beth Holt, Eleanor Hicks, Sochima Adaobi Ikpa, Richard Keogh, Dan Lloyd, Fraser Hodgkins, Jodie Larkin and Dafydd Townley. Absentees (accounted for): N/A Points to discuss: Presentation and Portfolio

Presentation

Who are we presenting to? Beth to email Lindy as Dafydd is unsure EDIT: Email sent on 17th December (Original email and reply attached later in

portfolio) Important to show legitimacy in our presentation

Toby will care how we’ve gone about researching- to prove we researched accurately Advice

Don’t just read off of the slides Look interested and enthusiastic! Elevate voice, don’t drone on Maintain eye contact with the audience Structure presentation like an essay Don’t put too much detail into what we’ve found, more on how we’ve found it Choose only 4 people to present – 8 would be too many

What is the best way to organise our presentation ?

Start off with what our project was: set design for abbey and castle, hair and clothing and weaponry

Outline challenges: scarcity of primary sources – forced to use both French and English sources

Include screenshots of Facebook group? To show how we organised ourselves

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Mention how this project changed the way we research: used to using secondary work, but began to think about primary sources and other ways we can find out information

We couldn’t look at the typical sources we’re used to using (Library website, google, Wikipedia etc)

Ask who wants to present first, instead of just choosing Time the presentation for 11 to 12 minutes (a 15 minute paper is about 1800 words) Use a prompt sheet to help those presenting

Attach powerpoint slides onto our portfolio (Appendix) How to organise our portfolio?

Intro, Research, then minutes, emails, facebook, appendix Document what we’ve done and what we’ve found Bibliography after research Make sure to either bind our portfolio or put it in a project/display folder

Sochima suggested dressing up for presentation

Professionalism? Will it impress or not? Who in our group would want to dress up?

Meet before we present: Monday 18th January at 1.30pm (with presentation) Presentation and portfolio due: 21st January 2-6pm

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Email Correspondence First contact 01/10/15:

Organisation of meeting with tutor (emails read in reverse order) 01/10 – 06/10/15:

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Email from Prof. Lindy Grant outlining how we can contact Toby Davies (head of the theatre company) Forwarded by Beth 19/10/15:

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Blackboard notice from Prof. Lindy Grant regarding our first meeting with Toby Davies 20/10/15:

Questions regarding specifics of our research addressed in an email to Toby 29/10 – 03/11/15:

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Correspondence with our tutor Dafydd Townley 09/11/15:

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Organisation of a trip to visit Reading Abbey 22/11 – 24/11/15:

Follow up email as suggested:

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Finalising of times:

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Questions regarding copyright and referencing (and reply) 21/12/15:

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Question regarding who we will be presenting to (and reply) 22/12/15:

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Facebook Group Screenshots

In order to help us communicate with each other outside of meetings, we decided to set up a Facebook group. This group acted as a place we could post our group minutes as well as any research we had found throughout the course of our project. Other members could then view what we had produced and give their feedback before it made its way to the portfolio. Below are screenshots of just some of the posts that were made in the group. 27th October Creation of the group:

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28th October First Minutes Posted Online:

(later edit)

2nd November Sharing of sources we had found during our individual research:

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25th November Uploading of research so we can keep up to date:

25th November Sharing of resources:

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(followed on from previous page)

2nd December Uploading of notes made as well as regular updates of minutes:

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21st December Uploading of research for our portfolio:

29th December:

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2nd January Example of collaboration between the group:

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2nd January An example of how we used the facebook group as a way to clear up any questions we had about our project/portfolio - without needing to have a face to face meeting:

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3rd January The uploading of documents to the Facebook group allowed other members of the group to view, and edit other people’s research easily:

January 3rd-7th Keeping each other updated on the process of our research as we went allowed everyone in the group to know what was left to be done:

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7th January We also used this group to keep each other updated on our next organised meetings so no one would forget (example below):

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Bibliography

Primary Sources Bayeux Tapestry British Library, The, Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts British Museum Chronicle of John of Worcester Henry of Huntingdon Metropolitan Museum of Art online collection Psalter of Queen Ingeburge of Denmark V&A online collection Winchester Bible, The The seal of Matilda Statue of Matilda of Flanders

Secondary Sources

Alchin, Linda, ‘Medieval castle Furniture’, <http://www.ancientfortresses.org/medieval-castle-furniture.htm>, June 2015. Bachrach, Bernard, Medieval Siege Warfare: A reconnaissance. The Journal of Military History Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan.1994). Bartlett, Robert, The making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (London, 1993). Boas, Adrian, Crusader Archaeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East (London, 1999). Castle and Manor Houses, ‘Life in a Medieval Castle - Castle Roms’, <http://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_01_rooms.htm> Church, Stephen, The Household Knights of King John (Cambridge, 1999). Diehl, Daniel, and Donnelly, Mark, Medieval Furniture: Plans and Instructions for Historical Reproductions, (2012, stackpole books). ‘Discovering Reading Abbey’, <http://www.readingabbey.org.uk/fora/lesabbey/discovering.htm> Dyer, Christopher, Standards of Living in the Later Middle-Ages (Cambridge, 1989). Fletcher, B., A History of Architecture, 12th edn (London, 1945). Gies, Joseph, Life in a Medieval Castle, (London, 1974). Kenyon, John, Medieval Fortifications, (Leicester University, 1990). Mann, James, ‘Arms and Armour’, in A. Poole (eds) Medieval England (Oxford, 1958). Matterer, James L, A Feast for the Eyes,[website], <http://www.godecookery.com/afeast/dining/din039.html>

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Morillo, Stephen, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066-1135 (Woodbridge, 1994). Musée du Louvre editions, La France romane au temps des premiers Capétiens (987-1152) - 10 mars - 6 juin 2005, (France, 2005). Nicolle, David, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350 (New York, 1988). Nicolle, David, Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume 1: Warfare in Western Christendom (London, 1995). Owen-Crocker, Gale R. & Wetherell, Christine and Smith, Rosalyn (Illustrations), Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, (Woodbridge, 2004). Pryce, W., World Architecture: The Masterworks (London, 2008). Reading Borough Council, ‘Bayeux Tapestry Website/Resource’, <http://www.readingmuseum.org.uk/collections/social-history/britain-bayeux-tapestry> Risebero, B., The History of Western Architecture (United States, 2001). Smail, R., ‘Art of War’, in A. Poole (eds) Medieval England (Oxford, 1958). Steane, J., The Archaeology of Medieval England and Wales (London, 1985). Strickland, Matthew, War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy 1066-1217 (Cambridge, 1996). St Thomas Guild, <http://thomasguild.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/multilingual-medieval-furniture.html>, February 2012 Thompson, Daniel, The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, (New York, 1956). Time ref, <http://www.timeref.com/life/abbey5.htm> Weidenfeld & Nicolson (in association with the Arts Council), English Romanesque art 1066-1200 : Hayward Gallery, London 5 April - 8 July 1984, (London, 1984). V&A, ‘Medieval Monasteries’,< http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/m/medieval-monasteries/> Willett Cunnington, C. & Cunnington, Phillis, Handbook of English mediaeval costume, (London, 1973) Williams, Alan, ‘The Metallurgy of Medieval Arms and Armour’ in: D. Nicolle (eds) A Companion to Medieval Armour (Woodbridge, 2002). Williams, Howard, Journal of Social Archaeology: Keeping the dead at arm’s length, Memory, weaponry and early medieval mortuary technologies (Exeter, 2005). Wood, Margaret, The English Mediaeval House, (London, 1983).

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Appendix

Presentation Slides

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